CEMENT

Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together
such as fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate(gravel) and water.

USES

i. Cement mixed with sand and water forms mortar which is used for masonry work
ii. Cement mixed with sand, coarse aggregate and water forms concrete which can be
used for concreting of slabs, beams etc

Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-hydraulic,

depending upon the ability of the cement to be used in the presence of water.

Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater, rather it sets as it dries
and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It can be attacked by some aggressive chemicals
after setting.

Hydraulic cement is made by replacing some of the cement in a mix with activated
aluminium silicates, pozzolanas, such as fly ash. The chemical reaction results in hydrates
that are not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and safe from chemical
attack. This allows setting in wet condition or underwater and further protects the hardened
material from chemical attack

MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT

Raw materials for Manufacturing of Cement

The two basic raw materials used for the manufacture of ordinary Portland cement are
argillaceous materials and calcareous materials.

As calcium silicate is the primary constituent of cement, materials containing silica and
calcium are required in major quantities.

 Argillaceous materials – silicates of alumina as clay, shale, slate, blast furnace slag,
etc
 Calcareous materials – rock, limestone, marl, chalk, marine shell, etc

In clay minerals, alumina, iron oxide, and alkalis are also present. The presence of these
additional constituents is necessary to form cement at comparatively lower temperatures.
Hence if these constituents are not present in the clay, they are added separately.

There are two processes of cement manufacture

i. Dry process
ii. Wet process
Dry Process of Cement Manufacture

Dry process of manufacturing of cement is used when raw materials are hard. Crushing,
grinding, and blending of raw materials are done to homogenize the constituents before they
are subjected to burning. The limestone and clay are ground separately to a size of about 25
mm in crushers. Then it is pulverized into fine powder in ball mills and tube mills. The
crushing and pulverizing process is carried out separately for each material. After grinding,
each of the materials is stored in hoppers. The raw materials are then mixed in correct
proportions in dry powdered form with the help of compressed air. This finely ground
powder of the raw materials is called raw mix. Raw mix is stored in storage tanks.

Calcination takes place in a rotary kiln and the final product formed is called clinkers. The
raw mix is then fed into the rotary kiln, made up of steel tubes. The raw mix is introduced at
the upper end of the kiln, which is called the dry zone. Through the lower end of the kiln, hot
gases and flames are passed into the kiln. The water from the water slurry evaporates in the
dry zone itself. As the raw mix descends the rotary kiln, the temperature keeps on rising. The
absorption of moisture decreases the setting of cement. Carbon dioxide evaporates in the next
section forming small nodules. The absorption of CO2 increases the setting of cement.
Nodules then reach the lowest part of the kiln – the burning zone. Here the temperature is
about 1400-1500 °C. Calcination takes place in the burning zone. Nodules are converted into
hard stones called clinkers in the burning zone. These clinkers are about 5-10 mm in size and
are very hot when they come out of the rotary kiln. A small rotary kiln for cooling is laid in
the opposite direction to cool the clinkers rapidly so that metastable compounds and their
solid solutions are preserved. The cooling of clinkers is done in controlled conditions. Cooled
clinkers are then stored.

Clinkers are ground in ball mills and tube mills after controlled cooling. The cooling rate of
clinkers affects the strength-gaining properties of cement. About 3-5 % gypsum is added
during grinding to the cooled clinkers to prevent flash set. Closed-circuit grinding is done in
tube mills. A cyclonic separator ensures proper particle size distribution. After grinding the
cement into a fine powder, it is stored in silos. With the help of an automatic machine, the
cement is then weighed and packed in bags of 50 kg. The volume of 1 cement bag, i.e., 50 kg
of cement has a volume of 0.035 m3.

Manufacturing of Cement by Wet Process

Limestone and other calcareous materials are crushed and stored in silos or storage tanks.
Clay and other argillaceous materials are mixed with water thoroughly in a wash mill and
stored in basins. Crushed limestone from the silo and wet clay from the basin is then made to
fall in a channel in specified proportions. The channels carry these materials to the grinding
mill where they are brought in intimate contact to form the slurry. (Grinding is done in a tube
mill or ball mill) The slurry is fed into the correcting basin where continuous stirring is done
and chemical composition is adjusted. Constant agitation ensures the slurry remains in a
homogenous mix. The slurry is then stored in storage tanks under constant agitation and then
fed into the rotary kiln. Burning, cooling & Grinding is done in the same manner as done in
the dry process of cement manufacture.
of gypsum, cement will set immediately as it comes in contact with water.Thus, gypsum acts
as a retarder delaying the setting of cement.
Chemical Composition of cement

oxide Composition (%)

Lime (CaO) 60-65

Silica (SiO2) 17-25

Alumina (Al2O3) 3-8

Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5-6

Magnesia 0.5-4

Types of Cements
i. Ordinary Portland Cement -this is the most common type of cement in use and it
has a medium rate of hardening making it suitable for most concrete works for
building. It however has low resistance to chemical attack. This cement is used when
there is no exposure to sulphate in the soil or groundwater.

ii. Rapid Hardening Portland Cement- this cement is similar to OPC but produce a
much higher early strength. The 1-day strength of this cement is equal to the 3 days
strength f OPC with the same water-cement ratio. It is unsuitable for large masses of
concrete because of it increased rate of hydration. It can be used in cold weather.

iii. Low heat Portland cement -this is produced by maintaining the percentage of
tricalcium aluminate below 6% by increasing the proportion of C2S. A small quantity
of tricalcium aluminate makes the concrete to produce low heat of hydration. Low
heat cement suitable for mass concrete construction like gravity dams, as the low heat
of hydration, prevents the cracking of concrete due to heat.

iv. Sulphate resisting Portland cement- is used to reduce the risk of sulphate attack on
concrete and thus is used in the construction of foundations where the soil has high
sulphate content. This cement has low tricalcium Aluminate (3CaOAl2O3/ C3A).

v. Extra- rapid hardening Portland cement- is used when a high early strength is
required or for concreting in cold weather. This cement is not suitable in reinforced or
prestressed concrete.

vi. Waterproof and water repellent Portland cement- produces a more impermeable
fully compacted concrete than OPC. Useful where damp proofing properties are of
utmost importance such as basement tanking.

vii. Blast furnace slag cement is obtained by grinding the clinkers with about 65% slag
(CaAlSO3 = Lime, Silica and Aluminium) from blast furnace and resembles more or
less in properties of Portland cement but of lower hydration rate. It is particularly
 suited for large masses of concrete. Has a high resistance to chemical attack than
OPC.

viii. High alumina cement - is obtained by melting a mixture of bauxite (ore) and
limestone (chalk) melted at 14000C grounded to powder and cooled. Alumina- 40%,
Lime- 40%, Silica with FeO and Fe2O3- 8%. Alumina produces high early strength but
looses strength easily due to porous hydrated cement. It is unsuitable for structural
work. It is also sensitive to changes in temperature.

Physical Properties of Cement

Different blends of cement used in construction are characterized by their physical properties.
Some key parameters control the quality of cement. The physical properties of good
cement are based on:

 Fineness of cement
 Soundness
 Consistency
 Setting time
 Heat of hydration
 Bulk density
 Specific gravity (Relative density)

Fineness of Cement
The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good cement is
achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production process. As
hydration rate of cement is directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement is
very important.

Soundness of Cement
Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality cement
retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by excessive free
lime and magnesia.

Consistency of Cement
The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.

Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary depending on
multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and
admixtures. Cement used in construction should have an initial setting time that is not too low
and a final setting time not too high. Hence, two setting times are measured:

 Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs within 30-45
minutes)
  Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs below
10 hours)

Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

Heat of Hydration
When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration. Hydration
generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in
maintaining curing temperature during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat generation
is high, especially in large structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of hydration is
affected most by C3S and C3A present in cement, and also by water-cement ratio, fineness
and curing temperature. The heat of hydration of Portland cement is calculated by
determining the difference between the dry and the partially hydrated cement (obtained by
comparing these at 7th and 28th days)

Various tests on cement:

Field test:
There are four field tests may be carried out to ascertain roughly the quality of cement.

Colour
 The colour of cement should be uniform.
 It should be typical cement colour i.e. grey colour with a light greenish shade.
Physical properties
• Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.
• If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement,it should feel cool.
Presence of lumps
• Cement should be free from lumps.

Strength
A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of thick glass and it is kept under water
for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.

Why it is Important to Properly Store the Cement?

Storing cement is very important because of its own quality.
Moisture Effect on Cement Strength
If cement is not stored properly, it will absorb moisture from the region air or the other
supply, inflicting the cement to react with it with chemicals. The binding property and
strength of cement depend upon its capability for the chemical process. For this, the strength
of cement is going to be affected and whereby lumps of cement result. A lump of cement
should not be beaten into powder and used for concrete because it has already lost its
strength.

Precautions of Cement Storage

All bagged cement should be stored in a watertight shed with a dry floor. The cement should
also be covered with a plastic sheeting or tarpaulin sheets.