TRAFFIC MEASUREMENTS LABORATORY

MANUAL

Faculty Instructor
Dr. K.V.R. Ravi Shankar

Transportation Division

Department of Civil Engineering

National Institute of Technology Warangal

Telangana, India
 Table of Contents

Date of
Sl. No Experiment Page No.
Experiment
Traffic Volume Study at Mid Block
1
Section

2 Traffic Volume Study at Intersection

3 Spot Speed Study

4 Time Headway Study

5 Saturation Headway Study

Pedestrian Volume Count along the

6
road

7 Delay Study

Gap acceptance at Unsignalized

8
Intersection

9 Capacity Estimation Study

10 Design of Traffic Signal

11 Driver Reaction Test

12 Parking Study

2
 1. TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY AT MID-BLOCK SECTION
1. Objective: To determine the classified traffic volume at a mid block section of a
highway using manual method and estimate the peak hour factor.
2. Equipment: Stop watch, Tally sheet for classified vehicle count, video camera.
3. Theory: Traffic volume studies are conducted to determine the number, movements, and
classifications of roadway vehicles at a given location. These data can help identify critical
flow time periods, determine the influence of large vehicles or pedestrians on vehicular traffic
flow, or document traffic volume trends. The length of the sampling period depends on the
type of count being taken and the intended use of the data recorded.
Traffic volume is also termed as flow and is expressed in terms of vehicles per hour, when
the traffic is uniform. But in countries like India mixed traffic condition is observed, so the
traffic volume is expressed in terms of passenger car unit per hour i.e., (PCU/hr).
Select Proper Observer Location: Observers must be positioned where they have a clear
view of the traffic. Observers should be positioned away from the edge of the roadway. If
observers are positioned above ground level and clear of obstructions they usually have the
best advantage point. Visual contact must be maintained if there are multiple observers at a
site. If views are unobstructed, observers may count from inside a vehicle.
Personnel Involved in a Manual Count Study: The size of the data collection team depends
on the length of the counting period, the type of count being performed, the number of lanes
or crosswalks being observed, and the volume level of traffic. The number of personnel
needed also depends on the study data needed. For example, one observer can record certain
types of vehicles while another counts total volumes. Observers conducting manual traffic
counts must be trained on the study purpose. To avoid fatigue, observers must be relieved
periodically. Every 2 hours observers should take a 10 to 15 minute break
Traffic volume is the number of vehicles crossing a particular section of road in the given
time interval. This data can help to find critical flow periods. Traffic study shows the
behaviour of traffic demand, future prediction of traffic and also the facilities to be provided
for the efficient road use. On a specific point the traffic study is made and time rate of the
vehicles is done. These studies are conducted to obtain average daily traffic (ADT) or
average daily traffic or hourly traffic. ADT express a day, AADT expresses year where as
hourly traffic expresses hour. The need for the expression of the traffic flow in the above
different levels arises from the variations in the pattern of volume over different time period.
They are used to measure demand for the service on the streets and highway in a study area

1
ADT is also used develop the benefit/cost analysis to be used to justify new projects program
capital improvements. Traffic volume count is a measure of traffic on a road system in a
given interval of time.
Manual counts: Manual methods use field personnel to count and classify traffic flowing at
a fixed point. Manual counts can be typically used to gather data for determination of vehicle
classification, turning movements. Automatic counts are typically used to gather data for
determination of vehicle hour patterns or seasonal variations.
The purpose of the manual count should be known. This type of information will help
determine the type of equipment to use, the field procedures to follow, and the number of
observers required. For example, an intersection with multiple approach lanes may require
electronic counting boards and multiple observers.
Most of applications of manual count requires sample of data at any given location. Manual
counts are used when the effort and expense of automated equipments are not met. These are
used for periods less than a day; normally the interval is 5 or 10 min.
Automatic Count Recording Methods: Automatic counts are recorded using one of three
methods: portable counters, permanent counters, and videotape.
Portable Counters: Portable counting is a form of manual observation. Portable counters
serve the same purpose as manual counts but with automatic counting equipment. The period
of data collection using this method is usually longer than when using manual counts. The
portable counter method is mainly used for 24-hour counts. Pneumatic road tubes are used to
conduct this method of automatic counts. Specific information pertaining to pneumatic road
tubes can be found in the users’ manual.
Permanent Counters: Permanent counters are used when long-term counts are to be
conducted. The counts could be performed every day for a year or more. The data collected
may be used to monitor and evaluate traffic volumes and trends over a long period of time.
Permanent counters are not a cost-effective option in most situations. Few jurisdictions have
access to this equipment.

2
 Fig. 1: Pneumatic Road Tube and Recorder
Video Photographic Method: Video photographic method gives a permanent record of
volume counts. Its analysis can be done conveniently by the use of the video which gives the
required data for the analysis. By using video photographic method one can perform the
classification of traffic volume easily by counting different type of vehicles. These vehicle
classification counts are used in estimating structural and geometric design, computing
expected highway user revenue and capacity.
However the data extraction can also be done using Traffic Data Extractor (TDE), software
developed by IIT Bombay which contains tools for vehicle trajectory extraction, speed
extraction and vehicle counting from a video based survey. It can be used for pedestrian data
extraction also.
Passenger car unit (PCU): It is general practice when the traffic is compared of types of
vehicles, then to convert them into a single equivalent unit called PCU. The mixed traffic
flow conditions are more complex when compared to homogeneous traffic coming of
passenger cars only.
Peak Flow: The peak flow is an indicative of design requirement, it is of vital concern. As
used in design procedures in the United Kingdom it is usually the maximum hour’s flow
during a 7 day August traffic census. Since traffic is very near the year’s peak in August, this
maximum hour’s flow is likely to approach the busiest hour of the year. However due to the
influence of various factors, it is not as precise as often required.
An alternative method suggested by the Road Research Laboratory overcomes these defects
by averaging the flows in a selected peak hour of each day during the highest 13 week period
which, in the United Kingdom is June, July and August. This average is taken as the peak-

3
 flow hour and may be used for design purposes after suitable allowance is made for future
growth.
Typical American practice is to select one of the most highly used hours of the year, often the
30th highest, and to use the volume in this hour, after expansion, for design. By definition, the
30th highest hour is that flow which is exceeded in only 29h of the year and if the correct
expansion has been made for, say, a 20 year design period, 29 h of over loading would occur
a year at the end of that period.
Peak hour factor (PHF): It is the relationship between the peak 15-minute flow rate and the
peak hour volume. PHF lies between 0.25 and 1. Closer the value to unity, more uniform is
the traffic and conversely closer the value to 0.25, more peaked demand will be there.

Peak Hour Factor =

It is rather difficult to estimate traffic volume and capacity of road way facilities under mixed
traffic flow conditions. So the different vehicles classes are converted into one single class
called passenger car unit (PCU) as given in table 1.
Table 1: PCU Values in Urban Area (IRC: 86-1983) and Rural Area (IRC: 64-1990)
Sl. No Vehicle type PCU(Urban Area) PCU(Rural Area)
1 2 wheeler 0.5
2 3 wheeler 1
3 Car/jeep 1
4 Van/minibus 1
5 LCV/Agricultural Tractor 2 1.5
6 Truck/Bus 3
7 Truck-trailer/Tractor-trailer 3 4.5
8 Bicycle 0.5
9 Hand Cart 6 3
10 Bullock Cart 6 (small), 8(large)
11 Horse Drawn Vehicle 4
12 Cycle-Rickshaw 2

4. Data Collection:
i. The video source which contains the survey done at mid block of a highway section is
to be played and a cross-section of road is selected as reference.

4
 ii. As mixed traffic conditions were observed, different groups can be used to count each
type of vehicle that had passed the reference cross-section.
iii. The counts are to be taken for a total duration of 1 to 2hrs with an interval of 5 to 15
min.
iv. The individual traffic volume is now converted to total traffic volume using the PCU
values for each class of vehicle
v. The peak hour and the peak 15 min period is to be identified, also the volumes at the
peak hour and peak 15 min period are to be computed.
vi. Peak hour factor is to be estimated.
vii. The composition of each class of vehicles is to be determined in the total traffic
volume.
Survey sheets:
i. The location, direction of traffic, type of road and no. of lanes should be input in the
survey sheet.
ii. PCU values should be assigned to each vehicle according to the type of road chosen
that is urban or rural.
iii. The number of vehicles in each category should be noted down in a data collecting
sheet and should be finally input in the survey sheet.
iv. The data should be input according to the class and type of vehicle.
v. Then the total volume should be counted.
vi. Then total PCU should be calculated for the given time interval.
The survey sheet has been given in Table 2

5
 TABLE 2: SURVEY SHEET FOR TRAFFIC VOLUME COUNT
LOCATION: TYPE OF ROAD: RURAL / URBAN
DIRECTION OF TRAFFIC: NO. OF LANES:
NON- MOTORIZED
PASSENGER VEHICLE GOODS VEHICLE
VEHILCLE
TIME Total Total
TRACTOR
INTERVAL VAAN / CYCLE Volume PCU
2W 3W CAR BUS LCV HCV with BICYCLE
JEEP RICKSHAW
TRAILER
PCU
0:0-0:15
0:15-0:30
0:30-0:45
0:45-1:00
1:0-1:15
1:15-1:30
1:30-1:45
1:45-2:00
TOTAL

6
 5. Data Analysis:
i. The 15 min data should be summed up and represented in hourly format.
ii. The same PCU values should be assign here also which were used in survey sheets.
iii. The total volume and total PCU should be calculated.
The hourly data should be represented as given in table 3.
Pie Chart: Vehicular distribution should be shown in pie chart for the total study period.
Table 3: Traffic volume for 1 hour interval

TIME Total Total

2W 3W LCV CAR BUS VAN/JEEP HCV TRACTOR BICYCLE
INTERVAL Volume PCU

PCU

6. Observations and Calculations:

Peak hour period =
Peak 15 min period =
Maximum volume in peak 15 min period =
Maximum volume in peak hour =

Peak Hour Factor =

7. Results: The peak hour flow and hence the peak hour factor is calculated
8. Discussions: The peak hour factor closer to 1 indicates a uniform traffic while the value
closer to 0.25 indicated congested level of traffic.
9. Applications:

1. It Provide better means for development of infrastructures

2. It Provide better means to utilize other roads in case of special events in the city
7
 3. It Provide estimate of no vehicles against no of persons
10. Limitations:
Manual counts may produce a large number of data forms; therefore, the data forms
should be carefully labeled and organized
Further Reading:
i. Guideline for Capacity of Roads in Rural Areas, IRC 86-1983
ii. Traffic Engineering Handbook, Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE).
iii. L. R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning, 7th edition, 2012.
iv. FD Hobbs, Traffic Planning and Engineering, 2nd Edition, 1979
v. Khisty, C. and M. Kyte. (1991). Lab and Field Manual for Transportation
Engineering, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
vi. IRC 86-1983, IRC 64-1990
vii. Manual on Unform Traffic Studies, 2016\
Web Resources:
viii. http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/pubs/traffichandbook/3trafficcounts.pdf
ix. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/downloads/cete_05.pdf

8
 2. TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY AT AN INTERSECTION
1. Objective: To determine the traffic movement so as to calculate the traffic volume at an
intersection and also to estimate the peak hour factor.
2. Equipment: Stop watch, Tally sheet of well classified vehicles, video camera.
3. Theory: Traffic study shows the behaviour of traffic demand, future prediction of traffic
and also the facilities to be provided for the efficient road use. On a specific point the traffic
study is made and time rate of the vehicles is done.
These studies are conducted to obtain average daily traffic (ADT) or average daily traffic or
hourly traffic. ADT express a day, AADT expresses year where as hourly traffic expresses
hour. The need for the expression of the traffic flow in the above different levels arises from
the variations in the pattern of volume over different time period. They are used to measure
demand for the service on the streets and highway in a study area ADT is also used develop
the benefit/cost analysis to be used to justify new projects program capital improvements.
Traffic volume count is a measure of traffic on a road system in a given interval of time.
Counting Period: Counting Period varies from short counts at spot points to continuous
counts at permanent stations. Hourly counts are significant in engineering design, while daily
and annual traffic is important in economic calculations, road system characteristics and
investment programmes. For statistical analysis the basic counting periods are usually the
hour, the 24h day (12 midnight to 12 midnight), the 16h day (6 am to 10 pm), the 12h day (8
a.m. to 8p.m.), and the year. Some 200-1000h of counting will be normally required to
deduce the annual flow, the average daily traffic, the average hourly volume and a design
peak hour within about 10% of the true total, at a reasonable level of confidence.
Methods for volume studies
i. Manual count at the intersection: Intersection counts are usually counted manually.
Each observer counts vehicles entering the intersection from a maximum of two
approaches and classify the vehicle by type. The counts are generally taken for 5
minute, 10 minute and 15 minute.
ii. Automatic count: It consists of sensor for detecting presence or passage of vehicle and
another for recording the count. Sensors operating on several different principles are
available such as pneumatic tubes, electric contact, co-axial cable, photo-electric,
infra-red and ultra-sonic and magnetic sensors.
iii. Photographic method: It gives a permanent record of volume counts. Its analysis can
be done by replaying video.

9
Passenger car unit (PCU): It is general practice when the traffic is compared of types of
vehicles, then to convert them into a single equivalent unit called PCU. The mixed traffic
flow conditions are more complex when compared to homogeneous traffic coming of
passenger cars only.
Peak Flow: The peak flow is an indicative of design requirement, it is of vital concern. As
used in design procedures in the United Kingdom it is usually the maximum hour’s flow
during a 7 day August traffic census. Since traffic is very near the year’s peak in August, this
maximum hour’s flow is likely to approach the busiest hour of the year. However due to the
influence of various factors, it is not as precise as often required.
An alternative method suggested by the Road Research Laboratory overcomes these defects
by averaging the flows in a selected peak hour of each day during the highest 13 week period
which, in the United Kingdom is June, July and August. This average is taken as the peak-
flow hour and may be used for design purposes after suitable allowance is made for future
growth.
Typical American practice is to select one of the most highly used hours of the year, often the
30th highest, and to use the volume in this hour, after expansion, for design. By definition, the
30th highest hour is that flow which is exceeded in only 29h of the year and if the correct
expansion has been made for, say, a 20 year design period, 29 h of over loading would occur
a year at the end of that period.
Peak hour factor (PHF): It is the relationship between the peak 15-minute flow rate and the
peak hour volume. PHF lies between 0.25 and 1. Closer the value to unity, more uniform is
the traffic and conversely closer the value to 0.25, more peaked demand will be there.

Peak Hour Factor =

It is rather difficult to estimate traffic volume and capacity of road way facilities under mixed
traffic flow conditions. So the different vehicles classes are converted into one single class
called passenger car unit (PCU) as given in Table 1.
Table 1: PCU Values in Urban Area (IRC: 86-1983) and Rural Area (IRC: 64-1990)
Sl. No Vehicle type PCU(Urban Area) PCU(Rural Area)
1 2 wheeler 0.5
2 3 wheeler 1
3 Car/jeep 1
4 Van/minibus 1

10
 5 LCV/Agricultural Tractor 2 1.5
6 Truck/Bus 3
7 Truck-trailer/Tractor-trailer 3 4.5
8 Bicycle 0.5
9 Hand Cart 6 3
10 Bullock Cart 6 (small), 8(large)
11 Horse Drawn Vehicle 4
12 Cycle-Rickshaw 2

4. DATA COLLECTION:
i. Select the study location 3-leg or 4-leg intersection.
ii. Divide observers depending upon possible movements at intersection. For 3-leg
intersection, 6 turning movements and for 4-leg intersection, 12 turning movements
are possible.
iii. Position observers where they have clear view of traffic.
iv. Volume survey at the intersection is conducted and total traffic is classified into
different modes like two wheelers, three wheeler, car jeep etc and the data is recorded
in the prescribed sheet for each direction.
v. Record data for every 15 min interval for at least 2 hrs.
vi. Tabulate the results and combine data of all movements
vii. The PCU are calculated for different modes by multiplying the volume of that
particular mode corresponding to PCU factor and all are called in each direction
for getting the total PCU.
viii. Determine the peak hour and peak hour volume.
ix. Find the peak hour factor.
x. Find the percentage of private automobiles, taxis, buses, and trucks at your station.
Survey sheet: The details of the survey are given in table 2 and table 3.

11
 Table 2: Survey sheet for traffic volume count
LOCATION: TYPE OF ROAD: RURAL / URBAN
DIRECTION OF TRAFFIC: NO. OF LANES:

PASSENGER VEHICLE GOODS VEHICLE NON- MOTORIZED VEHILCLE

TIME
Total Volume Total PCU
INTERVAL
VAAN / TRACTOR with CYCLE
2W 3W CAR BUS LCV HCV BICYCLE
JEEP TRAILER RICKSHAW

PCU
0:0-0:15
0:15-0:30
0:30-0:45
0:45-1:00
1:0-1:15
1:15-1:30
1:30-1:45
1:45-2:00
TOTAL

12
 5. Data Analysis:
The data analysis for three legged and four legged intersection is given in table 3 and table 4.
Total volume in PCU should be given as in Table 5.
Table 3: Total traffic at 4-leg intersection (in PCU)

Direction
EB WB NB SB Total
PCU
Time LT TH RT LT TH RT LT TH RT LT TH RT

0:0-0:15

0:15-0:30

0:30-0:45

0:45-1:00

1:0-1:15

1:15-1:30

1:30-1:45

1:45-2:00

TOTAL

13
 Table 4: Total traffic volume at 3-legged intersection
Direction Leg 1 Leg 2 Leg 3 Total
Time TH RT LT TH LT RT PCU
0:0-0:15
0:15-0:30
0:30-0:45
0:45-1:00
1:0-1:15
1:15-1:30
1:30-1:45
1:45-2:00
TOTAL

Table 5: Total volume (in PCU/ hour) for 15 min intervals

Time Total
Interval PCU
0- 1:00
0:15-1:15
0:30-1:30
0:45-1:45
1:00-2:00

Pie Chart: Vehicular distribution and leg-wise distribution should be shown in pie chart for
the total study period.
6. Observations and Calculations:
Peak hour =
Peak hour volume =
T = time interval 15 minutes =
Vt = Volume in maximum 15 minute interval =
Peak Hour Factor (PHF) =

Peak Hour Factor =

14
 =
7. Result: The peak hour flow and hence the peak hour factor is calculated
8. Discussions: The peak hour factor closer to 1 indicates a uniform traffic while the
value closer to 0.25 indicated congested level of traffic.
9. Applications:
i. Intersection Traffic Volume counts are used for
ii. Designing channelization,
iii. Planning turn prohibitions,
iv. Computing capacity,
v. Analyzing high crash intersections, and
vi. Evaluating congestion
10. Limitations:
Manual counts may produce a large number of data forms; therefore, the data forms
should be carefully labelled and organized
Further Reading:
x. Bureau of Indian standards, Guideline for Capacity of Roads in Rural Areas,
Indian Road Congress 64-1990
xi. Bureau of Indian standards, Geometric Design Standards for Urban roads in
plains, Indian Road Congress 86-1983
xii. Traffic Engineering Handbook, Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE).
xiii. L. R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning, 7th edition,
2012.
xiv. FD Hobbs, Traffic Planning and Engineering, 2nd Edition, 1979
xv. Tarko and Cartagena,”Variability of Peak Hour Factor at Intersections”, TRB
2005 Annual Meeting.
xvi. Khisty, C. and M. Kyte. (1991). Lab and Field Manual for Transportation
Engineering, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
xvii. Manual on Unform Traffic Studies, 2016
Web Resources:
xviii. http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/pubs/traffichandbook/3trafficcounts.pdf
xix. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/downloads/cete_05.pdf

15
 3. SPOT SPEED STUDY
1. Objective: To determine the instantaneous speed of the different vehicles at a given
stretch.
2. Equipment: Stop-watch, data sheet, measuring tape, radar gun.
3. Theory: Spot speed studies are used to determine the speed distribution of traffic stream
at a specific location. The data gathered in spot speed studies are used to determine vehicle
speed percentiles, which are useful in making many speed-related decisions. For a spot speed
study at a selected location, a sample size of at least 50 and preferably 100 vehicles is usually
obtained. Traffic counts during a Monday morning or a Friday peak period may show
exceptionally high volumes and are not normally used in the analysis; therefore, counts are
usually conducted on a Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday. Spot speed data are gathered
using one of three methods:
(1) Stopwatch method, (2) Radar meter method, or (3) Pneumatic road tube method.
Speed percentiles are tools used to determine effective and adequate speed limits. The two
speed percentiles most important to understand are the 50th and the 85th percentiles. The 50th
percentile is the median speed of the observed data set. This percentile represents the speed at
which half of the observed vehicles are below and half of the observed vehicles are above.
The 50th percentile of speed represents the average speed of the traffic stream. The 85th
percentile is the speed at which 85% of the observed vehicles are travelling at or below. This
percentile is used in evaluating/recommending posted speed limits based on the assumption
that 85% of the drivers are travelling at a speed they perceive to be safe. In other words, the
85th percentile of speed is normally assumed to be the highest safe speed for a roadway
section.
Weather conditions may affect speed percentiles. For example, observed speeds may be
slower in rainy or snowy conditions.
To reach these exact percentages, a calculation is completed using percentages and speeds
from the distribution table. Shown below is the equation for calculating speed percentiles

( )

Where SD = speed at PD , P D = percentile desired, Pmax= higher cumulative percent,

Pmin = lower cumulative percent, S max = higher speed, and min S = lower speed

16
i. Design Speed: A speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of
highway that influence vehicle operation.
ii. 85th Percentile Speed: The speed below which 85% of all the vehicles travel is called 85th
percentile speed and which is used for determining the speed limits for traffic regulation.

iii. Modal Speed: It is the speed value occurring most frequently in a frequency distribution
of speed obtained in a speed study. The modal speed would be the value with highest
frequency of distribution.
iv. Median Speed: It is the middle value of the set of speeds when they are arranged in an
ascending order or descending order.
v. 98th Percentile Speed: It is the speed below which 98 percent of all the vehicles travel. It
is used as design speed in geometric design.
vi. 15th Percentile Speed: It is the speed below which 15 percent of all the vehicles travel is
used to determine the lower speed limit on major facilities such as Expressways. Vehicles
travelling below this speed cause interference with the traffic stream and may cause hazards.
The method available for measuring spot speeds can be grouped as under
a) Those that require observation of the time taken by a vehicle to cover a known distance.
b) Radar speedmeter which automatically records the instantaneous speed
c) Photographic Method
Methods under above can be further classified into:
i. Those in which vehicles are timed over a long distance (long base)
ii. Those in which vehicles are timed over a short distance (short base)
The long-base methods commonly used are:
i. Direct Timing Procedure
ii. Enoscope
iii. Pressure contact tubes
The short-base method uses vehicle detectors over a short distance
1. Direct timing procedure: It involves measuring travel time over a measured distance.
i. Stopwatch method using pavement marking
ii. Enoscope
2. Methods using pneumatic tubes
i. Electrically operated meter
ii. Electronic meter
3. Photographic techniques

17
 i. Time-lapse photography
ii. Continuous photography
4. Methods based on Doppler principle
i. Radar meter
ii. Ultrasonic meter
Locations for Spot Speed Studies
 The following locations are generally used for the different applications of spot speeds:
 Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a highway or highways are used for
basic data collection
 Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level sections of rural highways are sites for
speed trend analyses
 Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering problem.
When spot speed studies are conducted, it is important that unbiased data be obtained. This
requires that drivers be unaware that such a study is being conducted. Equipment used
therefore, should be concealed from the driver, and observers conducting the study should be
inconspicuous. Since the speeds recorded eventually will be subjected to statistical analysis, it
is important that a statistically adequate number of vehicle speeds be recorded.
Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed Studies: The time of day for conducting a speed
study depends on the purpose of study. In general, when the purpose of study is to establish
posted speed limits, to observe speed trends, or to collect basic data, it is recommended that
the study be conducted when traffic is free-flowing, usually during off-peak hours. However,
when a speed study is conducted in response to citizen complaints, it is useful if the time
period selected for the study reflects the nature of the complaints.
The duration of the study should be such that the minimum number of vehicle speeds
required for statistical analysis is recorded. Typically, the duration is at least 1 hour and the
sample size is at least 30 vehicles.
Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies: The calculated mean speed is to represent the true
mean value of all vehicle speeds at that location. The accuracy of this assumption depends on
the number of vehicles in the sample. The larger the sample size, the greater the probability
that the estimated mean is not significantly different from the true mean. It is therefore
necessary to select a sample size that will give an estimated mean within acceptable error
limits. For a spot speed study at a selected location, a sample size of at least 50 and preferably
100 vehicles is usually obtained.

18
 4. Data Collection:
A stopwatch spot speed study includes five key steps:
i. Obtain appropriate study length.
ii. Select proper location and layout.
iii. Record observations on stopwatch spot speed study data form.
iv. Calculate vehicle speeds.
v. Generate frequency distribution table and determine speed percentiles.
A radar meter spot speed study includes four key steps:
i. Select proper location and placement of radar meter.
ii. Determine an appropriate selection strategy.
iii. Record observations on radar meter spot speed study data form.
iv. Generate frequency distribution table and determine speed percentiles.
Direct timing method was used to measure spot speeds.
i. Mark two reference points along the stretch based on the average speed.
ii. Synchronize the stop watches.
iii. The observer at beginning of the stretch waves his hand and thus gives signal to the
second observer.
iv. The second observer starts the stopwatch and stops it when the same vehicle crosses
the observer.
v. Thus from the known distance and time, spot speeds are calculated.
Table 1: Recommended Base lengths for Spot speed
(Source traffic engineering handbook, Institute of Traffic Engineering, 1965)
Average speed of Traffic stream (in kmph) Base length (in m)
Less than 40 27
40 to 65 54
Greater than 65 81

5. Data Analysis
Table 2: Spot speed analysis using normal distribution

Observed Probability
Cumulative Estimated Cumulative %
Freq % Probabilit % Estimated
C.I. Mid Value % Frequency Estimated
( O) Freq f(x) y P(x) Frequency
Frequency (E) Frequency
z=(Xi-µ)/σ f(x) from
table

19
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

Table 3: Mean, Std. Dev. and K

Mean Maximum Speed
Std Deviation Minimum Speed
Constant K

Class Interval (C.I) = (Range)/(1+3.22log10N)

Table 4: Chi-Square Test
Observed Value, O Expected Value, E (O-E)2/E

Graph: Plot a cumulative frequency curve between speed (col. 2) and cumulative %
frequency (col. 5) of the table to get the percentile speeds
6. RESULTS:
Table 5: Percentile speeds
From graph From Normal Distribution table
15th Percentile Speed
50th Percentile Speed
85th Percentile Speed

20
 98th Percentile Speed

A Series of spot speed measurements may be represented by the arithmetic mean of their
speeds, but the information so revealed is confined to central tendency. The traffic engineer is
concerned with the distribution, the range and the dispersion of the speeds in addition to the
mean, and for full benefit to be gained from the measurements, standard statistical methods of
analysis must be adopted.
The arithmetic mean or average speed is a measure of central tendency. It is computed from
grouped data by multiplying each mid-class point by the frequency f for that class and
summing and dividing by the total number of measured speeds
xmean = Ʃfx /Ʃf
where xmean = mean spot speed . Km/h
x = mid-class spot speed, km/h
f = frequency in each class.
Histograms and Frequency Curves
The information revealed by the frequency distribution table is best represented graphically
by histograms and frequency curves. This histogram is plotted directly form the table and
frequency curve is found by rounding off to histogram in such a way that the area under
curve is equal to the area of the histogram. The curve is also useful in determining the pace of
vehicles where the pace is the speed range, for some nominal increment of speed (usually
20kmph) which contains the most vehicles.

21
 HISTOGRAM

Cumulative Frequency Curve

The cumulative frequency curve is used for determining the number of vehicles travelling
above or below a given speed. Percentile speeds (i.e. that speed below which a specified
percentage of vehicles are travelling) are also indicated.

22
Measurement of Dispersion
Two important measurements of dispersion used in speed and other analyses are the standard
deviation and coefficient of variation. The standard deviation of a grouped frequency
distribution is given by

∑( )
s=√ ∑

Where s = Standard deviation, f = frequency in each class, d = deviation of mid class point
from arithmetic mean
For computation it is often convenient to use an assumed mean as in the following expression

∑ ∑
√ { }
∑ ∑

Where d1 is the deviation from an assumed mean expressed as a multiple of class intervals,
and i= class interval.
To provide a measure of dispersion, related to the mean, it is convenient to use the coefficient
of variation, V, where
V= 100s/xmean
A higher value indicates wider scatter about the mean and vice versa. If the distributions to be
compared are expressed in similar units of measurement and if the means are similar,
calculation of the standard deviation is sufficient. If the means are different or if the speed
distributions are say, in kmph and mph the coefficients of variation will show relative and
comparable dispersions.
Sample Accuracy
The determination of spot speeds of vehicles on a road must be made on a sample basis. The
standard deviation of the distribution of sample means is known as the standarad error and is
given approximately by

√
where SE = standard error
s = standard deviation calculated for the sample
n = number of observations in the sample

23
The distribution of sample means lies on a normal curve and using the properties of this curve
it can be shown that approximately 95% of the sample means will lie within two standard
deviations of the true mean. Accordingly there is 95% chance that the true mean of spot
speeds of vehicles on the road lays within the range.

Types of distribution
 Normal (or Gaussian) distribution is a continuous probability distribution, defined by
the formula

Where
μ=mean or expectation of the distribution (and also its median and mode).
σ =standard deviation;
σ 2.=variance

Chi-square test: It is also referred to as chi-squared test or test, is any statistical

hypothesis test in which the sampling distribution of the test statistic is a chi-squared
distribution when the null hypothesis is true. Also considered a chi-squared test is a test in
which this is asymptotically true, meaning that the sampling distribution (if the null
hypothesis is true) can be made to approximate a chi-squared distribution as closely as
desired by making the sample size large enough.

cal = Σ (Observed-Expected)2/Expected value

critical is determined from table using degree of freedom and level of significance.
Degree of freedom (df) = n-p-1
Where n = Number of rows
P = Number of parameters used for defining mathematical model
Model No. parameters (P)
Normal Distribution 2 (µ and σ )

6. Discussions:
Spot Speed at marked base length is observed. Chi square test is conducted for observed
frequency.
7. Spot Speed Applications:

24
1. Determining existing traffic operations and evaluation of traffic control devices
a. Evaluating and determining proper speed limits
b. Determining the 50th and 85th speed percentiles
c. Evaluating and determining proper advisory speeds
d. Establishing the limits of no-passing zones
e. Determining the proper placements of traffic control signs and markings
f. Setting appropriate traffic signal timing
2. Establishing roadway design elements
a. Evaluating and determining proper intersection sight distance
Evaluating and determining proper passing sight distance
c. Evaluating and determining proper stopping sight distance
3. Assessing roadway safety questions
a. Evaluating and verifying speeding problems
b. Assessing speed as a contributor to vehicle crashes
c. Investigating input from the public or other officials
4. Monitoring traffic speed trends by systematic ongoing speed studies
5. Measuring effectiveness of traffic control devices or traffic programs, including signs and
markings, traffic operational changes, and speed enforcement programs
8. Limitations:
Spot Speed is affected by environmental conditions (like weather, visibility), Enforcement,
Traffic conditions, Driver, vehicle and motive of travel.

25
Normal Distribution Table

26
Chi-Square Table

Further Reading:
i. L. R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning, edition 7th,
2012.
ii. Institute of Traffic Engineering , Traffic Engineering handbook-1965
iii. University of Massachusetts,Spot Speed Study Workshop manual, MassSAFE, ,
Amherst.

27
iv. FD Hobbs, Traffic Planning and Engineering, 2nd Edition-1979
v. Nicholas J.Garber, Lester A.Hoel, Raju Sarkar, Principles of Traffic and Highway
Engineering.
vi. Khisty, C. and M. Kyte. (1991). Lab and Field Manual for Transportation
Engineering, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Web Resources
vii. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/downloads/cete_06.pdf
viii. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/511_FundParams/point4/point.html
ix. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/downloads/cete_02.pdf
x. http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/pubs/traffichandbook/2SpotSpeed.pdf
xi. http://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/1111_nptel/522_TrSpeed/plain/

28
 4. TIME HEADWAY STUDY
1. Objective: To measure time head way of vehicles on a given road section and fitting
suitable distribution
2. Equipment: Stopwatches, Datasheets and Pads.
3. Theory:
Headway: An important parameter to characterize the traffic is to model the inter-arrival
time of vehicle at a section on the road. The inter-arrival time or the time headway is not
constant due to the stochastic nature of vehicle arrival. A common way of modeling is to treat
the inter-arrival time or the time headway as a random variable and use some mathematical
distributions to model them. The behavior of vehicle arrival is different at different flow
condition. It may be possible that different distributions may work better at different flow
conditions. Suppose the vehicle arrive at a point at time t1, t2, . . . . Then the time differences
between two consecutive the vehicle to pass the observation point and the time gap between
the rear of the lead vehicle and front of the following vehicle. Hence, the headways h1 = t2 −
t1, h2 = t3 − t2, . . . It may be noted that the headways h1, h2, . . . will not be constant, but
follows some random distribution.

Fig. 1: Illustration of headways

A "shorter" headway signifies a more frequent service. Headway is a key input in calculating
the overall route capacity of any transit system. A system that requires large headways has
more empty space than passenger capacity, which lowers the total number of passengers or
cargo quantity being transported for a given length of line (railroad or highway, for instance).

29
In this case, the capacity has to be improved through the use of larger vehicles. The
distribution headway actually consists of occupancy time for physically vehicles to pass the
observation point. It is the gap between rear end of lead vehicle and front end of the
following vehicle.
On a two-lane two-way road, queues of vehicles will start to form behind slower moving
vehicles as soon as the headway in the opposing lane falls below a minimum requirement for
overtaking. It can also be seen that a flow increases the proportion of suitable-sized headways
above the required limit falls. In other words, increasing flow on any lane requires more
frequent overtaking to maintain individual speeds but there is a reduction in the availability of
headway gaps to accommodate these. Restricted vertical and horizontal sight distances and
the formation of short queues will further reduce the opportunities because even greater
headways are required.
If vehicles are not subject to interference each driver operates independently of all other
drivers. Under these conditions equal intervals of time or space are equally likely to contain a
given number of vehicles. The resulting distribution can be then identified random.
Types of distribution
 Normal (or Gaussian) distribution is a continuous probability distribution, defined
by the formula

Where
μ=mean or expectation of the distribution (and also its median and mode), σ
=standard deviation, σ 2.=variance.

Figure 2: Shape of normal distribution curve

 Pearson Distribution
( )
F(x) = [ (t-α)](k-1).
( )

30
 Where
α = scale parameter. Assume 0 to 1, k = shape parameter. k = (µ-α)/σ, = location
parameter. =k/ (µ-α), Γ (k)= gamma function of k.Γ (k) = (k-1). Γ (k-1), t = time
headway
 Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution that expresses the
probability of a given number of events occurring in a fixed interval of time and/or
space if these events occur with a known average rate and independently of the time
since the last event.
P= (e-m.mx)/x!
Where m = mean, x =time headway
 Negative exponential distributions are a class of continuous probability distributions
which describe the times between events in a Poisson process, i.e. a process in which
events occur continuously and independently at a constant average rate. The
probability density function of an exponential distribution is
F(x) = where µ is mean and t is time headway

Figure 3: Shape of the Negative exponential distribution for various values of

Chi-square test: It is also referred to as chi-squared test or test, is any statistical

hypothesis test in which the sampling distribution of the test statistic is a chi-squared
distribution when the null hypothesis is true. Also considered a chi-squared test is a test in
which this is asymptotically true, meaning that the sampling distribution (if the null
hypothesis is true) can be made to approximate a chi-squared distribution as closely as
desired by making the sample size large enough.

cal = Σ (Observed-Expected)2/Expected value

critical is determined from table using degree of freedom and level of significance.
Degree of freedom (df) = n-p-1

31
Where n = Number of rows and P = Number of parameters used for defining mathematical
model
Table 1: No of parameters for different distributions
Model No. parameters (P)
Normal Distribution 2 (µ and σ )
Negative Exponential 1 (µ)
Pearson Type III 2 (α and k)

4. Data Collection:
i. Mark a reference line on the road
ii. Note down the time interval of each vehicle that passes reference line by means of an
accurate stop watch.
iii. Take two observations to record the time.
iv. The arrival time of successive vehicles are noted. Repeat same procedure for at least 2
hrs.
v. The two headways are grouped and calculated.
vi. Using statistical methods best fitting distribution is found.
vii. Chi square test is performed to check whether the distribution fitted correctly or not.
Survey sheet: The data should be collected as given in table 2.
Table 2: Data-sheet for field data collection
Vehicle Reg. Entry Time of Time
no. Vehicle Headway

5. Data Analysis:
Poisson’s distribution has been used as in given in table 3.
Table 3: Analysis of time headway using Poisson’s distribution

32
 Class Mid % Cumulative Probability Expected
Frequency
interval Value Frequency % frequency P(x) frequency

Chi-Square Test
Observed value, O Expected value, E (O-E)2/E

Negative Exponential distribution has been used as in given in table 4.

Table 4: Analysis of time headway using negative exponential distribution
Class Mid % Cumulative Probability Expected
Frequency
interval Value Frequency % frequency P(x) frequency

Chi-Square Test

Observed value, O Expected value, E (O-E)2/E

Other distributions mentioned earlier can also be checked for goodness of fit.
6. Results: The minimum and maximum value of time headway is found.
7. Discussions: The time headway for the vehicle at marked point is observed. Chi square
test is conducted for observed frequency.

33
8. Applications:
i. Many Traffic operations such as passing, merging and crossing depend on the
availability of large headway in traffic flow.
ii. Used in estimating the pedestrian platoon formation and delays
iii. Used in estimating the capacity of Unsignalized Intersections
iv. Capacity and Level of service analysis of Highways and Roundabouts
9. Limitations:

Further Reading:
i. L. R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning, 7th edition, 2012.
ii. Rand. R Wilcox, Basic Statistics by
iii. FD Hobbs, Traffic Planning and Engineering, 2nd Edition, 1979
iv. Nicholas J.Garber, Lester A.Hoel, Raju Sarkar, Principles of Traffic and Highway
Engineering.
Web Resources
v. http://www.rhd.gov.bd/Documents/ConvDocs/Roughness%20Manual.pdf
Gamma Function Value
y=a G(a) A G(a) a G(a) a G(a)
1 1 1.25 0.9064 1.5 0.8862 1.75 0.9191
1.01 0.9943 1.26 0.9044 1.51 0.8866 1.76 0.9214
1.02 0.9888 1.27 0.9025 1.52 0.887 1.77 0.9238
1.03 0.9836 1.28 0.9007 1.53 0.8876 1.78 0.9262
1.04 0.9784 1.29 0.899 1.54 0.8882 1.79 0.9288
1.05 0.9735 1.3 0.8975 1.55 0.8889 1.8 0.9314
1.06 0.9687 1.31 0.896 1.56 0.8896 1.81 0.9341
1.07 0.9642 1.32 0.8946 1.57 0.8905 1.82 0.9369
1.08 0.9597 1.33 0.8934 1.58 0.8914 1.83 0.9397
1.09 0.9555 1.34 0.8922 1.59 0.8924 1.84 0.9426
1.1 0.9514 1.35 0.8912 1.6 0.8935 1.85 0.9456
1.11 0.9474 1.36 0.8902 1.61 0.8947 1.86 0.9487
1.12 0.9436 1.37 0.8893 1.62 0.8959 1.87 0.9518

34
1.13 0.9399 1.38 0.8885 1.63 0.8972 1.88 0.9551
1.14 0.9364 1.39 0.8879 1.64 0.8986 1.89 0.9584
1.15 0.933 1.4 0.8873 1.65 0.9001 1.9 0.9618
1.16 0.9298 1.41 0.8868 1.66 0.9017 1.91 0.9652
1.17 0.9267 1.42 0.8864 1.67 0.9033 1.92 0.9688
1.18 0.9237 1.43 0.886 1.68 0.905 1.93 0.9724
1.19 0.9209 1.44 0.8858 1.69 0.9068 1.94 0.9761
1.2 0.9182 1.45 0.8857 1.7 0.9086 1.95 0.9799
1.21 0.9156 1.46 0.8856 1.71 0.9106 1.96 0.9837
1.22 0.9131 1.47 0.8856 1.72 0.9126 1.97 0.9877
1.23 0.9108 1.48 0.8858 1.73 0.9147 1.98 0.9917
1.24 0.9085 1.49 0.886 1.74 0.9168 1.99 0.9958
2 1

35
CHI-SQUARE TABLE

36
 5. SATURATION HEADWAY STUDY
1. Objective: To calculate saturation headway at a signalized intersection.
2. Equipment: stop watch, data sheet, video camera.
3. Theory: Ideal saturation headway for a signalized intersection is the difference in
passage time at the intersection stop line between two consecutive vehicles, once the queue
moving in stable manner.
According to HCM 2000, it is the maximum discharge rate of vehicle at junction after onset
of green signal and is assumed to start after 4th vehicle.
Saturation flow is a very important road traffic performance measure of the maximum rate of
flow of traffic. It is used extensively in signalized intersection control and design.
4. Data Collection:
i. At the intersection a reference line is drawn.
ii. Videos were taken as vehicles starts to cross reference line until last vehicle such that
entire width of carriageway was covered.
iii. Analysis of video was carried out and time at which 4th and last vehicle crosses the
reference line were noted.
iv. Count the number of vehicle in queue.
v. Repeat the procedure for different samples and take average.
Survey Sheets: The data should be collected as given in table 1.
Table 1: Survey sheet for data collection
Video Time for 4th Time for last Saturation
number vehicle vehicle headway

5. Data Analysis:
Average saturation headway, Si = (Ti,j – Ti4)/(L-4)

37
Where
Ti,j = Time at which jth vehicle of sample i crosses the reference line.
L = Last vehicle in the queue
6. Result: Average saturation headway is
7. Discussions:
The Values published in 1994 HCM has 2.1 sec saturation headway for major streets.
8. Applications:
i. Used for green time allocation to optimize intersection throughput.
ii. It is used for Estimating the geometric and operational performance of signalized
intersections.
iii. Capacity is an adjustment of the saturation flow rate that takes the real signal timing into
account
10. Limitations:
Further Reading:
i. C.J. Khishty and B. Kent Lall , Transportation Engineering
ii. Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) 2000
iii. Nicholas J.Garber, Lester A.Hoel, Raju Sarkar, Principles of Traffic and Highway
Engineering.
Web Resources
iv. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/downloads/cete_12.pdf

38
 6. PEDESTRIAN VOLUME COUNT ALONG THE ROAD
1. Objective: To determine the pedestrian volume along the given location in order to
propose appropriate facilities required for pedestrians at that given location.
2. Equipment: Clock, writing pad, data sheet, video camera.
3. Theory: Any person afoot is the definition of Uniform Vehicle Code of pedestrian.
Pedestrian and bicycle volume studies are used to capture some aspect of pedestrian and
bicycle behaviour and performance. This evaluation is generally done using one or more of
the following studies:
i. volume
ii. walking or travel speed
iii. gaps in traffic
iv. conflicts with vehicles
v. understanding and compliance with traffic control devices
vi. exhibited behaviors
vii. user perception
viii. accessibility to pedestrians with physical or vision impairments
Trained observers should perform the manual pedestrian counting. 10-15 minute breaks
should be scheduled at least every 2 hours to avoid fatigue and degraded performance. For
data collection period over 8 hours, breaks of 30-45 minutes should be permitted every 4
hours.
The demand for pedestrian facilities is influenced by a number of factors of which some of
the most important are
1. The nature of the local community- Walking is more likely to occur in a community that
has a high proportion of young people.
2. Car ownership -The availability of the private car reduces the amount of walking, even for
short journey.
3. Local land use activities- Walking is primarily used for short distance trips. Consequently
the distance between local origins and destinations (e.g. homes and school, homes and shops)
is an important factor influencing the level of demand, particularly for the young and elderly.
4. Quality of provision- If good quality pedestrian facilities are provided, then demand will
tend to increase.

39
Safety and security- It is important that pedestrians perceive the facilities to be safe and
secure. For pedestrians this means freedom from conflict with motor vehicle, as well as a
minimal threat from personal attack and the risk of tripping on uneven surfaces.
The number of trained observers required is dependent of the length of the counting period,
type of count being performed, number of crosswalks or bike lanes, and the volume of
pedestrian and bicycles. A single observer can perform a pedestrian and bicycle volume count
at a four-way signalized intersection with single approach lanes and low volumes as long as
special classifications and/or directional counts are not required. Conducting pilot studies at
the desired locations can determine the exact number or observers required. Duties should be
divided among observers. For example, one observer can be assigned to record the north and
west crosswalks while a second observer watches the south and east crosswalks at a
signalized intersection.
Manual Counts:
i. Tally Sheets (manual field observation forms)
The use of the tally sheets is the simplest means of conducting manual counts.
This method is low cost and easily adaptable to different geometries and count types. A
stopwatch is required to keep track of the desired intervals.
Handheld Count Boards
i. Battery operated, handheld count boards are commonly used to aid in the collection of
traffic count data, which can include pedestrians and bicyclists.
ii. No field forms are required with this alternative and the boards contain an internal
clock that separates the data by a specified interval.
ii. Laptop Computer
Battery-efficient laptop computers can be used for field data collection. Available spreadsheet
software can be used to record time stamps of different events and the benefit of using macro-
enabled spreadsheets to collect data is the option of customizing to specific needs of the user.
A disadvantage is the software coding and post-processing analysis required.
iii. Video-Based Counts
Manual counts can be conducted in the field or in the office during a post-processing
operation from video observations. Video-based counts provide less risk of incidents for
observers and minimize staff requirements. It is critical to have a well chosen camera angle
and adequate lighting conditions to capture all turning movements at a typical intersection
with one or multiple cameras. A digital clock can help note the end of the intervals.

40
To determine the type of equipment, field procedure, and number of required observers for
the study, the following should be reviewed:
i. purpose and type of count to be performed,
ii. count period and time intervals
iii. Information about the site (e.g., geometric layout, volume levels by time of day,
signal timing, etc.)
Observer Location:
i. A clear view of the pedestrians or bicycles is crucial to select observers’ positions.
The obstruction of pedestrian movements and distraction of drivers should be avoided
and observers should be located well away from the edge of the travel lane as a safety
precaution. To coordinate activities if several observers are at the same site, visual
contact with one another and communication is important.
ii. For a successful pedestrian and bicycle volume study, it is critical to maintain
organized and correctly labeled data, especially if manual field observation forms are
used. If electronic count boards or handheld computers are being used, the observers
have to make sure the equipment is properly oriented to the geographic and geometric
layout of the intersection. Time intervals must be accurately maintained and
coordinated between observers if more than two observers are present. It is critical for
the observers to concentrate on accurately recording each count in the proper place on
the form or with the proper button regardless of the method being used.
Automatic counts:
Automatic video recording provides a mean of gathering pedestrian and bicycle volume data
where complex classifications are not required. This method allows the data collection at a
reasonable time and resources expenditure.
The personnel required for automatic counts are those needed to install, calibrate, and
recover the equipment. The two basic components of equipment required generally include
sensors to detect the presence of pedestrians or bicycles, and a data recorder. Sensors may use
active or passive infrared light transmission and detection, Piezo film, time lapse video, in-
pavement loop detectors and pneumatic tubes. More detailed travel activity of pedestrians
and bicycles can be recorded with new technologies, such as pedometers, accelerometers,
GPS transponders, location-tracking mobile telephones and laser counters. One of the
benefits of conducting automatic counts is the provision of extended counting periods at
reduced labour costs compared to manual counting methods. Proper function of the

41
equipment should be checked. Equipment interference with pedestrians and bicyclist should
be avoided or minimized.
The time period(s) in the day over which the counts are undertaken must coincide with the
peak times of the activity of study.
For the design of foot path and selecting locations for each zebra crossing, pedestrian volume
study is sufficient. As per IRC -103 (2012), the width of sidewalk depends on expected
pedestrian flows and could be fixed with the help of guidelines.
Principles
1. Pedestrians facilities should be planned in integrated manner so as to ensure a continuous
pedestrian flow
2. The basic aim should be to reduce pedestrian conflicts with vehicular traffic.
3. While planning the convenience of pedestrians should be paramount considerations.
Footpath
The sidewalks should be provided on both sides of the road above the level of the
carriageway separated by non-mountable Krebs. The width of sidewalks depends on the
pedestrian flow.
Table 1: Capacity in persons per hour as per IRC-103(2012)
Design Flow in Number of persons per hour
Width of side
Flow in one direction In both directions
walk (m)
LOS B LOS C LOS B LOS C
1.8 2025 2835 1350 1890
2 2700 3780 1800 2520
2.5 3375 4725 2250 3150
3 4050 5670 2700 3780
3.5 4725 6615 3150 4410
4 5400 7560 3600 5040

4. Data Collection:
Before deciding on the appropriate extent and standard of pedestrian facilities, it is important
to assess the potential demand. The possible methods of obtaining such estimates are manual
count, video survey, and attitude survey described as follows.
Manual Counts: Count the flow of pedestrian through a junction, across a road, or along a
road section/footway manually using manual clicker and tally marking sheet. Manual counts
need to satisfy the following conditions.
42
 i. The time period(s) in the day over which the counts are undertaken must coincide
with the peak times of the activity of study. Volume count has to be taken in both
ways that is along the sides of the road.
ii. The day(s) of the week and month(s) of the year when observations are made must be
representative of the demand. School holidays, early closing, and special events
should be avoided since they can result in non-typical conditions.
iii. The survey locations need to be carefully selected in order to ensure that the total
existing demand is observed.
iv. If the counting is done near to the intersection, then again the road should count away
from intersection and towards the intersections.
v. Each group is required to perform a pedestrian volume count study at various
intersections/streets. The study should be performed in 15- minute intervals during the
peak period for one hour. The number of pedestrian volumes should be counted. Two
different study forms are to be completed in this study: “Pedestrian Volume Sheet”
and the “Summary of Pedestrian Movements.”
Advantages of this manual counting are that these are simple to set up and carry out, and
flexible to response observed changes in demand on site and disadvantages are that these are
labour intensive also simple information can be achieved and not detailed information.
Video survey:
Cameras are setup at the selected sites and video recording taken of the pedestrians during the
selected observation periods. A suitable vantage point for the camera is important. Such
survey produces a permanent record of pedestrian movement and their interaction with
vehicles. In it the record of behaviour pattern is also obtained which helps in analyzing the
crossing difficulties.
Attitude survey:
Detailed questionnaire requires enabling complete information about pedestrian’s origins and
destination points, also can gather information on what new facilities, or improvements to
existing facilities, need to be provided to divert trips to walking, or increase the current
pedestrian activities.
Table 2: Pedestrian Class Notation
Symbol Abbreviation
Ym Young Male
Yf Young Female

43
 Mm Middle Aged Male
Mf Middle Aged Female
Om Old Aged Male
Of Old Aged Female

Survey Sheets:
The survey should be carried out as given below.

NIT WARANGAL, TRANSPORTATION DIVISION, CIVIL

DEPARTMENT
PEDESTRIAN VOLUME COUNTING SHEET

STUDY DATE : STARTING TIME :

LOCATION ID : ENDING TIME :

COUNTRY : CITY :

REMARKS : WEATHER :

TIME DIRECTION 1 DIRECTION 2 TOTAL

TOTAL PEDESTRIAN VOLUME

44
 NIT WARANGAL, TRANSPORTATION DIVISION, CIVIL
DEPARTMENT

Physical Dimensions of the Facility

Facility Dimension
length (m)
Passageway
Width (m)
Tread width (m)
Step riser height (m)
Width of stairway (m)
Stairway
No.of steps
Slope
length of intermediate landing (m)
Width (m)
Tread width (m)
Escalator Step riser height (m)
Slope
No. of steps

NIT WARANGAL, TRANSPORTATION DIVISION,

CIVIL DEPARTMENT

DATA EXTRACTION SHEET

STUDY DATE : STARTING TIME :

LOCATION ID : ENDING TIME :

FACILITY : DIRECTION :

COUNTRY : CITY :

REMARKS : WEATHER :
CLASS START TIME END TIME CLASS START TIME END TIME

45
 Length of the Stretch =
Stages of crossing =

5. Result:
Peak Hour =
Peak Hour pedestrian volume =
Width of the footpath required (as per IRC: 103-2012) =
Level of Service at present =
Average Pedestrian velocity =
6. Discussions:
Peak Hour pedestrian volume and vehicle volume are determined from study and PV2 is
calculated. From the Capacity obtained sidewalk width can be fixed according to IRC
recommendations.
7. Applications:
i. Select retail store locations on the basis of pedestrian movement past prospective
locations
ii. Used for analyzing the safety of pedestrians
iii. Used for CBD pedestrian planning
iv. Select locations for public buildings such as libraries so that they are accessible to the
centers of CBD pedestrian movement.
v. Determine downtown retail property values on the basis of pedestrian traffic volumes.
vi. Establish central traffic district boundaries for vehicular cordon counts.
vii. Delimit the boundaries of the CBD.

46
 viii. Provide an indication of the rise or decline in CBD land values, when pedestrian
volume data for a number of years is available.
Further Reading:
i. Bureau of Indian Standards, Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities, Indian Road
Congress: 103-2012.
ii. L. R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning, edition 7th, 2012.
iii. C.J. Khisty and B. Kent Lall , Introduction to Transportation Engineering.
Web Resources
iv. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/downloads/cete_47.pdf

47
 7. DELAY STUDY
1. Objective: To conduct the delay study at signalized intersections to determine total
delay
2. Equipment: Data sheet to note down arrival and departure and categories of vehicles,
stop watch
3. Theory:
Delay: The elapsed time (in seconds) spent driving at a speed less than 5 mph.
The Intersection Delay Study is used to evaluate the performance of intersections in allowing
traffic to enter and pass through, or to enter and turn onto another route. This study will
effectively provide a detailed evaluation of delay at the intersection. It is very important to
differentiate between the different types of delay, listed below are the most commonly used
terms describing delay at intersections:
i. Time-In-Queue Delay (TIQD) is the difference between the time a vehicle joins the
rear of a queue and the time the vehicle clears the intersection.
ii. Control delay is the component of delay that results when a control signal causes a
lane group to reduce speed or to stop; it is measured by comparison with the
uncontrolled condition. Defined as the TIQD plus the time losses due to deceleration
from and acceleration to free-flow speed.
iii. Geometric delay is the component of delay that results when geometric features
cause users to reduce their speed in negotiating a facility.
iv. Travel-Time Delay (TTD) is the difference between the time a vehicle passes a point
downstream of the intersection where it has regained normal speed and the time it
would have passed that point had it been able to continue through the intersections at
its approach speed. This includes all control and geometric delay.
At intersection delay is performed to provide actual information concerning the amount
of delay created. The main purpose of delay study is to determine optimum signal time
and sequence of signal cycle. It helps in evaluating the quality of traffic movement along
a route and determines the locations, types, and extent of traffic delays by using a moving
test vehicle. This study method can be used to compare operational conditions before and
after roadway or intersection improvements have been made. It can also be used as a tool
to assist in prioritizing projects by comparing the magnitude of the operational
deficiencies (such as delays and stops) for each project under consideration.

48
 Table 1: Commonly Used Equipment for Delay Studies

Method Type of
Tool Advantage Disadvantage
Study
Data Minimizes equipment Tend to be inefficient the
Manually
sheets cost and set-up time. longer the analyst stays
Easy to use in the field in the field
More flexible and
Laptop spreadsheets can be Software coding and
computer developed to calculate post-processing analysis
various intersection are required
parameters
Electronic Electronic
Cost-effective, labour- Restricted to output
counting
saving tool aggregated data Control
boards
Delay Study
Video
Permanent record, Poor lighting conditions
(w/ time
reduce number of field and vantage points, much
stamp
personnel more labour in the office
overlay)
Manual Additional personnel and
Cost-effective method
collection equipment may be
necessary
Floating Accuracy of data is Travel Time
GPS Post-processing data
Car increased, records Delay
devices analysis is required
additional information
Software costs, field
Simulation
Labor-saving tool information is still
required

Methods:

1. Floating Car Method: Floating car data are positions of vehicles traversing city
streets throughout the day. In this method the driver tries to float in the traffic stream
passing as many vehicles as pass the test car. If the test vehicle overtakes as many

49
 vehicles as the test vehicle is passed by, the test vehicles should, with sufficient
number of runs, approach the median speed of the traffic movement on the route. In
such a test vehicle, one passenger acts as observer while another records duration of
delays and the actual elapsed time of passing control points along the route from start
to finish of the run.
2. Average Speed Method: In this method the driver is instructed to travel at a speed
that is judge to the representative of the speed of all traffic at the time.
3. Moving-vehicle method: In this method, the observer moves in the traffic stream and
makes a round trip on a test section. The observer starts at section, drives the car in a
particular direction say eastward to another section, turns the vehicle around drives in
the opposite direction say westward toward the previous section again. Let, the time
in minutes it takes to travel east (from X-X to Y-Y) is ta, the time in minutes it takes
to travel west (from Y-Y to X-X) is tw, the number of vehicles traveling east in the
opposite lane while the test car is traveling west be ma, the number of vehicles that
overtake the test car while it is traveling west be mo, and the number of vehicles that
the test car passes while it is traveling west from be mp.

Figure 1: Illustration of moving observer method

The volume (qw) in the westbound direction can then be obtained from the expression
and

50
 The average travel time in the westbound direction is obtained from

4. Maximum-car method: In this procedure, the driver is asked to drive as fast as is

safely practical in the traffic stream without ever exceeding the design speed of the
facility.
5. Elevated Observer method: In urban areas, it is sometime possible to station
observers in high buildings or other elevated points from which a considerable length
of route may be observed. These investigator select vehicle at random and record;
time, location and causes-of-delay. The drawback is that it is sometime difficult to
secure suitable points for observation throughout the length of the route to be studied.
6. License Plate Method: when the amount of turning off and on the route is not great
and only over all speed value are to be secured, the license-plate method of speed
study may be satisfactorily employed. Investigator stationed at control point along the
route enters, on a time control basis, the license-plate numbers of passing vehicles.
These are compared from point to point along the route, and the difference in time
values, through use of synchronized watches, is computed. This method requires
careful and time-consuming office work and does not show locations, causes,
frequency, or duration of delay. Four basic methods of collecting and processing
license plates normally considered are:
1. Manual: collecting license plates via pen and paper or audio tape recorders
and manually entering license plates and arrival times into a computer.
2. Portable Computer: collecting license plates in the field using portable
computers that automatically provide an arrival time stamp.
3. Video with Manual Transcription: collecting license plates in the field using
video cameras or camcorders and manually transcribing license plates using
human observers.
4. Video with Character Recognition: collecting license plates in the field
using video, and then automatically transcribing license plates and arrival
times into a computer using computerized license plate character recognition.
7. Photographic Method: This method is primarily a research tool, it is useful in
studies of interrelationship of several factors such as spacing, speeds, lane usage,

51
 acceleration rates, merging and crossing manoeuvres, and delays at intersections. This
method is applicable to a short test section only.
8. Interview Method: this method may be useful where a large amount of material is
needed in a minimum of time and at little expense for field observation. Usually the
employees of a farm or establishment are asked to record their travel time to and from
work on a particular day.
The method includes an adjustment for errors that may occurred when this type of sampling
technique is used, as well as an acceleration-deceleration delay correction factor Table 1. The
acceleration-deceleration factor is a function of the typical number of vehicles in queue
during each cycle and the normal free-flow speed when vehicles are unimpeded by the signal.
Before beginning the detailed survey, the observers need to make an estimate of the average
free-flow speed during the study period. Free-flow speed is the speed at which vehicles
would pass unimpeded through the intersection if the signal were green for an extended
period.be obtained by driving through the intersection a few times when the signal is green
and there is no queue and recording the speed at a location least affected by signal control.
Typically, the recording location should be upstream about mid-block. Table 2 is a worksheet
that can be used for recording observations and computation of average time-in-queue delay.
Table 2: Acceleration-Deceleration Delay Correction Factor, CF (seconds)

Free-Flow Speed ≤ 7 Vehicles 8-19 Vehicles 20-30 Vehicles

≤ 60 km/h 5 2 1

60-71 km/h 7 4 2

≥ 71 km/h 9 7 5

Steps for data reduction:

1. Sum each column of vehicle-in-queue counts, then sum the column totals for
the entire survey period.
2. A vehicle recorded as part of a vehicle-in-queue count is in queue, on average,
for the time interval between counts. The average time-in-queue per vehicle
arriving during the survey period is estimated.

52
 Where, Is = interval between vehicle-in-queue counts (s),∑ = sum of
vehicle-in-queue counts (veh), vtotal= total number of vehicles arriving during
the survey period (veh), and 0.9 = empirical adjustment factor. The 0.9
adjustment factor accounts for the errors that may occur when this Vtotale of
sampling technique is used to derive actual delay values, normally resulting in
an overestimate of delay.
3. Compute the fraction of vehicles stopping and the average number of vehicles
stopping per lane in each signal cycle, as indicated on the worksheet.
4. Using Table 1, look up a correction factor appropriate to the lane group free-
flow speed and the average number of vehicles stopping per lane in each
cycle. This factor adds an adjustment for deceleration and acceleration delay,
which cannot be measured directly with manual techniques.
5. Multiply the correction factor by the fraction of vehicles stopping, and then
add this product to the time-in-queue value of Step 2 to obtain the final
estimate of control delay per vehicle.

Highway Capacity Manual 2000 or (Cycle- based method): This method is applicable to
all under saturated signalized intersections. For over-saturated conditions, queue build up
normally makes the method impractical. The method described here is applicable to
situations in which the average maximum queue per cycle is no more than about 20 to 25
veh/ln. When queues are long or the demand to capacity ratio is near 1.0, care must be taken
to continue the vehicle-in-queue count past the end of the arrival count period, vehicles that
arrived during the survey period until all of them have exited the intersection as detailed
below. This requirement is for consistency with the analytic delay equation used in the
chapter text method does not directly measure delay during deceleration and during a portion
of acceleration, which are very difficult to measure without sophisticated tracking equipment.
However, this method has been shown to yield a reasonable estimate of control delay
Observers should be placed near the right shoulder or on the right sidewalk at the
approximate midpoint of the maximum queue and have a clear view of the lanes they are
observing is essential.

53
 Table 3: Minimum Personnel Requirement to conduct a Control Delay Study
Record the number of Personnel needed Additional requirements
queued vehicles on:

Two lanes with moderate Single observer

length queues (up to 25
vehicles per lane)
One lane with long queues Audio signal of the end of an
(longer than 25 vehicles) interval
One lane with long queues or
no audio signal available

Delay studies along routes are best done by the moving observer method. The types of delays
are Operational delay, travel time delays, stopped time delays.
i. Fixed Delay: This type of delay is for some fixed time. These delays can be measured
at intersections, railway crossings, and stop signs.
ii. Operational Delay: This delay is caused by the intersection of various factors such as
congestion, inadequacy of carriage way widths, mixed traffic conditions and
pedestrian flows. This kind of delay is rather difficult to be measured.
iii. Travel Time Delay: This delay is encountered due to starting and stopping of vehicle
iv. Stopped Delay: This type of delay occurs due to unforeseen conditions such as
rallies, ascendants.
4. Data Collection:
i. For calculating delay at the signalized intersection cycle time is taken in minutes
ii. For delay study every minute is spitted into 15 second interval, for every 15 second
interval number of vehicles stopped in road due to traffic in the other roads in noted
iii. Volume studies are also conducted for the same road for a period one hour
iv. Surveys are conducted
v. Delay has to be found out for the road at every 15 minute interval
vi. Data should be separated into 1 hour interval
vii. Average delay foe each 1 hour interval is found out by the formula obtained
Survey sheets:
The survey data should be taken down as given below.

54
 NIT WARANGAL TRANSPORTATION DIVISION, CIVIL DEPARTMENT
DELAY STUDIES Field Sheet

Location: _________________________ Approach: ____________ Movement: ____________

Date: __________ Weather: _____________ Study No.: ___________ Observer: ___________

Total Number of Vehicles
Stopped in the Approach at
Time Time: Approach Volume
(minute starting 0-15 15-30 30-45 45-60 Number Number Not
at) sec sec sec sec Stopped Stopping

Subtotal:
Total:

5. Data Analysis:
Total Delay = Total Number Stopped × Sampling Interval

= ____________ × 15 = _______________ veh-sec

Total Delay
Average Delay per Stopped Vehicle 
Number of Stopped Vehicles

55
 = ____________________ = ____________________ sec.

Total Delay
Average Delay per Approach Vehicle 
Approach Volume

= ____________________ = ____________________ sec.

Number of Stopped Vehicles

Percent of Vehicles Stopped   ____________  _______ percent
Approach Volume

6. Result: The average delay is

7. Discussions:
The Average delay obtained is compared with Average delay as per HCM2000 from which
Level of service for signalized intersection can be obtained.

8. Applications:
 Delay is most common measure which is used for capacity analysis and simulation
analysis of intersections
 Level of service of signalized intersections can be obtained from delay
9. Limitations:

Further Reading:
i. C.J. Khisty and B. Kent Lall, Introduction to Transportation Engineering Traffic
ii. Dr. L.R. Kadiyali, Engineering and Transport Planning
iii. Nicholas J.Garber, Lester A.Hoel, Raju Sarkar, Principles of Traffic and Highway
Engineering.
iv. FD Hobbs, Traffic Planning and Engineering, 2nd Edition- 1979
Web Resources
v. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/downloads/cete_35.pdf
vi. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/523_TrDensity/point5/point.html
vii. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/572_Delay_A/point2/point.html
viii. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/30

56
 8. GAP ACCEPTANCE AT UNSIGNALISED INTERSECTION
1. Objective: To determine the size and the number of gaps in the vehicular traffic stream
for unsignalized intersections.
2. Equipment: Datasheet, stopwatch.
3. Theory: A gap is defined as the time duration (in seconds), measured at the same point
in space, between the rear bumper and the front bumper of two consecutive vehicles.
The most important factor a driver considers in making any one of these manoeuvres is the
availability of a gap between two vehicles that, in the driver’s judgment, is adequate for him
or her to complete the manoeuvre.
Gap acceptance plays a crucial role in safe driving. Safe road crossing is a complex
perceptual-motor task that requires accurate perception of the gap sizes in a dynamic stream
of traffic and fine coordination to synchronize the onset of movement with the approaching
gap. Understanding how drivers decide that a gap is crossable and how they time their
crossing in relation to a moving stream of traffic is critical for the development of training
and technology to lower the risk of crashes.

Fig. 1: A schematic diagram of the one-lane crossing task. The blocks on the timeline
correspond to the temporal intervals during which a vehicle occludes the rider’s path. Thus,
the open intervals on the timeline represent temporal gaps in the traffic

57
Following are the important measures that involve the concept of gap acceptance:
i. Merging is the process by which a vehicle in one traffic stream joins another
traffic stream moving in the same direction, such as a ramp vehicle joining a
freeway stream
ii. Diverging is the process by which a vehicle in a traffic stream leaves that traffic
stream, such as a vehicle leaving the outside lane of an expressway
iii. Weaving is the process by which a vehicle first merges into a stream of traffic,
obliquely cross that stream, and then merges into a second stream moving in the
same direction; for example, the manoeuvre required for a ramp vehicle to join the
far side stream of flow on an expressway
iv. Gap is the headway in a major stream, which is evaluated by a vehicle driver in a
minor stream who wishes to merge into the major stream. It is expressed either in
units of time (time gap) or in units of distance (space gap).
v. Time lag is the difference between the time a vehicle that merges into a main
traffic stream reaches a point on the highway in the area of merge and the time a
vehicle in the main stream reaches the same point.
vi. Space lag is the difference, at an instant of time, between the distance a merging
vehicle is away from a reference point in the area of merge and the distance a
vehicle in the main stream is away from the same point.
A driver who intends to merge must first evaluate the gaps that become available to
determine which gap (if any) is large enough to accept the vehicle, in his or her opinion.
In accepting that gap, the driver feels that he or she will be able to complete the merging
manoeuvre and safely join the main stream within the length of the gap. This phenomenon
generally is referred to as gap acceptance.
Critical Gap: The critical gap is defined as the minimum time length (in seconds) of a gap in
traffic which will permit (on average) a side street vehicle, a single pedestrian, or a group of
pedestrians to cross a roadway of specified width without coming into conflict with passing
vehicles. In the case of side street traffic, this value may also represent the time length of a
gap in traffic permitting side street vehicles to merge into the traffic stream between two
vehicles. The following expression is used:

( )
( ) ( )

58
 Fig. 2: Critical Gap
Stochastic Approach to Gap and Gap Acceptance Problems

The use of gap acceptance to determine the delay of vehicles in minor stream wishing to
merge onto major streams requires knowledge of the frequency of arrivals of gaps that are at
least equal to the critical gap. This in turn depends on the distribution of arrivals of main
stream vehicles at the area of merge. It is generally accepted that for light to medium traffic
flow on a highway, the arrival of vehicles is randomly distributed. It is usually assumed that
for light-to-medium traffic distribution is Poisson, although assumptions of gamma and
exponential distributions have also been made.
Assuming that the distribution of main stream arrival is Poisson, then the probability of x
arrivals in any interval of time t sec can be obtained from the expression.

( ) For x = 0, 1, 2, ….

Where P(x) = the probability of x vehicles arriving in time t sec

= average number of vehicles arriving in time t

If V represents the total number of vehicles arriving in time T sec, then the average number
of vehicles arriving per second is
=V/T = t


( )
( )

59
Consider a vehicle at an unsignalized intersection or at a ramp waiting to merge into the main
stream flow, arrivals of which can be described by Equation. The minor stream vehicle will
merge only if there is a gap of t sec equal to or greater than its critical gap.
This will occur when no vehicles arrive during a period t sec long. The probability of this is
the probability of zero cars arriving.
Substituting zero for x will therefore give a probability of a gap (h  t) occurring. Thus,
P(0) = P(h  t) = e-t for t  0

P(h < t) = 1 – e-t for t  0

Since
P(h < t) + P(h  t) = 1

It can be seen that t can take all values from 0 to , which therefore makes equations
continuous functions. The probability function described by equation is known as exponential
distribution.

This can be used to determine the expected number of acceptable gaps that will occur at an
unsignalized intersection or at the merging area of an expressway on-ramp during a period T,
if the Poisson distribution is assumed for the main stream flow and the volume V is also
known. Let us assume that T is equal to 1 hr, and that V is the volume in vph on the main
stream flow. Since (V – 1) gaps occur between V successive vehicles in a stream of vehicles,
then the expected number of gaps greater or equal to t is given as
Freq. (h  t) = (V – 1)e-t

And the expected number of gaps less than t is given as

Freq. (h < t) = (V – 1)(1 – e-t)

The basic assumption made in the above analysis is that the arrival of main stream vehicles
can be described by a Poisson distribution. This assumption is reasonable for light-to-medium
traffic but may not be acceptable for conditions of heavy traffic.
Analyses of the occurrence of different gap sizes when traffic volume is heavy have shown
that the main discrepancies occur at gaps of short lengths (that is, less than 1 sec)
The reason for this is that although theoretically there are definite probabilities for the
occurrence of gaps between 0 and 1 sec, in reality these gaps very rarely occur, since a driver

60
will tend to keep a safe distance between his or her vehicle and the vehicle immediately in
front.
One alternative used to deal with this situation is to restrict the range of headways by
introducing a minimum gap.
P(h  t) = e-(t-) for t  0

P(h < t) = 1 - e-(t-) for t  0

Where,  is the minimum headway introduced.

Fig. 3: Time space diagrams for vehicles in vicinity of stop signs

4. Data Collection:

i. Reference lines are drawn before starting of survey at intersection of major and minor
streams.
ii. Gaps and lags are calculated using stop watch.
iii. When first vehicle crosses the reference line, time is noted down.
iv. When another vehicle crosses the reference line, time is noted down. But vehicle from
minor road and entered in stream of main road, time at which it crosses reference line
of major road is noted.
v. If one vehicle is waiting to enter in stream of major road and two vehicles, then the
gap is rejected and time of these two vehicles are noted.
61
vi. Same procedure is done continuously for 2 hrs.
vii. Traffic volume is counted for major road by counting different modes of vehicles.
viii. Number of rejections and acceptance should be calculated.
ix. By analyzing above data, graphs are drawn to obtain lag and average gap in peak
hours.

4. Data Analysis:
Data should be collected as given in table 1 analyzed as given in table 2.

Table 1: Data sheet for Gap Acceptance study

Vehicle Lag
Entry Time Exit Time Lane
Type Accepted Rejected

62
 Table 2: Gap accepted and rejected vehicle

Gap Gap Cumulative Cumulative

Gap
Accepted Rejected Cumulative Cumulative % of % of
(Sec) Vehicles Vehicles Accepted Rejected Accepted Rejected

Graph: Cumulative accepted and rejected vehicles Vs Gap (in sec)

63
6. Result: Critical gap is

7. Discussions:

8. Applications:

i. The Gap acceptance theory is commonly used in analysis of uncontrolled

intersections based on the concept of defining the extent drivers will be able to utilize
a gap of particular size or duration.
ii. Critical Gap can be estimated by using Gap Acceptance study by using Raff’s
Methodology.

10. Limitations:

Further Reading:
i. L. R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning, edition 7th, 2012.
ii. FD Hobbs, Traffic Planning and Engineering, 2nd Edition, 1979
iii. C.J. Khisty and B. Kent Lall, Introduction to Transportation Engineering
iv. Nicholas J.Garber, Lester A.Hoel, Raju Sarkar, Principles of Traffic and Highway
Engineering.
Web Resources:
v. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/564_UnCotrl/point4/point.html
vi. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/30
vii. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/downloads/cete_30.pdf
viii. https://www.et.byu.edu/~msaito/CE361MS/CE361%20Lecture%20Topics_files/L
ec_13_Ch6_pp201%20gap.ppt
ix. http://homepage.divms.uiowa.edu/~kearney/pubs/TrafficGenerationforGapAccept
anceDSC06.pdf

64
 9. CAPACITY ESTIMATION STUDY
1. Objective: To determine the capacity of road at mid-block section.
2. Equipment: Stop watch
3. Theory: Capacity of a transport facility is defined as the maximum number of vehicles,
passengers per unit time which can be accommodated under given conditions with a
reasonable expectation of occurrence. The Highway Capacity Manual(2010) defines the
capacity as the maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles can be reasonably expected
to traverse a point or a uniform segment of a lane or roadway during a given time period,
under prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions. The highway capacity depends on
certain conditions as listed below:
i. Traffic conditions: It refers to the traffic composition in the road such as the mix of
cars, trucks, buses etc in the stream. It also includes peaking characteristics, proportions
of turning movements at intersections and the like.
ii. Road way characteristics: This points out to the geometric characteristics of the road.
These include lane width, shoulder width, lane configuration, horizontal alignment and
vertical alignment.
iii. Control conditions: This primarily applies to surface facilities and often refers to the
signals at intersections etc.

Early Capacity Studies and Theoretically Derived Formulae-Historical Perspective:

Early attempts to determine the capacity were made on the basis of the following theoretical
formulae:
C = 1000*(V/S)
Where C = Capacity in vehicles per hour per lane
V = Speed, in K.P.H.
S = Average spacing in meters of moving vehicles
The value of S, the headway distance is known from actual observations or can be calculated
from considerations of perception time braking distance and length of vehicle. The following
formula is generally used for determining S:
S = L + (V t. 1000/3600) + (V. 1000/3600)2 *(1/2gf)
= L + 0.278 V t + (V2/254f )
Where S =Spacing in meters
L = Length of vehicles in metres

65
 V = Speed in K.M.P.
t = Perception-reaction time in seconds
f = Friction factor
g = Acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2
According to Greenshield’s Relation using Time Lapse Photographic Technique:
S = 21 +1.1 V
Where S = Spacing in feet
V = Speed in M.P.H.
According to Road Research Laboratory, U.K:
S = 17.5 +0.8v +0.004v2
Where S = Headway in feet
v = Speed in feet/sec
Level of Service Concept in HCM Manual:
A term closely related to capacity and often confused with it is service volume. When
capacity gives a quantitative measure of traffic, level of service or LOS tries to give a
qualitative measure. A service volume is the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or the
like, which can be accommodated by a given facility or system under given conditions at a
given level of service.
For a given road or facility, capacity could be constant. But actual flow will be different for
different days and different times in a day itself. The intention of LOS is to relate the traffic
service quality to a given flow rate of traffic. It is a term that designates a range of operating
conditions on a particular type of facility. Highway capacity manual (HCM) developed by the
transportation research board of USA provides some procedure to determine level of service.
It divides the quality of traffic into six levels ranging from level A to level F. The level of
service can be derived from a road under different operating characteristics and traffic
volumes. The factors affecting level of service (LOS) can be listed as follows:

i. Speed and travel time

ii. Traffic interruptions/restrictions
iii. Freedom to travel with desired speed
iv. Driver comfort and convenience
v. Operating cost.

66
 Fig 1: Level of service A to F
Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) used travel speed and volume by capacity ratio (v/c ratio)
to distinguish between various levels of service. The value of v/c ratio can vary between 0
and 1.
Table 1: The LOS of a Mid Block Section
LOS QUALITY SPEED v/c DESCRIPTION
A Free flow 80 0.6 High level of physical and psychological
comfort
B Reasonable 70 0.7 Reasonable level or physical and
free flow psychological comfort
C Near free 60 0.8 Local deterioration possible with blockages
flow
D Medium 50 0.85 Non-recoverable local disruptions
flow
E At capacity 40 0.9 Minor disturbances resulting breakdown
flow
F Congested 15 1.0 Beak down of flow capacity drops
flow

4. Data Collection: The data collection should be done as follows:

1. Mark two reference points along the stretch with known distance.
2. Synchronize the stop watches.

67
3. The observer at beginning of the stretch and second observer starts at end of the stretch are
placed.
4. Registration number of vehicle and time are noted down when crosses beginning and end of
stretch by both observers.
5. Thus from the known distance and time, speeds are calculated.
6. By using calculated speed, capacity of road is calculated using various formulas.
7. Based on v/c ratio, Level of Service of road is also known.
Survey Sheet: Data should be done in the form of Table 2.
Table 2: Survey sheet for collection of data
Registration No Start Time End Time Time Speed

5. Data Analysis:
Average speed obtained from data (V) =
According to Greenshield’s Relation using Time Lapse Photographic Technique:
S = 21 +1.1 V
Spacing, S = m
Capacity = 1000(V/S) = veh/hour/lane
According to Road Research Laboratory, U.K:
S = 17.5 +0.8v +0.004v2
S= m
Capacity = 1000(V/S) = veh/hour/lane

6. Results:
Overall average speed of road at mid-block section=
Capacity of road according to Greenshield’s Relation =
Capacity of road according to Road Research Laboratory =

68
7. Discussion:

8. Applications:
i. The design of highway facility is possible only when capacity is related to the
projected requirements of traffic. The design features governed by capacity are the
highway type, number of lanes, width of lanes, intersections and weaving sections.
ii. By comparing the present traffic volume with the capacity of existing highway
networks, their adequacy or deficiency can be assessed. Transportation planning
studies can be benefitted by the assessment.
iii. Improvements and changes in the geometric features, junction features, traffic control
devices and traffic management measures can be planned effectively if capacity studies
are considered.
9. Limitations:
i. Speed is considered as main factor for determination of capacity.
ii. As per HCM, various factors affect capacity of road like density, heavy vehicle
proportion, grade of road, number of lanes, etc. All factors are not considered.

Further Reading:
i. Dr.L.R.Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering and Transport Planning
ii. C.Jotin Khisty and B.Kent Lall, Transportation Engineering

Web Resources:

iii. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101087/downloads/Lec-40.pdf
iv. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/downloads/cete_37.pdf
v. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105104098/28
vi. https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/1111_nptel/566_Rotary/plain/
vii. https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/1111_nptel/551_CapLOS/plain/plain.html

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 10. DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL

1. Objective: To design traffic signal for 4-legged intersection using HCM and Webster
Method.
2. Theory:
Traffic Signal: At intersection where there are a large number of crossing and right-turn
traffic, there is possibility of several accidents as there cannot be orderly movements. Traffic
Signals are control devices which could alternatively direct the traffic to stop and proceed at
intersections using red and green traffic light signals automatically.

The purpose of traffic signal installation at intersections for specific reasons:

i. To improve overall safety

ii. To decrease average travel time through an intersection and consequently increases
capacity
iii. To equalize the quality of service for all or most traffic streams.
Advantages:
i. They provide orderly movement of traffic and increase the traffic handling capacity of
most of the intersections at grade.
ii. They reduce certain types of accidents, notably the right angled collisions.
iii. Pedestrians can cross the roads safely at signalised intersection.
iv. The signals low crossing of the heavy traffic flow with safety.
v. When the signal system is properly coordinated, there is a reasonable speed along the
major road traffic.
vi. Signals provide a chance to crossing traffic of minor road to cross the path of
continuous flow at traffic stream at reasonable intervals of time.
vii. Automatic traffic signals may work-out to be economical when compared to manual
control.
viii. The quality of traffic flow is improved by forming compact platoons of vehicles,
provided all the vehicles move at approximately the same speed.
Disadvantage:
i. The rear-end collision may increase.
ii. Improper design and location of signals may lead to violations of the control system.

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 iii. Failure of the signal due to electric power failure or any other defect may cause
confusion to the road users.
Definitions:
Cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided.
Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one full
cycle of indications. It indicates the time interval between the starting of of green for one
approach till the next time the green starts. It is denoted by C.
Interval: Thus it indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of
intervals - change interval and clearance interval. Change interval is also called the yellow
time indicates the interval between the green and red signal indications for an approach.
Clearance interval is also called all red is included after each yellow interval indicating a
period during which all signal faces show red and is used for clearing off the vehicles in the
intersection.
Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of movements and
is denoted by Gi. This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal is turned on.
Red interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of movements and is
denoted by Ri. This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is turned on.
Phase: A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow it.
Thus, during green interval, non conflicting movements are assigned into each phase. It
allows a set of movements to flow and safely halt the flow before the phase of another set of
movements start.
Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not eff ectively utilized for
any movement. For example, when the signal for an approach turns from red to green, the
driver of the vehicle which is in the front of the queue, will take some time to perceive the
signal (usually called as reaction time) and some time will be lost here before he moves.
Cycle Length Determination:
Once you know the total cycle length, you can subtract the length of the amber and all-red
periods from the total cycle length and end up with the total time available for green signal
indications. Efficiency dictates that the cycle length should be long enough to serve all of the
critical movements, but no longer. If the cycle is too short, there will be so many phase
changes during an hour that the time lost due to these changes will be high compared to the
usable green time. But if the cycle is too long, delays will be lengthened, as vehicles wait for
their turn to discharge through the intersection.

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Several methods for solving this optimization problem have already been developed, but
Webster’s equation is the most prevalent.
1. Webster's equation, which minimizes intersection delay, gives the optimum cycle
length as a function of the lost times and the critical flow ratios. Many design manuals
use Webster's equation as the basis for their design and only make minor adjustments to
suit their purposes.
Webster's equation is shown below.

=
∑( )

Where =Optimum cycle length (sec)

L = Sum of the lost time for all phases, usually taken as the sum of the intergreen periods
(sec)
V/s = Ratio of the design flow rate to the saturation flow rate for the critical approach or lane
in each phase.
2. Highway capacity manual (HCM) has given an equation for determining the cycle
length which is a slight modification of the above equation. Accordingly, cycle time C is
given by,
C =N.L.Xc /( Xc -∑(V/S)i)

Where,
N is the number of phases
L is the lost time per phase
(V/s)i is the ratio of volume to saturation flow for phase i
XC is the quality factor called critical
V/C ratio where V is the volume and C is the capacity
LEVEL OF SERVICE AS PER HCM 2000:
Table 1: Level of Service for Signalized Intersections

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Phase Design: There is no precise methodology for the design of phases. This is often guided
by the geometry of the intersection, flow pattern especially the turning movements, the
relative magnitudes of flow. Therefore, a trial and error procedure is often adopted. However,
phase design is very important because it aff ects the further design steps. Further, it is easier
to change the cycle time and green time when flow pattern changes, where as a drastic change
in the flow pattern may cause considerable confusion to the drivers. To illustrate various
phase plan options, consider a four legged intersection with through traffic and right turns.
Left turn is ignored. It is possible to have two, three, four or even more number of phases.

Fig. 1: Four-legged Intersection

Two phase signals:
Two phase system is usually adopted if through traffic is significant compared to the turning
movements. Non- conflicting through traffic 3 and 4 are grouped in a single phase and non-
conflicting through traffic 1 and 2 are grouped in the second phase. However, in the first
phase flow 7 and 8 off er some conflicts and are called permitted right turns. Needless to say
that such phasing is possible only if the turning movements are relatively low. On the other
hand, if the turning movements are significant, then a four phase system is usually adopted.

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 Fig 2: Two-legged Intersection
Four phase signals:
There are at least three possible phasing options:

1. Flow from each approach is put into a single phase avoiding all conflicts. This type of phase
plan is ideally suited in urban areas where the turning movements are comparable with
through movements and when through traffic and turning traffic need to share same lane. This
phase plan could be very in efficient when turning movements are relatively low

Fig 3: flow from each approach is put into a single phase

2. Opposing through traffic are put into same phase. The non-conflicting right turn flows 7 and 8
are grouped into a third phase. Similarly flows 5 and 6 are grouped into fourth phase. This
type of phasing is very efficient when the intersection geometry permits to have at least one
lane for each movement, and the through traffic volume is significantly high.

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 Fig 4: opposing through traffic is put into same phase
3. Allowing through and right turning movements

Fig 5: thorough and right turning traffic

2. Critical Volume (Vi): For each phase, one of the movements will have the maximum traffic
volume per lane and this volume is known as critical lane volume. The sum of all critical lane
volumes served in a cycle is known as the critical volume.
3. Saturation flow: Saturation flow is a very important road traffic performance measure of
the maximum rate of flow of traffic. It is used extensively in signalized intersection control
and design. Saturation flow describes the number of passenger car units (PCU) in a dense
flow of traffic for a specific intersection lane group. In other words, if an intersection’s
approach signal were to stay green for an entire hour and the flow of traffic through this
intersection were as dense as could be expected, the saturation flow rate would be the amount
of passenger car units that passed through this intersection during that hour.
S=3600/h where h=headway

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 The investigation of the need for a traffic control signal shall include an analysis of the
applicable factors contained in the following traffic signal warrants and other factors related
to existing operation and safety at the study location.

i. Warrant 1, Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume

ii. Warrant 2, Four-Hour Vehicular Volume
iii. Warrant 3, Peak Hour
iv. Warrant 4, Pedestrian Volume
v. Warrant 5, School Crossing
vi. Warrant 6, Coordinated Signal System
vii. Warrant 7, Crash Experience
viii. Warrant 8, Roadway Network
ix. Warrant 9, Intersection near a Grade Crossing
4. Data Collection:
i. Select the study location of 4-leg intersection.
ii. Divide observers depending upon possible movements at intersection. For 4-leg
intersection, 12 turning movements are possible.
iii. Position observers where they have clear view of traffic.
iv. Volume survey at the intersection is conducted and total traffic is classified into different
modes like two wheelers, three wheeler, car jeep etc and the data is recorded in the
prescribed sheet for each direction.
v. Record data for every 15 min interval for at least 2 hrs.
vi. Record the cycle length, green and red timing per each phase if it is signalised
intersection.
vii. Tabulate the results and combine data of all movements.
viii. Calculate peak hour traffic volume of intersection.
ix. By using traffic volume, adopt phase plan for intersection
x. Cycle length and green time per each phase plan is calculated using HCM and
Webster Method.

Survey Sheets:
Table2: Data sheet for traffic volume count

TIME VAN/ Total Total

2W 3W LCV CAR BUS HCV BICYCLE
INTERVA JEEP Volume PCU

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L

PCU 0.5 1 1.5 1 3 1 4 0.5

0:0-0:15
0:15-0:30
0:30-0:45
0:45-1:00
1:0-1:15
1:15-1:30
1:30-1:45
1:45-2:00
TOTAL

Table 3: Traffic volume for 1 hour interval

TIME VAN
BICYCL
INTERV 2W 3W LCV CAR BUS /JEE HCV Total Total
E
AL P Volume PCU
PCU 0.5 1 1.5 1 3 1 4 0.5
0:0-0:15

5. Data Analysis:
Adopt a phase plan for intersection
Saturation flow =3600/h =
Table 4: Volume data in each phase
Phases Phase-1 Phase-2 Phase-3 Phase-4
Critical volume
Saturation Flow
V/S

∑(V/S) =
By Websters Method:

1. Lost time (L) :

L=(n*l)+R
R= sec

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 L= sec
2. Cycle Length: (C)

=
∑( )

=
3. Effective Green Time : (gi)
gi = ( Vci/Vc )*(C-L)
4. Actual Green Time: (Gi)
Gi = gi - Yi +t
t=lost time/phase (sec) =
Assume Y=Amber time (sec) =
Table 5: Calculation of Actual Green time and Effective
Green time for Webster’s method
Phases Phase-1 Phase-2 Phase-3 Phase-4

Effective Green
time(gi) (sec)
Actual Green Time
(Gi)(sec)

5. Phase Diagram:
By Hcm Method:
1. Cycle length : (C)
C =N.L.Xc /( Xc -∑(V/S)i)

N= Number of Phases
L=Lost time/phase
Xc= quality factor called critical
2. Effective Green Time: (gi)
gi = ( Vci/Vc )*(C-L)
3. Actual Green Time: (Gi)
Gi = gi - Yi +t
t=lost time/phase (sec) =
Y=Amber time (sec) =
1. Delay(Di):

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 Delay for each phase is calculated by

( )
Di =

Table 6: Calculation of Effective Green time and Actual Green time for HCM method
Phases Phase-1 Phase-2 Phase-3 Phase-4

Effective Green
time(gi) (sec)
Actual Green Time
(Gi)(sec)
Delay (Di) (sec)

Phase Diagram:

6. Results:
Cycle length using HCM Method =
Cycle length using Webster Method =
Level of Service of intersection as per HCM is
7. Discussion:
8. Applications:
9. Limitations:
i. Headway value is assumed for determining saturation flow.
ii. Lost time per phase should be assumed.

Further Reading
i. Traffic Engineering Handbook, Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE).
ii. L. R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning, 7th edition, 2012.
iii. C.Jotin Khisty and B.Kent Lall, Transportation Engineering
Web Resouces
iv. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101008/downloads/cete_34.pdf

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 11. DRIVER REACTION TEST

1. Objective: To check whether driver can properly control an action once it has been
performed and decided upon given a particular stimulus.
2. Equipment: Driver psychological aptitude tester and the data entry sheet
3. Theory: The test is used check that the driver can deal with complicated problems
satisfactorily i.e. taking an appropriate perceiving responding against a variety of stimuli
under complicated diversified attention properly. In brief it is used to check to they can
exercise control over their driving when responding to a variety of stimuli.
Developing the psychological capabilities as mentioned above is indispensable to any driver
with traffic conditions getting more complicated and diversified, it is important for them to
take this test so that they can be made aware of their psychological limits when driving.
Any experiment as well as any subject can be learned in a very short period of time to
conduct a test with tester. Test results can readily be arranged and evaluated. A relatively
large difference in result among subjects is made by using the tester. A speed anticipation
reaction tester has been developed. It is advisable to use both testers in combination when
conducting driver skill tracing
4. Data Collection: Whenever driver takes his hand or foot of the key which is not
corresponding to the lamp lighted or whenever releases his hold or more than one key, it will
be counted uncorrected.

i. First instructions are given to the driver about the test.

ii. Driver is required to show reaction by releasing correct button corresponding to lamp
lighted.
iii. Reaction time is noted using the stop watch.
iv. Take at least 15 readings.

Survey Sheet:
Table 1: Survey sheet for data collection

Sl. No. Reaction time (s)

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Mean, µ =
Standard deviation, σ =
Coefficient of variance = (σ/µ)* 100

6. Result: Average reaction time =

Number of errors =
7. Discussions:
If number of errors are between 0-3 drivers are qualified, if it is 4 then doubtful and >4 they
are unqualified.

8. APPLICATIONS:
It is fundamental for the design requirements involving sight distance in particular for vertical
and horizontal curves.

9. Limitations:
FURTHER READING:
 Digital type discriminative reaction tester manual

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 12. ON-STREET PARKING SURVEY

1. Objective: To find out Parking Accumulation, Parking Volume, Parking Index and
Parking Turnover of different vehicles.
2. Equipment: - Data sheet, Clip Board, Tape, Pen and Pencil.

3. Theory: Parking is one of the major problems created by increased road traffic. The
availability of less space in urban areas has increased the demand for parking space especially
in CBD. It affects the mode choice and has a great economical effect. Before taking any
measures for the betterment of conditions, data regarding availability of parking space, extent
of its usage and parking demand is essential. It is also required to estimate the parking fares
also.
Parking Accumulation: It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at a given instant of
time. Normally this is expressed by accumulation curve. Accumulation curve is the graph
obtained by plotting the number of bays occupied with respect to time.
Parking volume: Parking volume is the total number of vehicles parked at a given duration of
time. This does not account for repetition of vehicles. The actual volume of vehicles entered
in the area is recorded.
Parking Load: Parking load gives the area under the accumulation curve. It can also be
obtained by simply multiplying the number of vehicles occupying the parking area at each
time interval with the time interval. It is expressed as vehicle hours.
Average parking duration: It is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number of vehicles
parked.

Parking duration =

Parking Turnover: It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a duration to the number of
parking bays available. This can be expressed as number of vehicles per bay per time
duration.

Parking turnover =

Parking Space Inventory: The following details must be collected in the parking space
inventory

a) Number of parking spaces provided in the street

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 b) Street width
c) Location of bus stops, bus bays, pedestrian crossing, fire hydrant, taxi stand
and other features that are likely to affect the use of the street parking
d) Traffic management measures in force such as prohibited turns, one-way streets,
exclusive bus lanes, etc.
e) Number and type of traffic signs for regulation of parking
f) Private streets, service and rear access alleys
g) Vacant or unused road suitable for temporary or permanent parking space
Methods of parking survey
 Questionnaire Type Parking Usage Survey: The questionnaire type parking usage
survey involves interviews with the drivers who use the parking facilities. As a result
it is possible to collect the information on the extent to which the existing facilities are
being used, the time of survey, the demand at different places, the distribution of
demand over area and the journey purpose of the car parker.
 Accumulation Counts: These are conducted to obtain data on the number of vehicles
parked in a study area during a specific period of time. First, the number of vehicles
already in that area are counted or estimated. Then the number of vehicles entering
and exiting during that specified period are noted, and added or subtracted from the
accumulated number of vehicles. Accumulation data are normally summarized by
time period for the entire study area. The occupancy can be calculated by taking
accumulation/total spaces. Peaking characteristics can be determined by graphing the
accumulation data by time of day. The accumulation graph usually includes
cumulative arrival and cumulative departure graphs as well.
 Inventory of Parking Facilities: Information is collected on the current
condition of parking facilities. This includes:
i. the location, condition, type, and number of parking spaces.
ii. parking rates if appropriate. These are often related to trip generation or other
land use considerations.
iii. time limits, hours of availability and any other restrictions.
iv. layout of spaces: geometry and other features such as crosswalks and city
services.
v. ownership of the off-street facilities.

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  Cordon Count: In this method, the area to be surveyed is demarcated by a cordon
line, which is crossed by the roads emerging from the area. Counting stations are
established at these crossing points and the count is made of all types of vehicles
entering and leaving the area. The difference between these two gives the number of
vehicles parked or in motion in the area.
 Parking by Patrol: In this method, the numbers of vehicles parked in the stretch are
counted at a constant frequency. The frequency depends upon the length of the
stretch, number of vehicles parked and mode by which the road is patrolled. Analysis
of observations made will give parking volume, parking index and parking turnover.
A parking accumulation diagram can be drawn taking time on X-axis and the numbers
of vehicles parked on the Y-axis.

Table 1: ECS values of different mode by Ministry of Urban Transport Development

MODE ECS VALUES

2W 0.25

3W 0.5

CAR 1

4. Data Collection:
i. Decide area for survey
ii. Carry out reconnaissance survey to decide length of stretch.
iii. Study should be carried during peak hour and for every 15 min interval.
iv. Collect registration number and type of mode starting from one end. It is carried out
in regular interval.

Survey Sheet: The survey should be done as given in table 2

Table 2: Field data sheet for parking studies

Vehic
le
type Reg. No. 0:00-0:15 0:15-0:30 0:30-0:45 0:45-1:00 1:00-1:15 1:15-1:30 1:30-1:45 1:45-2:00

84
85
 Total

5. Data Analysis:

Table 3: Frequency of different modes of vehicles at different time intervals

0:00-0:15 0:15-0:30 0:30-0:45 0:45-1:00 1:00-1:15 1:15-1:30 1:30-1:45 1:45-2:00
MODE
2W

3W

Car

Bus

Total

Σ
Average Parking Duration = hr
Σ

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where

Nx is number of vehicles parked in x intervals

x is the no of intervals

I is time interval taken

Nt is total no of vehicles parked

Turnover Ratio = veh./ slot-hr.

where

Nt is total no of vehicles parked

P is the number of parking bays available

Ts is the duration of the study

Graph: Frequency of vehicle Vs Time interval. Draw two set of curves in it, one showing the
parking supply of that area and another showing the parking demand. Calculate parking
supply by angle of parking and length of stretch.

6. Results: Average Parking Duration =

Turnover Ratio =

7. Conclusion:

8. Applications:

i. Used for analyzing parking demand estimation and parking supply estimation
ii. Number and duration for vehicles legally parked
iii. Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked
iv. Space-hours of demand for parking
v. Supply of parking facilities

9. Limitations: License Plate method of survey is labor Intensive.

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Further Reading:

i. L. R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning, edition 7th,

2012.
ii. FD Hobbs, Traffic Planning and Engineering, 2nd Edition, 1979
iii. Introduction to Transportation Engineering by C.J. Khisty and B. Kent Lall
iv. Nicholas J.Garber, Lester A.Hoel, Raju Sarkar, Principles of Traffic and Highway
Engineering.

Web Resources:

v. http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/niatt_labmanual/Chapters/parkinglotdesign/the
oryandconcepts/ParkingStudies.htm

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