ENGINEERING MATERIALS

- ARE SUBSTANCES USED IN MANUFACTURING AND DESIGN

- VITAL FOR ENSURING THE PERFORMANCE, SAFETY, AND DURABILITY OF STRUCTURES

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

1. METALS - are conductive materials characterized by their malleability, ductility, and strength,
commonly used in various applications like construction and manufacturing.

TYPES OF METALS

- Ferrous / Ex: Steel, Cast Iron

- Non-Ferrous / Ex: Aluminum, Copper, Lead, Zinc

STRENGTH - Ability to withstand applied forces without failure; essential for structural applications.

DUCTILITY - Capacity to deform under tensile stress, allowing metals to be drawn into wires or
hammered into thin sheets without breaking.

2. POLYMERS - any of a class of natural or synthetic substances composed of very large molecules,
called macromolecules, that are multiples of simpler chemical units called monomers.

EXAMPLES OF SYNTHETIC POLYMERS - include nylon, polyethylene, polyester, Teflon, and epoxy.
Natural polymers occur in nature and can be extracted. They are often water-based.

- Polymers are long chain, giant organic molecules are assembled from many smaller molecules
called monomers.

3. CERAMICS - are inorganic, nonmetallic substances known for their strength, heat resistance, and
durability.

Examples of Ceramics – Oxide, Carbide, Nitride, Silicate, Piezoelectric, Glass

4. COMPOSITES - composite materials combine different materials to harness the best properties of
each.

TYPES OF COMPOSITES MATERIALS

- FIBROUS COMPOSITES - A fiber composite is a material in which the fibers of the material are
embedded in a matrix

- PARTICULATE COMPOSITES - Particulate composites are made by adding particles of the material to
a matrix (filler).

- LAMINATED COMPOSITES - Laminated composites are made by combining layers of composite

materials.
CHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHERE
- Earth's atmosphere is a complex and dynamic system, composed of various gases that play a crucial
role in sustaining life on our planet.

Composition of the Atmosphere

- Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere, making up approximately 78% of the total
volume.

- Oxygen accounts for around 21% of the atmosphere, and is crucial for the respiration of most living
organisms on Earth.

- The remaining 1% of the atmosphere is composed of other gases, including argon, carbon dioxide,
water vapor, and trace amounts of various other substances.

Earth’s Layers
Troposphere – Weather and Climate, Vertical Mixing, Greenhouse Effect

Stratosphere – Ozone Layer, Temperature Inversion, Importance in aviation

Mesosphere – Temperature Dynamics, Noctilucent Clouds, Meteor Ablation

Thermosphere – High Energy Radiation Absorption, Aurora Formation

Exosphere – Satellite Orbits, Comet Interaction, Atmospheric Escape

Atmospheric Circulation and Wind Patterns - Global Convection Cells, Coriolis Effect,
Local Weather Patterns

Green House Gasses – Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide

Preserving the Atmosphere – Reducing Emission, Protecting the Ozone Layer, Advancing the
Atmospheric Research
SOIL CHEMISTRY
- plays a crucial role in nutrients dynamics and ecosystem health.

KEY NUTRIENTS IN SOIL

- Nitrogen – Vital for plant growth and photosynthesis

- Phosphorus – Important for root development

- Potassium - Important for overall plant growth

WHAT IS SOIL?

- Soil is a complex mixture of organic matter, minerals, water, and air that forms the upper layer of
the Earth’s surface. It is crucial for supporting plant growth, storing water, and filtering pollutants.

SOIL COMPONENTS: Mineral Particles (45% of soil composition):

Sand: Large particles that are well-draining.

Silt: Medium-sized particles that hold moisture

Clay: Fine particles that hold nutrients and moisture well but drain poorly.

Organic Matter (5%): Includes decomposed plant and animal material, contributing to soil fertility
and structure. This is also referred to as humus.

Water (25%): Water stored in the soil, critical for plant growth. It is held in the spaces between soil
particles.

Air (25%): The spaces between soil particles also contain air, which provides oxygen to plant roots
and soil organisms.

SOIL TEXTURE: The relative proportions of sand,silt, andclay determine soil texture. It affects
drainage, aeration, and nutrient retention. Soil texture is often described as:

Loam: A balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay—ideal for most plants.

Clay Soil: Dense and nutrient-rich but slow-draining.

Sandy Soil: Well-draining but low in nutrients.

SOIL PH AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY – The ph level of soil significantly affects nutrient availability.
Most nutrients are optimally available at a pH of 6-7. Understanding how to manage soil pH can
enhance nutrient uptake by plants, promoting healthier ecosystems.

Soil Organic Matter and Its Role: Enhances water and nutrient retention. Improves soil structure.
Serves as a buffer for soil pH. Humification: The conversion of decomposed organic matter into
humus, which further improves soil fertility.

Impact of Soil Chemistry on Agricultural Practices - Fertilizer Application: Understanding nutrient

cycles and soil chemistry helps in applying fertilizers effectively, minimizing waste, and reducing
environmental impacts. Soil Amendments: Organic and inorganic amendments to correct
deficiencies or pH imbalances. Crop Rotation and Soil Health: Add a body Understanding how
different crops affect soil nutrient levels and pH.
CHEMISTRY OF WATER
- All living things are 70-90% water.
- Polar molecules.
- Hydrogen-bonded: because of the H-bonds, water melt at 0 C and boils at 100 C
PROPERTIES OF WATER - Has a high heat capacity. Has a high heat of vaporization. Is a
Solvent. Water molecules are cohesive and adhesive. Has a high surface tension. Frozen
water is less dense then liquid water.
WATER HAS A HIGH HEAT CAPACITY

Water absorb heat without great change in temperature: 1 Calorie is needed to rise the
temp. of 1g of water by 1 C. Other covalently bonded liquids requires half this amount of
energy.
Water holds heat: 1 g of coldest liquid water is converted to ice by losing 80 Calories. This is
important to maintain the internal temperatures of all organisms and protect them from
rapid change in Temp.
Water has a high heat of Vaporization - 1 g of the hottest water is converted to gas by an
input of 540 calories: Because hydrogen-bond must be broken before water boils then
vaporize. This gives the animals in hot environment the ability to release excess body heat
efficiently after sweating.
Water is a solvent - Because of the water polarity:
1) water facilitate chemical reactions
2) water dissolve great number of substances. How?
-ve ends of water attached to Na ions, and the +ve ends attached to Cl, this causes the
separation and dissociation of Na & Cl in water.
Hydrophilic: polar molecules that can be dissolved in water.
Hydrophobic: non-polar molecules that can not be dissolved in water.
Water molecules are cohesive and adhesive - Cohesion: water molecules cling together and
not seperated because of the Hydrogen-bond. Adhesion: water adhere to polar surfaces
because of its polarity. So, water is an excellent transport system.
Water has a high surface tension - The stronger the force between molecules in a liquid, the
greater the surface tension. Hydrogen-bond causes the high surface tension of water.
Frozen water is less dense then liquid water - Ice is less dense than liquid water, therefore it
float on water.
- Ice act as an insulator to prevent water below from freezing.
- That is why the aquatic organisms can survive in winter.
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
- Nuclear chemistry is the study of the structure of atomic nuclei and the changes they undergo.

- The groundwork for nuclear chemistry began with the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel
in 1896

THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS - The existence of the atomic nucleus was established by Ernest Rutherford in
1911 through his famous gold foil experiment.

NUCLEAR FISSION: In 1938, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission, the splitting
of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei, a process that releases tremendous energy.

NUCLEAR FUSION: The fusion of light nuclei to form heavier nuclei, the process that powers stars,
was first achieved in 1952. C

MODERN APPLICATIONS: Nuclear chemistry continues to evolve, with applications in medicine

(radioisotopes for diagnosis and treatment), industry (radioactive tracers), and research (studying the
fundamental nature of matter).

The Atomic Nucleus: The atomic nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, collectively called
nucleons. Protons carry a positive charge (+1), while neutrons are electrically neutral. The number of
protons determines the element (atomic number, Z), while the sum of protons and neutrons gives
the mass number (A). Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but
different mass numbers due to varying numbers of neutrons.

Radioactivity: Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of particles or energy from an unstable

atomic nucleus.

TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY: Alpha, Beta, Gamma Decay

NUCLEAR FISSION AND ENERGY PRODUCTION: Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy atomic
nucleus into two lighter nuclei, releasing a large amount of energy. This process is used in nuclear
power plants to generate electricity.

NUCLEAR FUSION AND THE FUTURE OF ENERGY: Nuclear fusion is the combining of two light atomic
nuclei to form a heavier nucleus , also releasing a large amount of energy. This is the process that
powers the sun and other stars . Fusion has the potential to provide a c lean, safe, and nearly
inexhaustible source of energy.

SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY: Nuclear Energy, Nuclear Weapons, Medical

Application, Environmental Impact
RADIOACTIVITY AND NUCLEAR REACTION

RADIOACTIVITY - Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy
by radiation.

TYPES OF RADIO ACTIVE DECAY

ALPHA DECAY - or α-decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha
particle and thereby transforms or "decays" into a different atomic nucleus, with a mass number that
is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two.

BETA DECAY - is a type of radioactive decay where an atomic nucleus emits a beta particle, which is
either an electron or a positron, and transforms into an isobar of that nuclide.

GAMMA DECAY - A third type of radiation, gamma radiation, usually accompanies alpha or beta
decay. Gamma rays are photons and are without rest mass or charge.

NUCLEAR REACTION - Nuclear reaction is a process in which the nucleus of an atom changes its
structure or composition, resulting in the formation of new elements or isotopes.

TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS:

FISSION - occurs when a neutron slams into a larger atom, forcing it to excite and split into two
smaller atoms also known as fission products.

FUSSION - Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei, combine to form one or
more atomic nuclei and neutrons.

CHAIN REACTION - Nuclear chain reaction occurs when one single nuclear reaction causes an
average of one or more subsequent nuclear reactions, thus leading to the possibility of a self-
propagating series or "positive feedback loop" of these reactions.

APPLICATION OF RADIOATIVITY:

MEDICINE – Radio therapy, Diagnostic Imaging, Sterilization

ENERGY PRODUCTION – Nuclear Plant

AGRICULTURE – Food Irradiation, Mutation Breeding, Soil and Water Studies

INDUSTRY – Material Testing, Sterilization, Thickness Control

RESEARCH – Radiotracers, Carbon dating, Nuclear Physics