METU/SFL Spring 2025

DBE
RHO 1
202 GROUP
Understanding Text Structure and Use of Connectors
(Student’s Copy)
In this handout, students will learn to
1. identify basic text structures (description and classification, cause and effect, problem and solution,
comparison/contrast, and order/sequence)
2. establish relationship between words, phrases or clauses connected by linkers
3. use connectors to understand complex texts more easily
UNDERSTANDING TEXT STRUC.TURE
What is ‘text-structure’?
As a university student, you will need to read and study a great number of academic texts. Academic
texts are very well-organized, and they follow certain patterns of organization. The term ‘text-
structure’ refers to how the information in a text is organized. It is the arrangement of ideas and the
relationships between those ideas. The main text structures are description and classification, cause
and effect, problem and solution, comparison/contrast, and order/sequence. The structure of a text can
change many times in a text, even within one paragraph.
Why should readers understand text-structure?
Being able to identify a text’s structure will help readers increase their reading speed, understand the
text more easily and retain it longer. Readers who are unaware of these organizational patterns may
find it difficult to deal with a text because they do not start reading with any type of plan in mind. On
the other hand, those who are familiar with text structures know what to expect from a text and the
order of ideas.
In order to analyze text-structure 
1. Skim the text first to find the topic.
2. Look for signal words and phrases which
show the organization of ideas. For example,
signals such as first/ second/ after/ finally
may show sequence, while signals such as so,
therefore, because of, since may indicate
cause and effect relationships.
3. Use graphic organizers, to visually sort new
information into familiar categories and
analyze the relationship between old and
new information. This is important because
the human brain naturally looks for
connections between old and new
information and processes information most
efficiently in chunks. Graphic organizers are
helpful in achieving both of these purposes.
They are especially helpful while you are
analyzing a longer text.

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Here are some suggested graphic organizers. You can use one or more of them to follow ideas in a text.
A: Description/Classification B: Order/Sequence

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

C: Comparison/Contrast

vs.
vs.
Similarities Differences
Basis of comparison 1
Basis of comparison 2
Basis of comparison 3

Problem

Solution 1 Solution 2 Solution 3

D: Problem/Solution

E: Cause – Effect

Cause Effect

Effect 1 Effect 2 Effect 3 Cause 1 Cause 2 Cause 3

F: Cause-effect cycle
PRACTICE 1. Read the following extracts and choose the correct text structure from the box.

problem-solution cause-effect classification compare-contrast

Text 1
Even though Arizona and Rhode Island are both states of the U.S., they are strikingly different in many
ways. For example, the physical size of each state is different. Arizona is large, having an area of
114,000 square miles, whereas Rhode Island is only about a tenth the size, having an area of only 1,214
square miles. Another difference is in the size of the population of each state. Arizona has about four
million people living in it, but Rhode Island has less than one million. The two states also differ in the
kinds of natural environments that each has. For example, Arizona is a very dry state, consisting of
large desert areas that do not receive much rainfall every year. However, Rhode Island is located in a
temperate zone and receives an average of 44 inches of rain per year. In addition, while Arizona is a
landlocked state and thus has no seashore, Rhode Island lies on the Atlantic Ocean and has a
significant coastline.
Text structure: Compare - Contrast_____________________

Text 2
Advertising can be classified into certain types, depending on its use and purpose. The first type is
product advertising, which is designed to sell a definite and identified product. It usually describes the
product's features and good qualities, and it may even emphasize its price. Product advertising is used
to sell both consumer and industrial goods, which have different marketing characteristics. The second
type is institutional advertising. This type tries to create a favorable attitude toward the company
offering to sell a product. This type of advertising may not influence immediate sales, but it tries to
increase the sales in the long run. For example, a manufacturer may run an institutional advertisement
to tell the public about the company's efforts to reduce air pollution. Big companies can afford to
spend money on institutional advertising.
Text structure: Classification______________________

Text 3
Your laptop has recently been attacked by a virus, and although you have gotten rid of it, you are still
feeling the effects. What should you do? To make sure that it is completely cleaned, you might
consider reformatting your laptop. First, confirm that you have the Windows product key and a
Windows installation disc or the recovery disc for your laptop. Then, back up all your data on an
external hard drive or online back-up services. Then, insert the CD, and it will run automatically. Follow
the instructions displayed on the screen to re-install Windows or perform a full system recovery, and
return your laptop to its original state.
Text structure: Problem - Solution_______________________

Text 4
Compulsive overeating is usually part of a cycle that starts with a restrictive diet. People might begin a
diet because they feel bad about their weight or size. However, they find it too hard to stick to the diet,
and hit a breaking point and binge on forbidden foods. As a result of this binge-eating, they start to feel
guilty, ashamed, or depressed, and so the restrictions begin again.
Text structure: Cause - Effect_________________________

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 USE OF CONNECTORS
PRACTICE 2. Read the sentences and match the boldface connectors with their functions. They
may be used more than once.
Contrast Additional information Restatement Example Reason
Result Purpose Comparison Unexpected result

EXAMPLES FUNCTION
1. A movie is a series of pictures. Each image is a still photograph, just like a a) contrast_________
picture you take with a regular camera. Howevera, the pictures flash by so ____
fast in a movie that the images blend together and overlap. As a result,b b) result___________
you see horses run, people talk, cars plunge over __
mountainsides, and other kinds of motion.
2. Althougha dolphins never fall completely asleep, half of their brain shuts
down when they are tired, allowing them to rest and regain their energy. a) Unexpected
result___________
__
3. A person always has to go to a snake in order toa be bitten. In other a)
wordsb, a snake will not come to bite you. Purpose__________
___
b) Restatement_____
________

4. Dolphins’ main prey (fish and squid) contain large amounts of water. For a) Example_________
examplea, fish like herring and mackerel, which can be made up of as ____
much as 80% liquid, provide dolphins with the water their bodies need. In b) Reason__________
this sense, dolphins don't need to take in very much fluid becauseb their ___
skin is impermeable and they don't lose water by sweating, unlike
humans.
5. Eagles and hawks are raptors (birds of prey) that belong to the family a) additional
Accipitridae. Botha eagles and hawks inhabit forests, grasslands, alpine information_________
meadows, tundra, deserts, sea coasts, suburban and urban areas. They ____
are diurnal birds (active during the day). They hunt and eat different types b) unexpected
of animals. Even thoughb they have common features, eagles and hawks result_____________
are alsoc different in some respects. c) additional
information_________
____

In the first semester, you studied different connectors and learned that connectors join simple
sentences and form complex ones and build certain organizational patterns. While reading a long and
complex text, a reader must be able to use connectors as guides into meaning because they help to
divide long structures into manageable units and show the relationship between parts of a long
sentence or text.
Connectors help the reader to identify the text structure and guess what kind of information will be
given in the next sentence.

Study the following list of basic connectors and note the punctuation:
1. Some connectors signal unexpected result:

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Examples: but, however, although, even though, nevertheless, in spite of (that), despite (that)
- It was a cold but fine morning.
- He had excellent qualifications. However, he could not get the job.
- Although the acoustics in the hall were poor, everybody enjoyed the concert.
- Whales’ eyes seem very small compared to their huge bodies. Nevertheless, whales have very good
vision.
- There are strict laws against the use of mobile phone while driving. In spite of that/Despite that,
many drivers continue to use their mobile phones.

2. Some connectors signal addition:

Examples: and, also, in addition, additionally, moreover, furthermore
- We had dinner and talked about the old days.
- We need a new computer and also a new printer in the office.
- I wrote to Tom, and my sister also wrote to him.
- This is also the first time I’ve been to this area.
- You can find various kinds of goods at that supermarket. In addition, the prices are quite cheap.
- The car was in excellent condition. Moreover, the price was reasonable.

3. Some connectors signal paraphrasing/restatement:

Examples: i.e., that is (to say), in other words

- He prefers native plants in the garden, i.e., plants that naturally grow in the area.
- The politician was economical with the truth. That is (to say), he was lying.
- Most old people are conservative. In other words, they do not accept new ideas very easily.

4. Some connectors signal examples:

Examples: e.g., such as, for example, for instance, to illustrate, to demonstrate
- Most young people prefer to wear casual clothes, such as jeans and t-shirts.
- Women generally live longer than men do. For example, / For instance, in Europe women live 75
years on average, three years longer than men do.

5. Some connectors signal a reason:

Examples: because, since, as
- 1973 marks the beginning of the information age because/as/since the microchip was invented
then.
- Since/As/Because the project was too expensive, the government decided to give it up.

6. Some connectors signal a result:

Examples: so, thus, as a result, consequently, therefore
- John is unemployed, so he is looking for a job.
- I hate watching TV. Thus, I do not have a TV set.
- The temperature of the gas rises. As a result, it expands in the cylinder.
- They cancelled all the flights. Consequently, most passengers spent the night at the airport.
- All of the band members are sick. Therefore, we must reschedule the concert.

7. Some connectors signal purpose:

Examples: (in order) to
- (In order) to determine our needs, everyone will have to prepare a list.

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PRACTICE 3.
A. Choose a suitable connector from the box to fill the blanks. You can use some connectors more
than once.
however as a result in other words also
such as for example in order to although

1. Although____________ cigarette smoking is dangerous to health, millions of people continue

to smoke.
2. In certain jobs, there are more women than men. For example,____________, there are far
more female than male teachers and nurses.
3. Flats in this part of town are too expensive for one person. As a result____________, a lot of
students look for someone to share a flat with.
4. Parents offered to look for funding _in order to___________ help the teachers start an after-
school club.
5. We thought only a few people would take the exam. However____________, there were about
100 students.
6. There is an excellent art museum in the town. It also____________ has a fine symphony
orchestra.
7. Many people in poorer parts of the world starve to death. In other words____________, they
do not have enough to eat and die of hunger.
8. The polar bear is well suited to living on snow and ice. It has very large paws that spread out
like natural snowshoes and distribute the bear’s weight over a large area. The polar bear is
also____________ white like the snow and ice, which makes it harder for its prey – mainly
ringed seals – to see it coming.
9. Although____________ jackals can be encountered at any time of the day, they are particularly
active in less lively times of the day, such as____________ early mornings and late evenings.

B. Choose the alternative that completes each paragraph best. Pay attention to the use of connectors.
1. Traditionally, America’s fast-food companies have hired teenagers. However, _______. Thus,
fast-food companies are looking into a new source of cheap labor – the elderly. Older people are less
likely to oversleep or quit their jobs without telling their bosses, but since they have not been
brought up with computers, they sometimes have difficulty getting used to high-tech fast-food
screens and counters at work.

a) this is because teenagers have more energy and they can stand longer all day
b) these youngsters aren’t paid enough money, so they cannot get by
c) although teenagers provide cheap labor, they are sometimes unreliable

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2. One of the areas where women fight for equality is the workplace. When new laws to protect the
rights of women in the workplace were passed, women made definite gains in the business
world._______. Nevertheless, women are far from receiving equal pay for doing the same job as men.

a) Women typically hold lower-status, lower-paying jobs in companies

b) As a result of these changes, more women are employed now than ever before
c) Despite this, the number of women taking higher management positions is still low

3. According to a survey, telling lies is relatively rare for those under the age of 10. Nevertheless, ___.
a) it is not very common in childhood
b) most need psychological treatment in order to stop telling lies
c) rates increase dramatically as children make the transition to adolescence

5. Although potatoes are richer in nutritional value than any other vegetable, they are not always a wise
choice as a garden crop. This is because they need a considerable amount of space to grow.
Therefore, ___.
a) they are one of the most commonly grown vegetables in gardens
b) farmers sell them at a higher price than their real cost
c) they are generally grown on vast farms

C. Read each passage and answer the questions that follow.

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1. Many children and adults suffer from a condition known as dyslexia, which means difficulty in
reading. 2The general belief is that the term simply refers to seeing letters reversed, but it is actually
much more complex and frustrating for the reader. 3For one thing, dyslexics might lose track of what
they are reading either by skipping words and sometimes entire lines or by confusing what they are
reading. 4Additionally, trying to focus on the written words, a dyslexic could miss the main points of
what is being read and then have to reread to regain meaning. 5For some dyslexics, even the effort
to read can have negative physical results. 6The difficulty experienced in seeing the material clearly
can result in strained vision, headaches, and even nausea. 7And, yes – they might even see letters
backwards!

1. What does the signal word but indicate 3. What does the signal word or indicate in
in sentence #2? sentence #3?
a) contrast a) alternative
b) example b) cause/effect
c) comparison c) contrast

2. What does the signal for one thing 4. What relationship is shown between
indicate in sentence #3? sentences #3 and #4?
a) cause/effect a) contrast
b) example b) cause/effect
c) comparison c) addition

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 2. Read the paragraph and complete each statement by selecting both an appropriate signal word
and the type of relationship indicated.

The results of a study on gender discrimination in education, 1,2____________, inequality between males and
females in schools, revealed several interesting facts. One finding was that in world regions where school
enrollment and adult education numbers were low, males generally achieved a higher educational level than
females. 3,4______________, as the enrollment increased, females tended to reach the same level of
education as males. Another finding was that as the female population reached higher levels of education,
the birthrate of the country declined. 5,6_______________ the countries with higher educational levels are
also the more developed or industrialized nations, where more opportunities exist for women.
1. a) meanwhile 4. a) contrast
b) however b) alternative
c) that is c) cause/effect
2. a) example
5. a) Since
b) contrast
b) This is because
c) definition
c) However
3. a) However
6. a) example
b) First
b) contrast
c) As a result
c) cause/effect

READING PRACTICE
Before you read: Work with a partner to answer these questions.
1. Why do you think junk food is popular among teenagers?
2. Do you agree with the statement below? Why/Why not?
“It is not always easy for a university student to have a
healthy diet.”

Vocabulary:
Look at the bold and italic words in the text, and try to guess their meanings from the context. Later,
match them with their definitions.
a) not having enough healthy food to 1. His stepfather ran a prosperous paint business. ____
sustain good health (adj)
b) an official rule that is made by a 2. Due to the long-lasting draught, food shortages are

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 government or some other authority (n) widespread. ____
c) existing or happening over a large 3. People need political leaders that have no fear of the
area or among many people (adj) powerful companies and can make regulations that protect
populations, especially children and the poor. __b__
d) to help sb (v) 4. In Brazil, for example, President Lula wanted to help
undernourished people, and he created an office for Nestlé in
his palace to do it. __a__
f) to manage or to be in charge of a 5. This was a strategic, two-way partnership that benefited
business, campaign, etc. (v) the company and the government. _d___

JUNK FOOD POLITICS

1 How do you encourage people to eat more junk food or drink more soda? That is a question that many
junk-food companies or soda manufacturers like Coca-Cola are trying to answer as their income has
decreased in the US and Europe. As these companies need to exist in this capitalist world, they are
making an effort to increase their sales in developing economies.
2 In the 2010s, for instance, Coca-Cola tried hard to make their products
popular in most parts of lower-income countries to sell more soda. It
made smaller bottles in order to sell its products at a cheaper price. In
addition, it built solar-powered fridges that allowed sellers to keep Coke
bottles cold in places without electricity. It also opened “splash bars” – small
businesses that are run only by women that sold Coke, Fanta, and other Coca-
Cola products for as low as seven US cents. The company thought that this was a win-win strategy – it
now had the chance to sell its products in remote areas, and the splash bars became a new way to earn
money for women.

3 In developing economies, foods and drinks that weren’t available before suddenly became widespread
in the 1980s and early 1990s. More recently, there has been a sharp increase in the number of junk-food
restaurants in communities that live in remote areas in India, in Mexico, and even in the Brazilian
Amazon. Since then, people have seen these foods more in these areas because of the concept of “fear
and opportunity.” Companies “fear” that they are losing more money in the West, so they see this as an
“opportunity” because there is a growing middle class in the developing economies that are interested
in buying their products. And the junk-food manufacturers try to put a positive face on their activities
like those splash bars to show that they are helping people. In addition, they work with local
governments to meet the needs of people in these areas.
4 This government-company relationship is called “junk-food politics.” We see it when junk-food
companies influence politics and society in order to avoid regulations. The result is that junk-food
companies develop in low-income countries, but this affects children and the poor ________________.
We often think companies are mainly responsible for selling unhealthy food, but we usually forget that it
is also the governments’ fault. In Brazil, for example, President Lula wanted to help undernourished
people, and he created an office for Nestlé in his palace to do it. This was a strategic, two-way
partnership that benefited the company and the government. Of course, it might be thought that
President Lula was doing something to help these people to fight poverty. However, according to
experts, working with a company that produces unhealthy food was a bad idea. This relationship
allowed the company's products to grow more popular in the poor areas of the country, and it put the
local people’s health at greater risk.
5 The worst result of this kind of relationship is the increase in the number of children with obesity and
diabetes. Childhood obesity is growing faster in developing economies than in the West, and obesity

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 among teenagers is extremely high in India, China, and Mexico. The poor are also becoming obese and
getting diabetes. This is something people don't normally assume. In India, for example, in the 1990s
and early 2000s, obesity was seen as a “disease of the rich.” The government believed only people with
money that could go to fast-food restaurants were having this problem. For many years, they didn't do
anything because they thought the growing rates of diabetes and obesity affected a small minority of
6 the population. Now,to however, obesity
the and diabetes
Thearebest
skyrocketing
solution isbecause
having poorer people can
What can be done overcome problem? a government thatalso
is
afford to consume junk food.
determined to solve the health problems of everyone in a country – one that provides activists and
scientific communities with a voice that is louder than the voice of the companies that have
relationships with governments. For this, people need political leaders that have no fear of the powerful
companies and can make regulations that protect populations, especially children and the poor. Another
solution is for governments to encourage researchers to inform people about the importance of healthy
food and to make them aware of the need for healthier food for everyone.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. these people (para. 4): _undernourished people _______________________________________
2. one (para. 6): one government_____________________________________

B. Fill in the blanks according to the information in the text. Include all the relevant information.
1. Because they have lost income in the US and Europe, junk-food companies are trying to _increase their
sales in developing economies____________________________________________ in order to survive
in this capitalist world. (para. 1)
2. Thanks to solar-powered fridges, sellers could keep Coke bottles cold in places without electricity
_______________________________________________.
(para. 2)

3. With “junk-food politics,” companies try to __influence politics and

society___________________________________ in order to avoid regulations. (para. 4)

C. Skim the text and match the paragraphs 1-6 with their purpose (a-g). There is ONE EXTRA item.
Para. Purpose
_____ a. to suggest solutions
_____ b. to introduce the central problem
_____ c. to give the example of Coca-Cola’s expansion strategy
_____ d. to introduce the concept of "Junk-Food Politics"
_____ e. to compare two different strategies
_____ f. to explain the consequences: rising obesity and health issues
_____ g. to introduce the concept of "Fear and Opportunity"

D. Answer the following questions or choose the best alternative according to the information in the
text.
1. According to para. 2, how did women benefit from splash bars in developing economies?
These small bussinesses were run by only women so they could earn their own money
____________________________________________________________________________________

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2. Which of the following is FALSE according to para. 3?
a) “Opportunity” leads to “fear” for junk-food companies in developing economies.
b) People couldn’t buy fast-food products in developing economies before the 1980s.
c) Junk-food companies want to seem helpful to people with their activities.
3. Which of the following best completes para. 4?
a) even though these companies don’t usually care about people’s health
b) so that they will continue eating unhealthy food due to its cheaper prices
c) as they suffer from junk-food-related health problems in the long term
4. According to para. 5, what do people normally assume about obesity?
They assume that obesity is a disease of the rich people
___________________________________________________________________________________

5. The word “skyrocketing” in para. 5 probably means ______________.

a) dropping rapidly b) rising quickly c) moving fast

6. What is the main idea of para. 6?

a) People have to be aware that they should be provided with healthy food.
b) Governments should make sure that all people have healthy food.
c) People should demand their leaders to create regulations for powerful companies to protect them.

VOCABULARY PRACTICE
Fill in the gaps with the vocabulary items in Vocabulary section. Change the form if necessary.
In many poor countries, children are (1) __undernourished______________ because they do not have
enough healthy food to grow properly. To solve this problem, governments make (2)
_regulation_______________ to make sure that food and health services are available to everyone.
However, hunger is still a/an (3) ___widespread_____________ issue, and it affects millions of people
around the world. Many organizations try to help those in need by providing food and medical care. Some
charities (4)___to run_____________ programs that offer free meals to school children. These efforts have
(5)___benefit_____________ many families by improving their quality of life.

After you read:

1. Are there regulations regarding junk food consumption in Türkiye? If yes, are they effective? If no, why?
2. In Brazil, the president Lula worked with Nestle, a junk food company, to help feed poor people. Some
say that this was a good idea since poor people could now find food more easily. Others, however, rejected
this and said that he was not helping poor people by working with a very rich company that produces
unhealthy food.
What’s your opinion? Share it with your partner.
I think what the president in Brazil did was _______________________

COLLOCATIONAL VOCABULARY LIST

 to run (v): to manage or to be in charge of a -It also opened “splash bars” – small businesses that are
business, campaign, etc. run only by women.
o to run (v) a -His stepfather ran a prosperous paint business.
business/company/organization (n)
 widespread (adj): existing or happening over -In developing economies, foods and drinks that hadn’t

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 a large area or among many people been available before suddenly became widespread in
o to be/become (v) widespread (adj) the 1980s and early 1990s.
-Due to the long-lasting draught, food shortages are
widespread.
 undernourished (adj): not having enough -In Brazil, for example, President Lula wanted to help
healthy food to sustain good health undernourished people, and he created an office for
o undernourished (adj) people/children (n) Nestlé in his palace to do it.
 regulation (n): an official rule that is made by -We see it when junk-food companies influence politics
a government or some other authority and society so that they can avoid regulations.
o to avoid (v) a regulation (n) -The government has made new regulations to reduce
o to make (v) a regulation (n) junk food production.
 to benefit (v) sb: if you benefit from -This was a strategic, two-way partnership that
something or if it benefits you, it helps you benefited the company and the government.
o to benefit (v) from (pre) sth -Women benefited from the splash bars in developing
economies.

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