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vi c o n t en t s

10 Provisional Application of Treaties and the Internal

Logic of the 1969 Vienna Convention 303
a n n el i e s e q u a s t m e r t s c h
11 Characteristics of the Vienna Convention Rules on
Treaty Interpretation 335
richard gardiner
12 Subsequent Practice and Treaty Modification 363
i r i n a bu g a
13 Treaty Obligations, Universalized Norms and
Differentiated Responsibilities 392
m ic ha e l b o wm a n
14 Regulating Treaty Breaches 440
c hr is t ia n j . ta m s
15 Territory and Its Relationship to Treaties 468
b a r ba r a m il tn er

PA RT II Contextual Perspectives 507

16 Human Rights 509
c hr ist in e m . c hi nkin
17 Law of War/Law of Armed Conflict/International
Humanitarian Law 538
f r a n ço i s e j . h a m p s o n
18 Disarmament 578
l is a t a ba s s i a n d ol uf em i e l ia s
19 International Criminal Law 621
el iz abet h w il mshu rst
20 International Investment Law 653
j u l ia n d a vi s m o r t en so n
21 International Environmental Law 677
d u n c a n f r e n c h a n d ka r e n n . s c o t t
22 International Law of the Sea 710
d a v id m . o n g
 c o n te n t s vii

23 The Law of Treaties, the Law of State Responsibility

and the Non-performance of Treaty Obligations:
A View from the Case Law 748
m a l g o s i a fi t z m a u r ic e
24 Security Council Resolution 687 (1991) 790
michael wood
25 The World Trade Organization 809
j o o s t p a u w e l y n a n d i s a b e l l e va n d a m m e
26 The International Labour Organization 848
a n n e t r e bi lc oc k
27 The World Health Organization 881
egle granziera and steven a. solomon
28 The International Maritime Organization 907
d or o t a l os t - s ie m i n s k a
29 The European Union 933
panos koutrakos
30 The Council of Europe 966
j e r e m y m c br id e

PART I II Final Reflections 1005

31 Taking Stock: Where the Modern Law of Treaties Goes
from Here 1007
m i c h a e l b o w m a n a n d d in o k r i t s i o t i s
32 The Interplay of Concept, Context and Content in
the Modern Law of Treaties: Final Reflections 1031
michael bowman

Index 1100
 CONTRIBUTORS

f ran k be rma n kcm g qc Barrister and international arbitrator;

formerly Legal Adviser, Foreign & Commonwealth Office, United
Kingdom; Visiting Professor of International Law, University of
Oxford and University of Cape Town; Member of the Permanent
Court of Arbitration.

michael bowman Associate Professor of Law, University of

Nottingham; Director of the Treaty Centre, University of Nottingham.

ca therine bröl mann Associate Professor of Law, Amsterdam

Center for International Law, University of Amsterdam.

i r i n a bu g a Associate in International Arbitration at De Brauw

Blackstone Westbroek, Amsterdam.

c h r i s t i n e m . ch in k i n Emerita Professor of International Law and

Director of the Centre on Women, Peace and Security, London School of
Economics and Political Science.

matthew craven Professor of International Law and Director of the

Centre for the Study of Colonialism, Empire and International Law,
School of African & Oriental Studies, University of London.

olufemi elias Legal Adviser and Director, Organization for the

Prohibition of Chemical Weapons; Visiting Professor of Law, School of
Law, Queen Mary University of London.

malgosia fitzmaurice Professor of Public International Law,

School of Law, Queen Mary University of London.

viii
 list of co ntr ibutors ix

duncan french Professor of International Law and Head of Lincoln

Law School, University of Lincoln.

richard gardiner Visiting Professor of Law, Faculty of Laws,

University College London.

egl e granzie ra Legal Officer, Governing Bodies and International

Law, Office of the Legal Counsel, World Health Organization.

fr ançoise j . h ampson Professor Emerita, University of Essex.

jan klabber s Academy Professor (Martti Ahtisaari Chair), University

of Helsinki; Visiting Research Professor at Erasmus Law School,
Rotterdam.

panos koutrakos Professor of European Union Law and Jean

Monnet Professor of European Union Law, City University London.

d i n o k r i t s i o t i s Professor of Public International Law, University of

Nottingham; Head of the International Humanitarian Law Unit, Human
Rights Law Centre, University of Nottingham.

r a n d a l l le s a f f e r Professor of Legal History, Tilburg University

and University of Leuven.

dorota lost-sieminska Head, Legal Affairs Office of the

International Maritime Organization, London.

jeremy mcbr ide Barrister, Monckton Chambers, London; Visiting

Professor, Central European University, Budapest.

barb ara m iltner Wydick Fellow, University of California Davis

School of Law.

daniel moec kli Assistant Professor of Public International Law and

Constitutional Law, University of Zurich.

julian dav is m ortenson Professor of Law, University of Michigan

Law School.
x l i s t o f c o n tr i but o r s

d a v i d m . on g Professor of International and Environmental Law,

Nottingham Law School, Nottingham Trent University.

joost pauwelyn Professor of International Law, Graduate Institute

of International and Development Studies, Geneva; Murase Visiting
Professor of Law, Georgetown Law Center, Washington, DC.

anneliese qua st mertsch Associate Legal Officer at the United

Nations Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals (UNMICT),
The Hague.

k a r en sc o t t Professor of Law and Head of the School of Law,

University of Canterbury, New Zealand.

s t e v e n a . sol o mon Principal Legal Officer, Governing Bodies and

International Law, Office of the Legal Counsel, World Health
Organization.

l i sa tab a s si Head of Legal Services, Organization for Security and

Co-operation in Europe (OSCE); formerly Chief of Legal Services
Section, Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-
Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) and Legal Officer,
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW).

c h r i s t i a n j . ta m s Professor of International Law, School of Law,

University of Glasgow; Academic Member of Matrix, London.

anne trebilcock Former Legal Adviser of the International Labour

Organization; Member of the Asian Development Bank Administrative
Tribunal and of the Centre de Droit International, University of Paris
Nanterre-La Défense.

isabelle van d amme Référendaire, Chambers of Advocate General

Sharpston, Court of Justice of the European Union; Visiting Lecturer,
Université Catholique de Louvain.

m i c h a e l wa i b e l University Senior Lecturer in International Law,

Fellow of Jesus College and Deputy Director of the Lauterpacht Centre
for International Law, University of Cambridge.
 list of co ntr ibutors xi

nigel d . white Professor of Public International Law and Head of the

School of Law, University of Nottingham.

el izabet h w ilmshurst cmg Distinguished Fellow of the Royal

Institute of International Affairs, London; Visiting Professor, University
College London.

s i r mi c h a e l w o o d k c m g Barrister, 20 Essex Street, London;

Member of the International Law Commission.
 FOREWORD

Participants in the contemporary debate about the sources of interna-

tional law will probably still agree that the international treaty appears as
a resting pole in an environment marked by decomposition of established
truths and loss of orientation. Just observe the current discussion on the
theory and doctrine of customary international law: a dance-floor on
which anything goes, few bother about traditional steps, wishful thinking
reigns and I certainly don’t envy the International Law Commission in its
effort to have people fall again into the familiar foxtrot of the two
elements …
Compared to this disquieting picture, treaties and their law do strike us
as solid, stable, orderly. Law-making by treaty may appear to the most
progressive within our profession as ‘medieval’, but if that is so, it feels
good to live in such a medieval world. As to practical relevance, it is the
treaty that for a long time has enjoyed priority, and at least for the
practitioner, this priority is here to stay. For many decades now, writers
have witnessed a movement away from customary international law
towards treaties. This movement has grown so strong that nowadays
one needs to emphasise that international custom does still have a role to
play. In the practical business of international legal relations, treaties still
are the unchallenged backbone, workhorse, coalface, (‘sadly over-
worked’) instrument, to name just a few terms by which they are being
appreciated in the literature. And, of course, the figures are truly stagger-
ing: more than 50,000 treaties having been registered with the United
Nations and its predecessor.
On the other hand, recent doctrine has noted a marked increase in
informal norm-setting, quite apart from the dilution of custom men-
tioned above, and thus another cause of ‘thinning’ international law.
According to a growing stream of voices, also among practitioners, the
difference between legally binding and ‘soft’ commitments is not as sharp
as traditional international lawyers claim it to be. Against this, a call for a
return to formalism is building up. I would suggest that this provides an
xiii
xiv f o r ew o r d

element explaining the renaissance of interest in the law of treaties on the

part of doctrine, witnessed by the present book: a certain defensive
stature, a doctrinal trench dug to preserve the (relative) stability and
formalism of the treaty.
Developments in the literature on the law of treaties in the wake of the
adoption of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 23 May
1969 appear to confirm this observation. There was a first wave, modest
in quantity but laden with authenticity, stemming from veterans of the
International Law Commission’s and the Vienna Conferences’ labours –
above all the works of Paul Reuter, Shabtai Rosenne and Ian Sinclair. But
what I find striking is that following that early reaction to the successful
codification exercise, while, as could be expected, large numbers of
articles and monographs on certain topical issues of the law of treaties
were being published all along, for several decades no great comprehen-
sive treatise appeared. This abstinence came to an end only in 2006, when
Olivier Corten and Pierre Klein published the French two-volume edi-
tion of their commentary on the 1969 and 1986 Vienna Conventions,
followed in 2011 by an English edition to which no fewer than eighty
authors contributed. In 2009, Mark Villiger published his single-author
commentary on the 1969 Convention, while the commentary edited by
Oliver Dörr and Kirsten Schmalenbach and published in 2012 is the joint
effort of twelve scholars. This sudden wave of commentaries, accompa-
nied by the monograph on Modern Treaty Law and Practice by Anthony
Aust for Cambridge University Press in 2000, was soon joined by a
number of collective works, like The Law of Treaties beyond the Vienna
Convention, a (beautifully) camouflaged Festschrift for Giorgio Gaja
edited by Enzo Cannizzaro in 2011; The Oxford Guide to Treaties edited
by Duncan Hollis, which appeared in 2012; and, most recently, in 2014,
the Research Handbook on the Law of Treaties organised by Christian
Tams, Antonios Tzanakopoulos and Andreas Zimmermann. The present
anthology on Conceptual and Contextual Perspectives on the Modern Law
of Treaties now completes – and, in a way to be explained later, tops – this
impressive display of scholarship.
The reader will have noticed that among the works just cited, several
titles put the emphasis on a ‘modern’ law of treaties. This is not just a
coincidental use of smart adjectives. At a first, positive-law level, it is the
recognition that the text of the Vienna Convention does not exhaust the
law of treaties in its entirety, its ‘infinite variety’, and, of course, that this
law has not remained frozen in the almost five decades since the
Convention was adopted. We have to remember that, from the outset,
 f o r e wor d xv

the International Law Commission’s project was designed to be modest

and embrace only those issues that had a chance of success. This explains
the limited scope of the Convention – see, for instance, its Article 73 – but
also that the Commission left unanswered a number of important ques-
tions also within what everybody would regard as the core of the law of
treaties. To give just one example: I find it no less than shocking that the
Vienna Convention left open what was to happen with a reservation to a
multilateral treaty clearly incompatible with that treaty’s object and
purpose and thus allowed a view to appear respectable according to
which the Convention could outlaw certain reservations and then go
on to subject such impermissible exceptions to precisely the same regime
as harmless ones. It took decades until Alain Pellet’s and the
International Law Commission’s low-profile ‘Guidelines’ came up with
a reasonably satisfactory answer, without calling the spade a spade and
the Convention’s omission to regulate the fate of impermissible reserva-
tions a major loophole.
But the recent ‘modern’ works on the law of treaties intend to go
further than just fill gaps. The ways in which they intend to go beyond
the technical debate on how to make the law of treaties more complete
and more smooth comes out beautifully in the very title of the present
collection – the emphasis now is on conceptuality and contextuality:
conceptuality in the sense of attempting to identify and explore concepts
and mechanisms recurrently encountered, but straddling various law-of-
treaties themes or extending beyond the scope of that law, in recognition
of the inherent interdependence of the law of treaties and other branches
of international law, like the law of State responsibility; and contextuality
aiming at a depiction of treaty law as it operates in a variety of fields, like
human rights, disarmament or protection of the environment.
It is to this second point – of contextuality – that the present work
accomplishes a truly remarkable contribution. To my knowledge,
nowhere else has the law of treaties been so thoroughly shown at work
in the various branches of international legal regulation and in the
context of major international organizations. The book devotes no
fewer than fifteen chapters – about half of its content – to the task of
demonstrating how the law of treaties applies or undergoes specific
modifications, both in fields like human rights, international criminal
or world trade law and in the functioning of international organizations.
Two of these contributions caught my particular attention: Christine
Chinkin’s virtuous treatment of (a favourite subject of mine) the specifi-
cities of human rights treaties and Sir Michael Wood’s case study on
xvi f o r ew o r d

Security Council Resolution 687 (1991) and the law of treaties, demon-
strating the differences between treaty interpretation and the interpreta-
tion of Security Council resolutions and concluding that ‘[i]t was for the
Security Council, not one or more members of the “coalition of the
willing”, to determine whether there was a material breach [of
Resolution 687] … ’.
In conclusion, the present collection does fulfil the promise of unco-
vering the dynamics of the modern law of treaties and of determining
how particular instruments function within that system. I am convinced
that it will trigger further intra-disciplinary research and thus contribute
to solidify that tower of strength, the international treaty.

Bruno Simma
 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project was formally inaugurated by the University of Nottingham

Treaty Centre in the spring of 2011. It sought to bring together two
distinct dimensions to the study and practice of the modern law of
treaties – what were called respectively the ‘conceptual’ and ‘contextual’
perspectives – which are further explained in the Introduction to this
work. However, at its heart, the project was a collaborative enterprise, not
only providing an intellectual home of sorts for all of its authors but
encouraging them to exchange ideas, anecdotes and interpretations – and
to do so on a regular and ongoing basis. To this end, we were incredibly
fortunate to benefit from the wonderful generosity of our then Head of
School, Professor Stephen H. Bailey, to host two stimulating workshops
for authors – the first of these was held at University Park, University of
Nottingham, in September 2012, and, prompted by the immense success
of that meeting, a second in January 2013 at Essex Court Chambers, in
Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London. We are most indebted to one of our
contributors, Sir Frank Berman KCMG QC, for facilitating and hosting
that second meeting, as we are to Gordon Pollock QC, then Head of
Chambers, for kindly agreeing to the use of that venue.
The project could not have survived, and it certainly would not have
seen the light of day, without the impressive and efficient assistance we
received throughout from the secretarial team at the University of
Nottingham. Particular mention should be made of Anne Crump, Ann
Chudleigh, Jo Grabowksi, Kobie Neita, Vicky Spencer and Helen Wade,
who stoically kept on top of a vast correspondence, ferried draft chapters
back and forth and kept the work environment alive with good cheer
when there were many other demands on their time.
We wish also to thank Cambridge University Press and, in particular,
Elizabeth Spicer for expertly steering this project to its conclusion; she
did so with enormous enthusiasm and commitment, and we are
delighted that she shared in the vision of this ambitious work from the
outset. And, with her characteristic professionalism and endless charm,
xvii
xviii preface a nd acknowledg ements

Finola O’Sullivan has overseen the entire project to its ultimate conclu-
sion; her support has been invaluable to us, too, over these many years.
Our final expression of gratitude is to our authors, who produced a
series of first-rate essays that, we are confident, will make its mark on the
literature of treaties for a good while to come. They have also participated
in a process that, we hope, will put front and centre the importance of a
methodological commitment to the pursuit of research on the law of
treaties that takes on both the conceptual and contextual perspectives
explored in the chapters that follow. However, without exception, they
have also shown an immense patience with the progress of publication,
and that has meant much to us as editors of this work. The fact is that,
while we kept to the structure of our original vision for the project, as it
got under way, we gave in to various temptations to conscript new
authors and chapters to the cause, and this resulted in various delays,
but we believe the volume has been enriched immeasurably. And we took
frequent advantage of the editorial prerogative to probe contributors for
more detail on the themes and arguments being prepared for a wider
readership; the publication of this volume must provide them consider-
able respite that they no longer stand at risk of receiving our voluminous
and often very detailed prods and enquiries. That said, we were pro-
foundly encouraged when one of our contributors was moved to remark
at the London meeting of January 2013 that the extent of editorial
engagement with contributors and their contributions really meant that
this project had acquired a ‘soul’ of its own – that it stood apart from
other similar projects of collective endeavour.
This has all meant that the project has taken a while longer to come to
fruition, with chapters presented to us in their final form on a rolling
basis from October 2013 onwards. Contributors were subsequently
offered a chance to make limited updates to their chapters, but not all
of them were able to avail themselves of this opportunity. The nature of
the exercise has thus precluded us from setting a single deadline for the
law and material contained in each contribution, and we would ask
readers to bear this point in mind as they set to reading the chapters
that we are delighted to include in this volume.

MJB & DK
Nottingham, December 2017
 ABBREVIATIONS

AC Appeal Cases
AFDI Annuaire Français de Droit
International
AJIL American Journal of International Law
AJIL Supp. Supplement of the American Journal of
International Law
ALR Australian Law Reports
African HRLJ African Human Rights Law Journal
Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. American Political Science Review
Am. Univ. Int’l L. Rev. American University International Law
Review
Ann. Digest Annual Digest of Public
International Law
Annual Rev. Earth & Planetary Sci. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary
Sciences
Asian J. WTO & Int’l. Health L. & Pol’y Asian Journal of World Trade
Organization and International
Health Law and Policy
Asian YbIL Asian Yearbook of International Law
Austrian Rev. Int’l & European L. Austrian Review of International and
European Law
BYbIL British Yearbook of International Law
Boston Coll. Int’l & Comp. L. Rev. Boston College International and
Comparative Law Review
Brooklyn JIL Brooklyn Journal of International Law
CETS Council of Europe Treaty Series
CLR Commonwealth Law Reports
CTS Consolidated Treaty Series
CYbELS Cambridge Yearbook of European Legal
Studies
California WILJ California Western International Law
Journal

xix
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
Ground oystershell or
7
limestone
Dried milk 5
Salt (fine, sifted) 1
Total 100

Laying mash should be kept before the birds at all times

beginning about a month before eggs are expected. Scratch mixture
should be fed in troughs, at the rate of one-fifth of a pound per day
per bird, so that the consumption during laying will be about equal
parts of the mash and scratch. The birds must have access to
growing green feed, direct sunshine, and water.
If the birds cannot obtain fresh succulent green feed and direct
sunshine in abundance, as in the case of those kept in confinement
or in cold climates, the ration must be more inclusive. Such a ration
may be compounded as follows:

Laying Mixture No. 2

Parts Parts
MASH by SCRATCH by
weight weight
Yellow corn or barley Yellow corn or grain
26 40
(ground) sorghum
Wheat middlings or ground
20 Heavy oats 37 1/2
wheat
Wheat bran 12 Wheat 20
Alfalfa leaf meal 10 Cod-liver oil 2 1/ 2
Meat scrap (50- to 55-
8 Total 100
percent protein)
Dried milk 8
Fish meal (60- to 70-percent
8
protein)
Ground oystershell or
7
limestone
Salt (fine, sifted) 1
Total 100

As with the simpler ration, the mash should be kept before the
birds at all times, and the scratch can be hand-fed in troughs at the
rate of one-fifth of a pound per bird per day. Clean water should be
provided at all times. The same ingredients can be mixed and fed as
an all-mash ration with good results. The all-mash formula is as
follows:

Laying Mixture No. 3 (All-mash feed)

Parts Parts
by by
weight weight
Yellow corn (coarsely
30 Dried milk 5
ground)
Fish meal (60- to 70-
Oats (finely ground) 20 3
percent protein)
Wheat middlings Ground oystershell or
21 4
(standard or brown) limestone
Wheat bran 6 Cod-liver oil 1 1/ 4
3
Alfalfa leaf meal 5 Salt (fine, sifted) /4
Meat scrap (50- to 55-
4 100
percent protein)

This all-mash mixture is kept before the breeders at all times.

Just enough to carry the birds through each day should be given. In
this way its freshness is assured, an important consideration in all-
mash feeding.
 If desired, the oyster shell or limestone may be fed separately in
hoppers, but mixing it in the mash saves labor and prevents
excessive consumption. Gravel or granite grit should be provided to
furnish grinding material. Clean water, placed in contamination-proof
vessels, should be provided at all times. Alfalfa hay probably cannot
be depended upon to supply adequate amounts of green-feed
substitute for hatching-egg production. Only by fresh green feed or
green-feed substitutes and fish oils can those requirements be met.
The oil should be freshly mixed in the feed every week or two.
All feed should be fed in feeders, never on the ground or in the
litter. Feeders should be constructed so as to prevent waste and
contamination with droppings. Turkey hens consume a little less than
one-half pound of mash and scratch grain per day when practically
all of their feed is furnished. Toms consume about 0.7 pound daily;
eating mostly scratch grains.

COMBATING DISEASES AND PESTS

Turkey raisers, to be permanently successful, must follow some
system of sanitation. Many growers have prevented disease and the
attacks of parasites in their flocks by providing range on clean soil;
that is, soil on which no poultry manure has been spread; feeding
their birds from feeders that cannot be contaminated by droppings;
and keeping the quarters sanitary at all times. Separation of the
turkeys from chickens and other poultry at all times is essential.
Diseases and parasites of turkeys are discussed in detail in
Farmers' Bulletin 1652, Diseases and Parasites of Poultry. Coccidiosis
often causes heavy losses in young turkeys. It is best combated by
carefully cleaning the brooder house and changing the litter once a
week during the brooding period, keeping the litter dry, and using
wire-covered feeding platforms. Turkeys are subject also to the
attacks of various species of worms, but treatment for worms should
not be undertaken until the presence of worms has been determined
by examining the droppings or by post-mortem examination.

BLACKHEAD

Although other infectious diseases sometimes affect turkeys,

blackhead is by far the most destructive ailment. It is caused by one
of the Protozoa and is primarily a disease of the caeca (the blind
pouches of the intestines) and the liver, but the fact that the head of
the affected bird often becomes discolored has given the disease its
common name, blackhead. It attacks turkeys most frequently, but
chicks are often affected by it without showing symptoms; thus the
chickens carry and spread the infection to turkeys when allowed to
range with them. A combination of spotted liver and ulcerated caeca
indicates that the birds have blackhead infection.
Although blackhead affects adult turkeys, it occurs principally
among poults between the ages of 6 weeks and 6 months. It is
found to a greater or lesser extent throughout the United States.
The turkeys affected by blackhead, like all birds having infectious
diseases, should be removed immediately from the flock to prevent
the spread of the disease. The best procedure is to kill the sick birds
and burn or bury the bodies, as no treatment has been found
satisfactory. Move the flock to clean ground, if possible; but if this
cannot be done, clean out and disinfect the roosting place, plow the
ground in the yards, and install a system of yard sanitation. Keep
chickens and all other poultry away from turkey yards at all times in
order to prevent infection from this source. The organisms which
cause the disease may be carried by flies, blown with dust, conveyed
in contaminated soil on the feet of the caretaker, or spread for
considerable distances in other ways.
Several measures for preventing blackhead are practiced, the
chief of which are: (1) Obtaining eggs or stock from flocks known to
be healthy; (2) quarantining and worming all new stock; (3) cleaning
and changing the litter at least weekly during the brooding period;
(4) keeping both young and mature turkeys on clean ground at a
considerable distance from chickens; (5) excluding, so far as
possible, pigeons, sparrows, and persons from the turkey houses
and yards; (6) frequently cleaning and occasionally disinfecting
growing houses, feed troughs, and all other equipment; (7) feeding
only in clean feeders, never on the ground; (8) immediately killing
and deeply burying or completely burning all diseased birds; and (9)
eliminating all stagnant water pools where the turkeys range. Clean
range, clean quarters, clean feed, and clean water are most
important.

LICE AND MITES

Lice may cause high mortality among young poults, those badly
infested gradually becoming weaker until they die. Head lice are the
most troublesome and are found close to the skin near the top of
the head, above and in front of the eyes, and under the throat.
Applying an insect powder, preferably sodium fluoride, when the hen
is set, is an easy method of preventing lice from getting a start
among poults. Apply the sodium fluoride among the leathers,
working it well down next to the skin, 1 pinch on the head, 1 on the
neck, 2 on the back, 1 on the breast, 1 below the vent, 1 at the base
of the tail, 1 on each thigh, and 1 scattered on the underside of each
wing when spread. If this treatment is not applied, hen-hatched
poults are almost certain to have lice.
If the hen has been treated in this manner before being set and
the poults are not exposed to infested stock or premises, they will
remain free from lice indefinitely. It is well, however, to examine the
poults occasionally and, if lice are found, to apply sodium fluoride
sparingly. It should not be applied until the poults are at least a
week old, and then only two very small pinches should be used.
Distribute one of these on the neck, the top of the head, and the
throat, and the other on the back and below the vent. After the
poults are old enough to roost, control lice by applying nicotine
sulphate solution in a thin line on the top surface of the roosts.
Repeat as often as necessary to keep down the lice and be sure that
each bird is exposed to the treatment. Sodium fluoride applied as
directed for delousing setting hens or as a dip will completely
eliminate all species of lice from mature stock.
The dipping method consists in immersing mature fowls in a
large tub of solution made by mixing 1 ounce or sodium fluoride to
each gallon of tepid water. Immerse the birds for only a few
seconds, raising the feathers at the same time to allow the dip to
penetrate to the skin. Dip the birds on a warm day, preferably in the
morning, so as to give them time to dry before night.
Destroy red mites in the roosting quarters by painting the under
side of the roosts and the roost supports with anthracene oil, crude
oil, crank-case oil, or any coal-tar disinfectant. Make the application
light but thorough, and do it preferably in the morning.
The fowl tick or blue bug is one of the worst pests of turkeys in
the Southwest. It can be controlled by the methods advised for
controlling red mites.

PROTECTION FROM COLD, DAMPNESS, AND

ENEMIES

Protection from adverse weather conditions and enemies is

required if turkeys are to be raised successfully. An open-front shed
with a reasonably tight roof and dry floor, so arranged that the
north, west, and east sides can be closed against storms, will give
ample protection for full-grown turkeys. Boosts may be made from
good-sized poles or 2 by 4's nailed flat to supports which should be
slightly higher at the rear than at the front, where they should be
about 21/2 feet above the floor. The space between the roosts should
be about 2 feet and the space underneath enclosed with poultry
wire. In the southern part of the United States there is little need for
well-built turkey houses, but during damp, cold, or stormy weather
the turkeys should have protection of some kind. They should not be
exposed to dampness, but they can stand a considerable amount of
dry cold.
In many localities protection from dogs must be provided in some
way. High roosts or well-built shelters provide this at night. Keeping
the birds confined to high roosts or in dog-proof shelters at night
and during the early morning hours gives a good protection. An
attendant or a good watchdog is needed to protect the turkeys when
they are off their roosts or out of their shelters.
 INCUBATING TURKEY EGGS
The vigor of the breeding stock, the manner in which it has been
fed and managed, and the care given the eggs will determine to a
high degree the hatchability of the eggs. An important measure of
success in turkey raising is the number of fully matured turkeys
raised in proportion to the number of hens in the breeding flock. An
average of 25 mature birds raised per hen is considered very good in
well-managed turkey flocks, whereas in most general-farm flocks 10
to 15 mature birds per hen would be a good average.
The period of incubation of turkey eggs is 28 days, and the
method is much the same as that used with chicken eggs. Turkey
eggs can be successfully hatched by turkey hens or chicken hens, or
in incubators. Hatching in incubators is best and is coming into more
general use, especially on farms and ranches where turkeys are
raised in large numbers. Turkeys hatched and reared by hens,
especially chicken hens, are likely to contract disease and become
infested with parasites at an early age. Sitting turkey hens can cover
from 15 to 18 eggs; chicken hens, from 7 to 10 eggs.

NATURAL INCUBATION
Hatching the eggs under turkey hens is widely practiced and is
often the most practical method. When the turkey hen becomes
broody and has remained consistently on the nest for 2 or 3 days,
she should be given her eggs. If several turkey hens are sitting at
the same time, care should be taken that each gets back into her
own nest. Nests are most conveniently arranged on the ground, in
boxes about 2 feet square or in barrels. If rats are a menace, the
nest should furnish protection against them and should always be
made proof against larger animals so that the turkey hens will not be
disturbed or the eggs destroyed. The nests should be flat and
shallow, as deep nests may result in crushed eggs or crushed baby
poults. Nests with damp sod bottoms and only a little straw to keep
the eggs from rolling into the corners are generally satisfactory.
Nesting batteries in which each hen is provided with a small
individual run so that she can get off and on the nest at will are very
good. With this method the only care necessary is to see that feed
and water are always before the hens and that each one remains
broody. If individual runs are not provided, the hens should be taken
off daily, allowed to exercise and eat, and then returned to their own
nests. Plenty of water to drink and clean, wholesome grain feed,
such as a mixture of wheat, oats, and corn, should be provided, and
fresh green feed or good alfalfa hay should be made available.
Turkey or chicken hens, before being set on turkey eggs, should
be treated with sodium fluoride, as previously directed.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION
Correct incubator temperatures are much the same for turkey
eggs as for chicken eggs, but the greater size of the turkey eggs
may necessitate some adjustment of the apparatus used in
measuring the temperature. This is true in nearly all kinds of
incubators except those of the forced-draft type. The relative
position of the thermometer in the egg chamber is important in the
accuracy with which it records the temperature. For hatching turkey
eggs the proper position of the thermometer is usually indicated in
the directions that are furnished by the manufacturer of the
incubator. As a general rule, with the bottom of the bulb 17/8 inches
above the egg tray, the thermometer should read 100.5° F. for the
first week, 101.5° the second, 102.5° the third, and 103° the last
week. Forced-draft incubators are usually run at about 99.5°.
Temperature can best be regulated, however, by using the
thermometer that goes with the machine, placing it in the position
recommended by the manufacturer, and then following the
manufacturer's instructions for hatching turkey eggs, making sure
that the egg trays do not sag.
Turkey eggs lose about 3.5 percent less moisture during
incubation than do chicken eggs, notwithstanding the fact that
turkey eggs require about 7 days longer to hatch. Excellent hatches
have been obtained when the loss of moisture based on the weight
of the eggs just before they were set, ranged within the following
limits: After 6 days of incubation, 2 to 8 percent; after 12 days of
incubation. 4.1 to 6 percent; after 18 days of incubation, 6.2 to 9
percent; and after 24 days of incubation, 9 to 12 percent.
On this basis, a dozen turkey eggs of normal size should lose
about 1 ounce for every 6 days of incubation. The air cells of turkey
eggs are smaller in proportion to the size of the eggs than are those
of chicken eggs because normal evaporation in turkey eggs during
incubation is considerably less than that in chicken eggs. When more
moisture is needed in the incubator it can be provided by putting in
water pans, or by placing burlap wicks in the pans. When less
moisture is needed the water pans may be removed or the
ventilation increased.
As a rule the eggs should be turned at least 3 and preferably 4 to
6 times daily. Four times daily, every 6 hours, day and night, is an
excellent plan. They should be tested preferably on the eighth or
ninth and again on the twentieth to twenty-second days, and all
infertile eggs and those having dead germs should be removed.
Cooling the eggs once or twice a day until they feel slightly cool to
the face may be of value in small incubators. Turning and cooling
should be discontinued about the twenty-third day, and the
incubator door should be darkened and kept closed until hatching is
completed. The poults may then be left in the incubators for about
24 hours or else put in the brooder and fed as soon as hatching is
completed and the poults thoroughly dried off. Poults held in the
incubator should be kept at about 95° F. and should have a rough
surface such as 1/4-inch-mesh hardware cloth to stand on. Keeping
the incubator dark helps to keep the poults quiet and tends to
prevent spraddle legs. There is no good reason for withholding feed
longer than 24 hours. If feed is withheld for a much longer period
when the poults are in the brooder, they may eat the litter.
Therefore, poults should be fed when they are put in the brooder
house.
Shipping day-old poults in specially built strawboard boxes has
been found to be satisfactory. The container is larger than that
ordinarily used for baby chicks, 60 poults commonly being placed in
each box.
 RAISING POULTS
There are few turkey-raising problems so important as brooding
and rearing the poults, because the greatest losses in turkey raising
usually occur in the first few weeks of the birds' lives. Heavy
mortality among the poults may indicate that the breeding stock
used was low in vitality or was poorly managed, but it more often
indicates poor feeding or management of the poults. The importance
of keeping both the poults and the breeding turkeys on ground free
from infection and away from chickens cannot be overemphasized.
Improper brooding methods cause great losses, because turkey
poults are very susceptible to cold, dampness, overcrowding,
overheating, unsuitable feeds, and unsuitable litter, and they
succumb readily to attacks of diseases and parasites.

BROODING
The poults may be brooded naturally by turkey hens or artificially
by brooders. Brooding by turkey hens provides a never-failing source
of heat, allows the poults to be raised in small flocks, and permits
taking advantage of free-range conditions. Its disadvantages are
that the young turkeys may contract disease or become infected
with parasites from the hens and they may wander too far and be
killed by storms or predatory animals. Artificial brooding makes it
easier to maintain proper sanitation, keeps down costs, puts the
poults more directly under the control of the operator, and is more
adaptable to large-scale production.

NATURAL BROODING
 Brooding poults by turkey hens
is not difficult, although several
details should receive careful
attention. As soon as the hatch is
completed and the poults begin to
run out from under the sitting hen,
transfer the hen and her brood to
a coop. A coop of simple design,
such as the A-shaped type (fig.
10), large enough to
accommodate a turkey hen
comfortably, and well built to
protect the brood from rains and Figure 10.—A well-built brood coop
natural enemies, is all that is which can be used either for setting a
required. It should be about 5 feet turkey hen or for raising a brood of
long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet high, poults.
with a raised, rat-proof floor.
Provide good-sized screened
openings for ventilation in hot weather. These openings should be so
fixed that rain will not beat into the coop. Have a separate coop for
each hen, and if there are several broods, place the coops some
distance apart on well-drained soil where the grass is fairly short.
For the first day or so it is well to confine the poults in the coop
with the mother hen. Then make a small yard, using boards or wire
around the front of the coop, and allow the poults to run in and out
at will. However, they should not be allowed to run in long, wet
grass, and during heavy rains they should be confined to the coop.
Move the coop and yard to fresh ground every few days, clean it
once a week or more frequently, and disinfect it occasionally. When
the poults are about a week old the mother hen may be allowed to
roam with her brood, but care should be taken to see that the entire
brood returns in the evening and is protected at night from
predatory animals. Good results may be obtained by keeping the
mother hens confined and allowing the poults to range, but the
brood should be properly sheltered during rainstorms or damp
weather, which are likely to cause high mortality. The poults may be
kept with the mother hen for 3 months or more, but better results
are usually obtained by moving them to a separate rearing field on
clean ground when they are from 8 to 10 weeks old. If they have
shelter and will roost, they are better off without the hens after that
age. A turkey hen will raise up to 20 poults successfully, but more
than 20 can sometimes be placed with a hen in warm weather.

ARTIFICIAL BROODING

The practice of brooding poults artificially is becoming more

popular and is usually more successful than brooding with turkey
hens. The methods used in artificial brooding are very similar to
those used in raising chicks, which are discussed in Farmers' Bulletin
1538, Incubation and Brooding of Chickens. However, one point of
great importance in brooding poults artificially is to make sure that
they do not crowd together while in the brooder house. This can be
avoided by frequent attention, by providing an even temperature,
and by having good ventilation in the brooder house. A colony house
or permanent brooder house that is suitable for brooding chicks is
equally suitable for turkeys, but fewer birds should be put in the
house, as turkey poults are larger than chicks. Between 75 and 125
poults should be placed under one 52-inch hover in the average
colony brooder House. Larger hovers and larger brooding rooms will
accommodate 225 poults or more, but only an experienced operator
should attempt; to raise groups larger than 150. The prevailing
custom is to use brooder stoves in portable colony houses or
permanent brooding quarters.
The colony houses may be moved several times each season,
thereby giving the poults plenty of free range on clean soil. Since
blackhead is closely associated with insanitary conditions, special
effort must be made to keep the houses, runs, and yards clean. If
permanent brooder houses are used, a floor of concrete from 12 to
14 feet wide or a small gravel or cinder-floored yard is often used in
front of the house. A skeleton framework covered with to 1-inch-
mesh wire may also be used to floor the outside run either with the
permanent brooder houses or with the colony houses (fig. 11).
Poults are regularly confined to this small yard for the first 8 weeks
and in some cases have been successfully reared to market age in it.
However, a clean yard containing growing green feed is an
advantage in brooding. If it is used only for about 8 weeks each
year, there seems little danger of contamination.
The brooder and brooder house should be operated to keep the
young turkeys comfortable. A dim light under or above the hover at
night has a quieting effect on the poults. The temperature should be
high enough to keep the poults comfortable but not high enough to
be detrimental to their health. When the poults are first put into the
colony house with the brooder stove, the temperature 3 inches
above the floor under the hover should be from, 95° to 110° F. This
temperature should be lowered gradually as the poults get larger
until they are 6 or 8 weeks old, when they require little or no heat,
especially in the daytime. It is a common practice in cold weather to
keep the general room temperature at the floor rather high, about
75°, to prevent crowding. The exact temperature, however, is of
minor importance provided the poults are kept comfortable and good
ventilation is maintained. The poults, if comfortable, will be active
and contented. This is the real test of temperature. All warm points
and surfaces except those at the brooder itself should be eliminated.
Free access from all parts of the brooder room to the hover must be
provided. All corners in the brooding room, especially back of the
hover, should be rounded, preferably by using 1/2-inch-mesh poultry
wire. A fence of the same material should be set up around the
hover for the first 2 or 3 days until the poults become accustomed to
their surroundings and learn to return to the source of heat. Flat
roosts 2 to 21/2 inches wide and slightly tilted up at the rear may be
placed at graduated levels in the brooder house when the poults are
from 2 to 3 weeks old, to encourage them to begin roosting at an
early age. This provision lessens the danger of night crowding. The
front roost should be 6 inches above the floor and each of the others
a few inches higher than the one in front of it and about 81/2 inches
apart, center to center.

Figure 11.—Young turkeys in a colony house equipped

with wire-floored sun porch.

SANITATION
The brooder house should be thoroughly cleaned and the litter
changed once every 7 days, or oftener if disease occurs, regardless
of the type of litter used. This cleaning schedule must be adhered to
rigidly if blackhead, coccidiosis, and other diseases are to be
prevented.
Thoroughly clean and disinfect brooder houses and equipment
used for turkeys at the end of each brooding season or oftener if
disease occurs. First clean the house thoroughly and burn all litter
and droppings or haul them to land that is not to be used for poultry
and from which there will be no drainage into the turkey range.
Then scrub the floor and sides of the house, if it is of board
construction, with boiling hot lye solution (one-third of a can to a
pail of water) and allow them to dry out. Next, thoroughly spray the
entire inside of the building with a 3- or 4-percent solution of cresol
compound or any other approved disinfectant. Give the same
treatment once a year to the quarters occupied by the breeding
stock. The "fire gun", a large kerosene torch which involves the
blow-torch principle, has proved to be valuable in disinfecting, if it is
properly used and the house has been thoroughly cleaned.

LITTER
Sand or gravel is recommended for litter for the first 2 or 3
weeks; after that, clean wheat straw is advised as a means of saving
labor. Gravel or sand makes the best litter; but with large flocks,
using it for more than 2 or 3 weeks may require too much labor.
Straw or hay, if used during the first 2 weeks, may cause a stunting
of growth and a high mortality. Many growers have been successful
in using, as a substitute for litter, 1/2-inch wire mesh stretched tightly
a few inches above the floor of the house, but it requires much labor
to clean this, and it seems to have no advantage over clean litter. A
wire-floored sun porch makes a good substitute, for an outside yard
during the brooding period although, as previously stated, a clean
yard in grass is preferable.

EARLY DEVELOPMENT
The poults, when first hatched, are covered with soft down.
When they are about 10 days old, feathers begin to appear where
the wings join the body, and in about 3 weeks the tail feathers begin
to appear. From then on feather growth is rapid, and when the
poults are 2 months old they are well feathered. About the fifth
week fleshy protuberances called caruncles begin to appear, and by
the seventh week they begin to extend down the neck. The
appearance of caruncles in the poults is termed "shooting the red."
On the top of the head of both males and females a fleshy
protuberance develops into what is called the "dew bill" or "snood";
on males it is larger and more elastic than on females.
The sex of young turkeys can be distinguished by the appearance
of a tuft of hairs on the breast of males between 3 and 4 months
old. The tuft usually does not appear on the breasts of the females
until they are much older, and the hairs of the tuft are shorter and
finer than those on males. The hock joints on the males are much
broader and heavier than on the females. The sex of well-grown
Bronze turkey poults can be distinguished by examining the mature
breast feathers which appear at 12 to 14 weeks. Those of the males
are bronze black with no white, whereas the tip of those of the
females have a narrow white edge. Day-old poults may be sexed as
is done with baby chicks by examining that part of the sex organs
that can be seen at the vent.

MARKING
When large numbers of turkeys are raised it is advisable to adopt
some system of marking the poults that enables the grower to keep
a record of the age and breeding of the different broods, as this is of
assistance in selecting early hatched birds for breeding and
slaughter purposes. Such a system also makes it possible to
separate the poults out of special matings from the rest of the flock
or from neighboring flocks. The poults may be marked by punching
holes in the webs between the toes or slitting these webs. Different
webs may be punched or slit for different broods, and thus provide a
record of all turkeys raised.
Heavy, aluminum, clinch pigeon-wing bands are well adapted for
marking young turkeys. The bands can be applied in two ways:
According to the first, the band is first made round and
clinched, then slipped over the baby poult's toes and
flattened so that it will not come off but at the same time
will allow for some growth of the leg. When the poult is
 about 4 weeks old the band is transferred to the wing by
unclinching and inserting it in a hole made in the middle of
the web between the first and second joints of the wing
and about one-fourth inch from the edge. The band is
again clinched and made round so that it is not easily
flattened and its lettering can be read easily. According to
the second method of application the band is put directly
into the wing at hatching time, a thin knife blade being
used to make the hole for the band, near the edge of the
web and midway between the joints of the wing. Turkey
poults, when good sized, may be tattooed on the wing for
identification. When the breeding turkeys are selected as
they approach maturity, heavy wing bands or heavy
permanent leg bands may be used if the birds were not
marked at an earlier age.

FEEDING GROWING TURKEYS

Success in turkey raising depends mainly upon the combination
of feeds given the young poults. Poor-quality feeds, lack of vitamins,
and shortage of proteins, especially if the poults are closely
confined, are the more common causes or failures. Some difficulty
may be experienced in getting artificially brooded poults to eat, as a
young poult is much less active than a chick; but if several small
troughs are provided there should be no serious trouble from this
cause. Dipping the beaks of backward poults in milk or water, or
feeding oatmeal flakes may induce them to eat. Poults brooded with
hens, of course, do not need this special attention.
After the poults are from 6 to 8 weeks old they may get some of
their living from a good range, but the use of additional feed,
preferably a balanced ration of mash and scratch grain, will give
better growth and result in early maturity and greater returns above
feed cost.
 In natural brooding the turkey hen, while confined to the coop,
should be fed mash and given some tender green feed. Water and
gravel or grit should, of course, be kept before her all the time. In
feeding the hen and her brood it is advisable to feed the poults
outside the coop and the hen inside in order to prevent the hen from
wasting the feed intended for the poults.
For the first 24 to 72 hours after hatching, poults can live without
feed, the yolk of the egg which they absorb before hatching being
sufficient to maintain them for that length of time. As soon as they
are put into the brooder house or with the hen they should be fed. If
they are not fed for the first day or two they should be kept in a
darkened coop or incubator. However, leaving the poults in a
darkened incubator for only 12 to 24 hours and feeding them as
soon as they are removed to the brooder seems to be better and is
now becoming a general practice.

Click on image to view larger version.

Figure 12.—Cross section of trough feeders for turkey
poults of various ages; A, Lath feeder for first week;
B, feeder for second to fourth weeks; C, feeder for
 fifth to twelfth weeks. Feeder C will give better results
if equipped with a reel, at the top, similar to that
shown in figure 14.

The first feed may be a mixture of finely chopped, tender green

feed, and dry starting mash. Hard-boiled eggs, ground or crumbled,
may also be added if desired. This feed should be placed on clean
boards or in little feeders made of laths as illustrated in figure 12. It
is a good plan to keep the feed before the poults at all times from
the very beginning so that the backward poults will learn to eat and
their growth rate will not be retarded. Milk, if not too high priced,
may be kept before them in easily cleaned crockery, tin, wooden, or
graniteware receptacles which the poults cannot get into or
contaminate. After the first few days the green feed, unless it is
available in the yards, may be spread on top of the mash in the
feeders. Turkey poults appear to be easily harmed by eating large
quantities of tough, fibrous litter or green feed; hence the selection
of a tender green feed is most important.

FEEDING DURING THE FIRST 6 TO 8 WEEKS

The use of a well-balanced, all-mash ration is the simplest and

most practical method of feeding poults during the first few weeks of
their lives. Many commercial starting mashes are available or good
home-mixed mashes may be used with excellent success. The
protein, mineral, and vitamin contents are the main points to be
considered. Milk in some form is very desirable, dried milk being
preferable. Liquid milk is a fair feed, but the dried form is preferable
at least for starting rations.
The following starting mashes are recommended for feeding
turkey poults during the first 6 to 8 weeks. Mash No. 1, fed without
liquid milk, is preferable.
 Parts by
STARTING MASH NO. 1
weight
Yellow corn (ground) 17
Whole oats (pulverized) 15
Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 12
Wheat bran 12
Wheat middlings or shorts 12
Dried milk 10
Alfalfa leaf meal 10
Fish meal (60-percent protein) 10
Cod-liver oil 1 1/ 2
1
Salt (fine, sifted) /2
Total (crude protein 25 percent; crude fiber 6 percent) 100

Parts by
STARTING MASH NO. 2
weight
Yellow corn (ground) 33
Wheat middlings or shorts 20
Wheat bran 10
Whole oats (pulverized) 10
Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 10
Alfalfa leaf meal 10
Fish meal (60-percent protein) 5
Cod-liver oil 1 1/ 2
1
Salt (fine, sifted) /2
Total (crude protein 19 percent; crude fiber 6 percent) 100

Starting mash No. 2 is advised for feeding when liquid skim milk
or buttermilk is kept before the poults at all times. Some water is
furnished, allowing one dish of water to several of milk. These
starting mashes are fed without scratch grain; but water, green feed,
and hard grit such as fine gravel, coarse sand, or commercial granite
grit should be supplied. The green feed should be chopped fine and
scattered on top of the mash in the feeders once or twice daily,
allowing all the poults will consume in about half an hour. Tender
alfalfa tops, onion tops, lettuce, and tender, short lawn clippings,
preferably those containing clover, are all good feeds. Tough green
feed should be avoided as it may cause impaction. Green feed as
picked by the birds from the yards is most desirable. In that case
hand feeding is not necessary. The mash in dry form should be kept
before the poults at all times, but only enough mash to last for a day
or two should be supplied at one time. About 1 inch of feeder space
per poult (including both sides of the feeders) is desirable. This
should be increased to 2 or 3 inches after about 2 or 3 weeks. Plans
for feeders are shown in figure 12.

FEEDING FROM 6 TO 8 WEEKS TO MARKETING

TIME

Rations for growing the poults after the age of 6 to 8 weeks may
include mash and whole grain or liquid milk and whole grain. Many
turkeys are grown and fattened on grain supplemented with
whatever insects and green feed can be obtained from the range. A
better plan is to provide sufficient protein and minerals to give
normal growth. The minimum feeding advised is to allow each day
one liberal feeding of a 20-percent protein mash, or to furnish all the
milk the birds will drink with a feeding of whole grain. Either the
mash or the liquid milk should be used with liberal feedings of whole
grain for fattening in the fall.
Good growing mashes suitable for different conditions may be
made as follows:

Parts by
GROWING MASH NO. 1
weight
Yellow corn or barley (ground) 25
Oats or grain sorghum (ground) 25
Wheat middlings or shorts 20
Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 19
Wheat bran 10
Salt (fine, sifted) 1
Total (crude protein 19 to 21 percent) 100

Parts by
GROWING MASH NO. 2
weight
Yellow corn or barley (ground) 32
Soybean oil meal 26
Wheat middlings or shorts 15
Wheat bran 10
Oats or grain sorghum (ground) 10
Steamed bonemeal 4
Ground oystershell or limestone 2
Salt (fine, sifted) 1
Total (crude protein 191/2 percent) 100

Parts by
GROWING MASH NO. 3
weight
Yellow corn (ground) 35
Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 15
Wheat bran 10
Wheat middlings or shorts 10
Oats or barley (ground) 10
Alfalfa leaf meal 10
Dried milk 9
Salt (fine, sifted) 1
Total (crude protein 20 to 21 percent) 100

Parts by
GROWING MASH NO. 4
weight
Yellow corn (ground) 20
Wheat middlings (standard or brown) 15
Oats (finely ground) 15
Wheat bran 10
Alfalfa leaf meal 10
Yellow corn gluten meal 10
Dried milk 10
Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 5
Steamed bonemeal 2
Ground oystershell or limestone 2
Salt (fine, sifted) 1
Total (crude protein 20 percent; crude fiber 6 percent) 100

These growing mashes are all fed with scratch grains consisting
of such grains as corn, wheat, barley, and oats. Corn, wheat, or
barley may be used as the only scratch grain except with growing
mash No. 4, which should contain from 50 to 75 percent of oats. A
good grain mixture may be made of 40 parts of corn, 40 parts of
wheat, and 20 parts of oats. Mashes 1 and 2 are for flocks having
access to a good green range. In mash No. 2 soybean oil meal,
which has proved to be a good source of protein and is also good for
fattening, is substituted for meat scrap. Mash No. 3 is a more
complete ration and is advised for all conditions where the turkeys
do not have an abundance of growing green feed.
Other combinations of grains and byproducts may be used
successfully, the exact selection depending largely on availability and
cost of feeds. It is best to use at least two grains, and preferably
three or four, in the ration. Corn is the grain most commonly used in
feeding turkeys. Not more than 60 percent of the entire growing
ration should consist of oats or barley or a combination of the two.
Yellow corn tends to produce a deep-yellow skin color while white
corn, barley, and wheat produce turkeys with light-colored skins.
If the birds have all the milk they will drink along with whole
grains, they will consume enough milk to make good growth, if no
water is fed. A mixture of 30 percent of corn, 30 percent of oats, 20
percent of wheat, and 20 percent of barley is satisfactory; so is a
free choice of several grains. However, the whole-grain and liquid-
milk method works well only when the birds are on a good, green
range and is practical to use only when milk products are cheap.
Some loss from pendulous crops is to be expected when liquid milk
is consumed liberally and this is one of the chief objections to its
use. The milk receptacles should be set on a wire screen and
covered to protect them from the weather and from contamination
with droppings. Sanitation is especially important when milk is used.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR FEEDING

Feed should be kept before the birds constantly from hatching to

market age. During the first 6 weeks feed starting mash. During the
seventh and eighth weeks feed a mixture of equal parts of the
starting and growing mashes. From 9 to 12 weeks feed the growing
mash. From 13 weeks to marketing feed growing mash and scratch
grain. No scratch grain is fed during the first 12 weeks. If a change
is made from mash to the whole-grain and liquid-milk method, cut
down the mash gradually until the poults learn to drink the milk and
to eat the whole grain freely.
Cod-liver oil is necessary in starting rations, but as a rule it is not
necessary in a growing ration unless the birds are confined. In that
case, about 1 percent should be added to the mash. A good grade of
plain cod-liver oil is advised for use in turkey feeds. Fish meal,
though an excellent feed, may impart an undesirable flavor to turkey
meat. Fish meal and cod-liver oil should be omitted from the
fattening ration during the last 8 weeks before the birds are
marketed. Birds should not be moved, or feeding arrangements
radically changed in the last 6 weeks before marketing.
Feeding the growing mash wet is a common practice in some
localities. Like the dry-mash and scratch-grain system, it produces