SECTION 1.

2 / POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES 7

of the weather on people’s moods. As the weather changes, do people’s moods also
change? Something that can change or have different values is called a variable.

D E F I N I T I O N
A variable is a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for
different individuals.

Once again, variables can be characteristics that differ from one individual to an-
other, such as height, weight, gender, or personality. Also, variables can be environmen-
tal conditions that change such as temperature, time of day, or the size of the room in
which the research is being conducted.
To demonstrate changes in variables, it is necessary to make measurements of the
variables being examined. The measurement obtained for each individual is called a
datum or, more commonly, a score or raw score. The complete set of scores is called
the data set, or simply the data.

D E F I N I T I O N S
Data (plural) are measurements or observations. A data set is a collection of
measurements or observations. A datum (singular) is a single measurement or
observation and is commonly called a score or raw score.

Before we move on, we should make one more point about samples, populations, and
data. Earlier, we defined populations and samples in terms of individuals. For example,
we discussed a population of college students and a sample of autistic children. Be fore-
warned, however, that we will also refer to populations or samples of scores. Because
research typically involves measuring each individual to obtain a score, every sample (or
population) of individuals produces a corresponding sample (or population) of scores.

PARAMETERS When describing data, it is necessary to distinguish whether the data come from a popula-
AND STATISTICS tion or a sample. A characteristic that describes a population—for example, the average
score for the population—is called a parameter. A characteristic that describes a sample
is called a statistic. Thus, the average score for a sample is an example of a statistic.
Typically, the research process begins with a question about a population parameter.
However, the actual data come from a sample and are used to compute sample statistics.

D E F I N I T I O N S
A parameter is a value, usually a numerical value, that describes a population. A
parameter is usually derived from measurements of the individuals in the population.
A statistic is a value, usually a numerical value, that describes a sample. A statistic
is usually derived from measurements of the individuals in the sample.

Every population parameter has a corresponding sample statistic, and most research
studies involve using statistics from samples as the basis for answering questions about
population parameters. As a result, much of this book is concerned with the relationship
between sample statistics and the corresponding population parameters. In Chapter 7,
for example, we examine the relationship between the mean obtained for a sample and
the mean for the population from which the sample was obtained.

DESCRIPTIVE Although researchers have developed a variety of different statistical procedures to or-
AND INFERENTIAL ganize and interpret data, these different procedures can be classified into two general
STATISTICAL METHODS categories. The first category, descriptive statistics, consists of statistical procedures
that are used to simplify and summarize data.
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
8 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

D E F I N I T I O N
Descriptive statistics are statistical procedures used to summarize, organize, and
simplify data.

Descriptive statistics are techniques that take raw scores and organize or summarize
them in a form that is more manageable. Often the scores are organized in a table or a
graph so that it is possible to see the entire set of scores. Another common technique
is to summarize a set of scores by computing an average. Note that even if the data set
has hundreds of scores, the average provides a single descriptive value for the entire set.
The second general category of statistical techniques is called inferential statistics.
Inferential statistics are methods that use sample data to make general statements about
a population.

D E F I N I T I O N
Inferential statistics consist of techniques that allow us to study samples and
then make generalizations about the populations from which they were selected.

Because populations are typically very large, it usually is not possible to measure
everyone in the population. Therefore, a sample is selected to represent the population.
By analyzing the results from the sample, we hope to answer general questions about
the population. Typically, researchers use sample statistics as the basis for drawing
conclusions about population parameters.
One problem with using samples, however, is that a sample provides only limited
information about the population. Although samples are generally representative of their
populations, a sample is not expected to give a perfectly accurate picture of the whole
population. Thus, there typically is some discrepancy between a sample statistic and the
corresponding population parameter. This discrepancy is called sampling error, and it
creates the fundamental problem that inferential statistics must always address (Box 1.1).

D E F I N I T I O N
Sampling error is the naturally occurring discrepancy, or error, that exists
between a sample statistic and the corresponding population parameter.

The concept of sampling error is illustrated in Figure 1.2. The figure shows a
population of 1,000 college students and two samples, each with 5 students, who
have been selected from the population. Notice that each sample contains differ-
ent individuals who have different characteristics. Because the characteristics of
each sample depend on the specific people in the sample, statistics vary from one

BOX
THE MARGIN OF ERROR BETWEEN STATISTICS AND PARAMETERS
1.1

One common example of sampling error is the error The margin of error is the sampling error. In this
associated with a sample proportion. For example, case, the percentages that are reported were obtained
in newspaper articles reporting results from political from a sample and are being generalized to the whole
polls, you frequently find statements such as this: population. As always, you do not expect the statistics
Candidate Brown leads the poll with 51% of the from a sample to be perfect. There is always some
vote. Candidate Jones has 42% approval, and the margin of error when sample statistics are used to
remaining 7% are undecided. This poll was taken represent population parameters.
from a sample of registered voters and has a margin
of error of plus-or-minus 4 percentage points.

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 SECTION 1.2 / POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES 9

FIGURE 1.2
A demonstration of sam-
pling error. Two samples Population
are selected from the of 1000 college students
same population. Notice
that the sample statistics Population Parameters
Average Age  21.3 years
are different from one
Average IQ  112.5
sample to another, and all 65% Female, 35% Male
of the sample statistics
are different from the
corresponding population
parameters. The natural
differences that exist, by
chance, between a sample
statistic and a population
parameter are called
sampling error.

Sample #1 Sample #2

Eric Tom
Jessica Kristen
Laura Sara
Karen Andrew
Brian John

Sample Statistics Sample Statistics

Average Age  19.8 Average Age  20.4
Average IQ  104.6 Average IQ  114.2
60% Female, 40% Male 40% Female, 60% Male

sample to another. For example, the five students in sample 1 have an average age of
19.8 years and the students in sample 2 have an average age of 20.4 years.
Also note that the statistics obtained for a sample are not identical to the parameters
for the entire population. In Figure 1.2, for example, neither sample has statistics that
are exactly the same as the population parameters. You should also realize that Figure
1.2 shows only two of the hundreds of possible samples. Each sample would contain
different individuals and would produce different statistics. This is the basic concept
of sampling error: sample statistics vary from one sample to another and typically are
different from the corresponding population parameters.
As a further demonstration of sampling error, imagine that your statistics class is
separated into two groups by drawing a line from front to back through the middle of
the room. Now imagine that you compute the average age (or height, or IQ) for each
group. Will the two groups have exactly the same average? Almost certainly they will
not. No matter what you chose to measure, you will probably find some difference
between the two groups. However, the difference you obtain does not necessarily mean
that there is a systematic difference between the two groups. For example, if the average
age for students on the right-hand side of the room is higher than the average for stu-
dents on the left, it is unlikely that some mysterious force has caused the older people
to gravitate to the right side of the room. Instead, the difference is probably the result of
random factors such as chance. The unpredictable, unsystematic differences that exist
from one sample to another are an example of sampling error.
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.