Chapter 2

Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

Electrostatic Potential Energy

Electrostatic potential energy difference between two points
Electric potential energy difference between two points in an electric field,
can be defined as the work done by an external force in moving (without
accelerating) charge q from one point to another the electric field.
-P
AU = Up-UR =-Sp F.dr
Derivation:
R

WRp= Sa Fext . dr
External force, Fext is equal and opposite to repulsive electric force,E.
Fext = -F

WRp =-F.dr
This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy.
So the potential energy difference between points R and P,
AU =Up -UR =-F.dr
" The work done by an electrostatic field in moving a charge from one
point to another depends only on the initial and the final points and is
independent of the path taken to go from one point to the other.
Electrostatic Potential Energy at a point
Electric potential energy at a point P in an electric field is defined as the
work done by the external force in bringing the charge q from infinity to
that point.
Upo= Up- U = Up - 0 = Up

Up=- F.dr
Electrostatic Potential (V)
W
V=

W=qV
Unit of potential is JI/C or volt (V)
Electrostatic Potential between two points
Electrostatic Potential difference between two points in an electric field is
the work done by an external force in bringing a unit positive charge from
one point to other in that field.
WRP

Vp - V¡ =
-F.dr
F=qE
qE.dr
Vp - V
Vp - V¡ =-E.dr
Electrostatic Potential ata point P
Electrostatic Potential at a point P in an electric field is the work done by an
external force in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
Vp =- faE.dr
Potential due to a Point Charge

dr

1
E=

1
V=- dr'

V= V=
Q -1
4nEo
-1
1 V=
V= 4REor
4TE0

v«
 Variation of potential Vwith r and Electric field with r for a point charge Q

Variation of potential Vwith r Variation of Electric field E with r

1 Q
V=
E= 4nEO r2
V«
Example
(a) Calculate the potential at a point Pdue to a charge of 4 x 107C,located
9 cm away
(b) Hence obtain the work done in bringing a charge of 2 x 10-9 Cfrom
infinity to the point P. Does the answer depend on the path along which
the charge is brought?
1 Q
(a) V= 4TtEo r
4x10-7
=9x 109 v 0.09
V=4x 104v
(b) W= qV
= 2x 10-9 x4x 104
W=8x 10-5 J
No, work done will be path independent. Any arbitrary infinitesimal path
can be resolved into two perpendicular displacements: 0ne along r and
another perpendicular to r. The work done corresponding to the later will be
zero.
Potential due to an Electric Dipole

1
=

1
V2 =
4TtEo 2

V=VË + V2
1 -q
V= 19
4TtE0 ri
+ 4TTE0 r2

V=
-) 2 a cos
1 1
r2
2 a cos 0
V= r2
4ne0
1 pcos 6
V=
4TE0 r2

Potential along the axial line

0=0
1 P cos 0
V=
4TtE r2

1
V=
4TrE) r2

Potential along the equatorial line

e=901 p cos90
V = 4TrEO
r2
V=0
 =0+(- ) ; =i+ (a)
R= A+ B R= A+B
R= VA? + BZ + 2AB cos R= VA2 + B² + 2AB cos e
R2 = A2 + B²+ 2AB cos 0 R? = A? + B² + 2AB cos 0
rË =r2 + a? -2ar cos 0 r3=r2+ a² + 2ar cos
Since a« r, a can be neglected Since a«r, a can be neglected
rË = 2 2ar cos r = r²+ 2ar cos
2 acos ) 2 acos )
r

-
-r(1-Zacos e
r
=r(1+2acos0y
1 2 acos0 1 2 acos
r

i) acos

1-1 -(1+ *cos ) -(1- co)

acos e
1--+ acos
r2

1 2 acos

Potential due to a System of Charges

By the superposition principle, the potential at a point due to a system of
charges is the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the individual charges.

42

43

44

+ Vn
1
V= 1 91 + 42 + . . . . . . . +
1 An
4TEo T1 4TEo T2 4TEo Tn
1
V= + 92 + +
4TtEOri r2
Potential due to a uniformly charged spherical shell

a)The potential at a distance r, from the shell ,where r2R

(R-radius of sphere)
For a uniformly charged spherical shell, the electric field outside the shell is
as if the entire charge is concentrated at the centre
1
V= (r> R)
b) Inside the shell
Inside the shell the electric field is zero. This implies that the potential is
constant inside the shell ,which is equal to the value of potential at the
surface
V= 1_9
4nE0 R

Example
Two charges 3 x 10-8C and -2 x 10-8C are located 15 cm apart. At what
point on the line joining the two charges is the electric potential zero? Take
the potential at infinity to be zero.

Let P lies between 0 and A

at a distance x from 0,
X 15-x

P A

3x10*c 15 cm -2 x10 C

Potential at P due to charge 3 x 10-8C

1 3x10-8
V,= 4TTE0

Potential at P due to charge -2 x 10-8C

1 -2 x 10-8
V = 4TtEo 15-x
 Total potential at P, V=V+ V,=0
1 3x 10-8 1 2x 10-8
=0
4TtE0 4TtE0 15-x

4TEo

3 2
X 15-x

45-3x=2x
45=5x

X=9cm
If P lies on the extended line OA,

o A
P
3x10c 15 cmn -2x10c

X-15

1 3x10-8 1 2X 10
=0
4TEo 4T1E0 X-15

3 2
X X-15

3x-45=2x
X=45cm

Thus, electric potential is zero at 9 cm and 45 cm away from the positive

charge on the side of the negative charge.
Equipotential Surfaces
An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant value of potential at all
points on the surface.
" As there is no potential difference between any two points on an
equipotential surface, no work is required to move a test charge on the
surface.
For any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a point is
normal to the electric field at that point
Equipotential surfaces for a single point charge
For a single charge q, the potential is
1 q
V=
4TEo r
Vis a constant ifr is constant.
Thus,equipotential surfaces of a single point charge are concentric spherical
surfaces centred at the charge.

Equipotential surfaces for a uniform electric field.

Equipotential surfaces for a dipole

Equipotential surfaces for two identical positive charges.

Relation between electric field and potential
V-dy

dr

Equipotential surface

The work done to move a unit positive charge from B to A is

dW= F. dr =F dr cos 180= -F dr
(But F =gE
q=1
F=E)
dW =- E dr
This work equals the potential difference,
VA -Vz =V -(V -dV) = d V
-E dr =dV
- dV
E=
dr

Potential Energy of a System of Charges

a) For a system of Two charges
P The potential due to the charge qË at point P
1 41
41
42 V, =

The work done in bringing charge qz from infinity to the point Pis
W= qV
W= 42V
1 41
W= q2 X
W=
1 4192
4nE0 r

This work gets stored in the form of potential energy of the system. Thus, the potential energy
1 4192
U=
4TEO r
b)For a system of three charges
P 23 P

T13

41

The potential due to the charge q1 at point P

1 41
VË=
4nE0 T12
The work done to bring the charge q, from infinity to P
W;- q2 Vi
1 4142
WË =

4nE0 r12
The total potential at P' due to the charges q, and q2

V 1 1 + 1_92
4nEo T13 4E0 T23
1
42 41 +
4nEo\T13 T23)
The work done to bring the charge qz from infinity to P'
W,=43V2
1 9143 42 43
W, =
T13 T23
The toal workdone in assembling the charges
W= W+ W2
1
W = +
4nEO r12 r23

This work is equal to the potential energy of the system of three chargesq1 42 and q3
1
U= (4142 + 9143 + 4243
4nE0 r12 r13 r23
Potential energy ot a dipole in an external field

acos 0

Torque acting on the dipole

i= pEsin
The workdone by the external torque
dW= text de
dW= pEsin0 de
W= [ pEsine de
W= pE[- cos 0)
HSS W= pE(- cos 8, - - cos ®,)

W= pE(cos , - cos 0,)

This work is stored as potential energy of the system
U= pE(cos @, - cos ,)
If we take O, = 2

U= -pE cos 0
U= -p.E

Electrostatics of conductors
1.Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero
Aconductor has free electrons. In the static situation, the free charges have
so distributed themselves that the electric field is zero everywhere inside.
2. At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field must be normal
tothe surface at every point.
3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static
situation.

4.Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the

conductor and has the same value (as inside) on its surface.
5.Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor E
Consider apill box shaped Gaussian surface to find the electric field
at the surface of a charged conductor.
The total flux through the pill box comes only from the outside
(circular) cross-section of the pill box
Surface change Surface of
By Gauss's law, Eds = 9
density Conductor
Eds= ds

E=

6.Electrostatic shielding
The electric field inside a cavity of any conductor is zero. This is known as
electrostatic shielding. All charges reside only on the outer surface of a
conductor with cavity.
The effect can be made use of in protecting sensitive instruments from
outside electrical influence.

Why it is safer to be inside a car during lightning?

Due to Electrostatic shielding, electricfield E=0 inside the car.
So it is safer to sit inside a car than standing outside during lightening.

Dielectrics and polarisation

Dielectrics
Dielectrics are non-conducting substances. In contrast to conductors, the
Dielectric substances may be made of polar or non polar molecules.
Non polar molecules
E 0 E0
+

- +

- +
+
-+

In a non-polar molecule, the centres of positive and negative charges

coincide. The molecule then has no permanent (or intrinsic) dipole moment.
Eg: oxygen (0,) , hydrogen (H,)
In an external electric field, the positive and negative charges of a nonpolar
molecule are displaced in opposite directions. The non-polar molecule thus
develops an induced dipole moment. The dielectric is said to be polarised by
the external field
Polar molecules
E0

+
+

IN +
+
+ +

+
G+

In polar molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges are

separated (even when there is no external field). Such molecules have a
permanent dipole moment.
Eg: HCl, H,0
In the absence of any external field, the different permanent dipoles are
oriented randomly; so the total dipole moment is zero. When an external
field is applied, the individual dipole moments tend to align with the field. A
dielectric with polar molecules also develops a net dipole moment in an
external field.

Polarisation(P)
The dipole moment per unit volume is called polarisation.
For linear isotropic dielectrics,
P= XeE
where x is the electric susceptibility of the dielectric medium.
Capacitor
A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator.
Capacitor is a charge storing device.

Conductor I Conductor 2

Capacitance
The potential difference, V(V = V,- V) between the two is proportional to
the charge, Q.
Q«V
Q=CV
C= V
The constant Cis called the capacitance of the capacitor.
Cis independent of Qor V.
The capacitance Cdepends only on the geometrical configuration (shape,
size, separation) of the system of two conductors.
SI unit of capacitance is farad.
1farad =1coulomb volt-1
1 F=1CV-1
Other units are,
1 uF=10 -6 F , 1nF= 10 -9F, 1pF =10-12 F, etc.
Symbol of capacitor
Fixed capacitance Variable capacitance

"C= V . For large C, Vis small for agiven Q. This means a capacitor
with large capacitance can hold large amount of charge Qat a relatively
small V
High potential difference implies strong electric field around the
conductors. Astrong electric field can ionise the surrounding air and
accelerate the charges so produced to the oppositely charged plates,
thereby neutralising the charge on the capacitor plates, at least partly.
 " The maximumn electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand
without break-down (of its insulating property) is called its dielectric
strength; for air it is about 3 x 106 Vm-1
The parallel plate capacitor
Aparallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting
plates separated by a small distance.

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

Capacitance, C=2
Q= oA
+0
V= Ed
E=
Gd Eo
V=

C=
od
Eo
EoA
C=
d

Capacitance can be increased,

By increasing the area of the plates.
" By decreasing the distance between the plates.
" By introducing a dielectric medium between the plates.
Effect of dielectric on capacitance
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when the medium between the
plates is air,
d

When dielectric medium of dielectric constant Kis placed between the

plates, the capacitance,
KeoA
Cmed d

The capacitance increases Ktimes, where Kis the dielectric constant.

Cmed =K C¡ir
Definition of dielectric constant in terms of capacitance
KeA
Cmed d =K
Cair
K= Cmed
Cair
The dielectric constant of a substance is the factor by which the capacitance
increases from its vacuum value, when a dielectric is inserted between the
plates.
Combination of Capacitors
Capacitors In Series

In series combination the charge Qis same and potential drop is different in
each capacitor. The total potential drop Vacross the combination is
V=V+ V2
V,=2
C

V=+-1)
If the two capacitors are replaced bya single capacitor of capacitance Cwith
the same charge Qand potential difference V.
V=2C -(2)
Equating eq (1) & C4

For n capacitors in series,

If allthe capacitors have the same value, C = Cz= ..-= Ch=C
n
C'=
eg: If C=1uF n=10
IuF
C' 0. 1uF
10

The effective capacitance decreases when capacitors are connected in series.

In series combination the effective capacitance will be smaller than the
smallest among individual capacitors.
Example
Find the effective capacitance of the combination.
10F
HE

2F

1 8
C 2F 10F 10F
10F
C= =1.25F
8

Capacitors In Parallel

In parallel connection, the same potential drop across both the capacitors,
but the charges are different.
Q =Q1 + Q2
Q1 = C,V
Q2 = CzV
Q= C,V+C2V (1)
If the two capacitors are replaced by a single capacitor of capacitance Cwith
the same charge Qand potential difference V.
Q=CV (2)
From eq(1) &(2) CV= CV+CzV
C= C+ Cz
 . For ncapacitors in parallel, C=C1+ Cz+ Cgt....+ Cn
If allthe capacitors have the same value, C= Cz= Cg=....=-Ch=C
C'= nC

Eg: IfC=1uF n=10

C'= nC= 10 x 1uF =10uF

The effective capacitance increases when capacitors are connected in
parallel. In parallelcombination the effective capacitance will be greater
than the greatest among individual capacitors.

Example
Find the effective capacitance of the combination.
A
Ii Iz I3
C3
12v

0.1uF 0.2uF 0.3uF

Bo

C= C+ Czt+ Cg
C=0.1 uF +0.2 uF+0.3 uF
C=0.6 uF
 1)Find the equivalent capacitance of capacitors given in the network

H
4uFand 12uF are connected in paraliel. 6/5 uF, 16uF and9uF are connected in series
C' =C +Cz
C' = 4uf + 12uF
C 16uf
3uF and 6uF are connected in paraliel.
5 1
C" =G, +Cz =6nEt TnF =1.0069
1
C" = 3uF + 6uF C=
1.0069
C" =9uF
C = 0.99uF

2)Two capacitors are connected as shown in figure .The equivalent capacitance

of thecombination is 4uF.
20 uF CSuF
HE (c) What will be the potential drop
across each capacitor?
The potential drop across 20uF
V,=; C
12 V
48uC
(a) Calculate the value of C (b) Calculate the charge on each
capacitor.
VË20u F
V, =2.4 v
C1 Cz The potential drop across 5uf
1
V
1 1 Q= CV
48uC
20uF V2 =
Q=4uFx12 5u F
V; =9.6V
0uF c- SuF Q=48u C
 3)Three capacitors are connected to a 12V battery as shown in figure

b)What is the potential difference

a)What is the effective capacitance of the combination? across the 2uF capacitor?
2uF and 4uf are connected in paraliel. v
C' =C+Cz Q= CV
C' = 2uF + 4uF Q=2u x12
C =6uf Q= 24uC
6juF and 3uF are connected in series
C=
6u x 3u
C +Cz 6u+3u
24s
C= 18ux4 V=
64
V=4V
C- 2uF

4)What is area of plates of a 0.1uF parallel plate air capacitor, given that the
separation between the plates is 0.1mm
C=
d
Cd 0.1 x 10-x0.1 x 10-3
A=
8.85 x10-12
- 10.47 x10 m²

5)A parallel plate capacitor with air between plates has a capacitance of 8uF .
What will be the capacitance if distance between the plates is reduced by half and
the space between is filled with a medium of dielectric constant 5.

C= = 8uF
d

C'=
KEA
=2 K = 2x 5x 8F =80uF
d/2 d
 +*******
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
1 2

+0 -Q

Work done to move a charge dq from conductor 2 to conductor 1

dW = Potential x Charge
dW = V dg
dW = g dq

The total work done to attain a charge Q on conductor 1, is

w=jav -xda
0

W= Q'
2C
This work is stored as potential energy in the electric field between the
plates.
Energy U= 2C

Energy stored in a capacitor can also be expressed as

U=Q<
2C 2C

C*y
Q =CV
UC<y2 U=3
2C
1
U-; cv2 U= v
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
Graphical method

Area under the graph =½ QV=Energy

Area under Q-V graph gives energy stored in a capacitor

Energy Density of a capacitor

Energy density is the energy density is the energy stored per unit volume
U=cv2
C=o4
d --1)
V=Ed
E=

V=d -(2)

1 EoA o d²
U=
2 d

Ad

1
U=;EoE² Ad
Energy density = Energy stored
Volumne
U

u= 2
E² Ad
Ad
Van de Graaff Generator
This is a machine that can build up high voltages of the order ofa few million
volts. The resulting large electric fields are used to accelerate charged
particles (electrons, protons, ions) to high energies needed for experiments
to probe the small scale structure of matter.
Principle
Ifa small charged sphere, is introduced into a large charged spherical
conducting shell and if these two spheres are connected by a wire, the
charge on the smaller sphere will immediately flow onto the surface of
larger sphere. We can in this way keep piling up larger and larger amount of
charge on the larger sphere.

Explanation of Principle
Tutal eharge O

Codeting
Asmall sphere of radius r, carrying some charge q, is
introduced into a large spherical conducting shellof
Charge q
radius Rand charge Q.
Inslating
hate

Potential inside conducting spherical shell of radius Rcarrying charge Q

1 Q
4ne, R
(constant at distancerand R)
Potential due to small sphere of radius r carrying charge q
9 (at distance R)
4ne, R
1_4 (at distance r)

The total potential at a distance R

V(R)=l_9 1_9
4NE0 R 4nEo R 4Ne0
The total potential at a distance r
1 Q
V(r)= 41NEo R 1 q
4NE0 G+)
V(r)- V ( R ) = - )
V(r)- V(R)= 4ne0 -)
As r<R, we get V(r) > V(R)
i.e., the potential at the surface of smaller sphere is greater than that at larger
sphere.
This means that if we now connect the smaller and larger sphere by a wire, the
charge q on the smaller sphere will immediately flow onto the larger sphere. we can
in this way keep piling up larger and larger amount of charge on the larger sphere.
Construction and working of Van de Graaft generator
Metal brush Pulley

Insulating belt
to carry and
deliver charge
Insulating
supporting
column

Motor driven
pulley
Metal brush Grounded
delivering metal base
charge from
SOurce

Alarge spherical conducting shell (of few metres radius) is supported at a

height several meters above the ground on an insulating column. Along
narrow endless belt insulating material, like rubber or silk, is wound around
two pulleys - one at ground level, one at the centre of the shell. This belt is
kept continuously moving by a motor ,which is connected to the lower
pulley. The belt continuously carries positive charge. sprayed on to it by a
brush at ground level, to the top. These positive charges are transferred to
another conducting brush connected to the large shell. Thus positive charge
is transferred to the shell, where it spreads out uniformly on the outer
surface. In this way, voltage diferences of as much as 6 or 8 million volts
(with respect to ground) can be built up.