introduction to architecture, 2024-25 fall semester

Human and Human Proportions

PROPORTION AND SCALE
Scale and proportion play very important roles for architecture.

While scale means the size of something compared to a reference standard or to

the size of something else (like a human being), proportion refers to the proper
harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole.

Proportion is a main principle for architectural theory and an important

connection between mathematics and art.
Proportion and Scale
While proportion refers to an ordered set of mathematical relationships among the
dimensions of a form and space, Scale refers to how we perceive the size of something
in relation to something else. It is a proportional relationship between two sets of
dimensions. In dealing with the issue of scale therefore, we are always comparing one
thing to another.
Scale
Proportion
Proportion
PROPORTION AND SCALE

How you describe the two spaces above?

PROPORTION AND SCALE

The wide passage/ common space of Ewha

Womans University, South Korea

The tall vertical space in York Minster

Proportion

Proportion plays an important role in architecture, as it provides guidelines for

laying out useful spaces, for designing structural systems, and for creating an
aesthetically pleasing environment.

Proportion is a main principle for architectural theory and an important

connection between mathematics and art. The proportions of a space can dramatically
change how visitors feel in it, and the proportions of a facade design can affect
whether a building appears welcoming threatening, or impressive.
Proportion
Proportion
Proportion
Proportion
Proportion
Proportion
Proportion
Proportion
“Without symmetry and proportion there can be no principles in
the design of any temple; that is, if there is no precise relation
between its members, as in the case of those of a well-shaped
man”
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, Book III, Chapter 1

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a Roman architect, wrote in his Ten Books on

Architecture on the importance of symmetry and proportion. In his language,
symmetry means harmony in architectural design, while proportion is the
relationship of different parts of building.

Vitruvius further suggested that

• buildings should scale down to dimensions humans can relate to,
• and all buildings should be developed from a standard module (i.e.
dimensions in the building should be proportional to the set module).
Caged home in Hong Kong Children’s playhouse

What is the importance of scale and proportion in architecture ?

Why scale and proportions are important in architecture?

In architecture we are looking for the proportional relationship between

spaces and the size of the human body. The proportion of the room can greatly
affect the way a person feels in a space. We often talk about this kind of
proportion as scale when we speak about a building. Ordinarily, an architect
tries to design a space so that people feel comfortable moving about in it.
THEORIES OF PROPORTION
Throughout history, it has been realized that a proportion system can assist both the
ordering and also the perception of buildings. So proportion in architecture was
discussed by Vitruvius, Alberti, Andrea Palladio, Le Corbusier and among others.

Proportioning systems provide an aesthetic rationale for the dimensions of form and
space. They provide a sense of order in the facades and spaces of architectural works.
A number of theories of proportions have been developed in the course of history.

For example one of these theories belong to Vitruvius.

Vitruvius identified the "Six Principles of Design" as
• order (ordinatio)
• arrangement (dispositio)
• proportion (eurythmia)
• symmetry (symmetria)
• propriety (decor)
• economy (distributio)

Among the six principles, proportion interrelates and supports all the other
factors in geometrical forms and arithmetical ratios
The word symmetria, usually translated to "symmetry" in modern renderings,
in ancient times meant something more closely related to "mathematical
harmony” and measurable proportions.

Vitruvius tried to describe his theory in the makeup of the human body, which
he referred to as the perfect or golden ratio. The principles of measurement
units digit, foot, and cubit also came from the dimensions of a Vitruvian Man.

More specifically, Vitruvius used the total height of 6 feet of a person, and
each part of the body takes up a different ratio. For example, the face is about
1/10 of the total height, and the head is about 1/8 of the total height.
Vitruvius used these ratios to prove that the composition of classical orders
mimicked the human body, thereby ensuring aesthetic harmonization when
people viewed architectural columns
The Vitruvian Man developed by
Leonardo da Vinci based on the
description of Vitruvius' ideal ratio of
the human body.

Vitruvius described the human figure

as being the principal source of
proportion among the Classical
orders of architecture.
A number of theories of proportions have been developed in the course of history.

THEORIES OF PROPORTION
golden section
classical order
renaissance theory
modular
ken
anthropometry
scale
GOLDEN SECTION
The Greeks have found out that nature uses a proportion law
called Golden section (and Fibonacci Series), which produces
things that look pleasing to us. Golden Section is basically
described as the law of beautiful proportions. According to this
law, two quantities are said to be in the golden section if the
ratio of the sum of the quantities to the larger quantity is equal
to the ratio of the larger quantity to the smaller one.

CLASSICAL ORDER
Classical order is one of the ancient styles of classical
architecture, distinguished by its proportions and characteristic
details, and mostly by the type of column employed.
Three ancient orders of architecture—the Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian—originated in Greece.
To Greeks and Romans, the Orders represented the perfect
beauty and harmony. The basic unit of dimension was the
diameter of the column.
RENAISSANCE THEORY
The architects of the Renaissance, believing that their buildings had to belong to a higher order,
returned to the Greek mathematical system of proportions. Therefore the Renaissance concern
for harmonious proportion. Renaissance architects believed that formed the architecture was
mathematics translated into spatial units.
LE MODULOR
The famous architect Le Corbusier also worked with human
proportions and Golden Section. He has developed a theory
of proportion and dimensioning system, named Modulor
that is based on Golden Section and human proportions. He
had formed the proportions of human body according to
Fibonacci series and accepted the average human height as
183 cm
ANTHROPHOMETRY
Anthropometry refers to the size and proportions of the human
body. Anthropometric proportioning methods search for the
functional dimensions for the human body. They say that forms
and spaces in architecture are either containers or extensions of
the human body and therefore they should be designed
according to its dimensions.

KEN
Ken is the Japanese unit of measure. The ken (間) is a traditional
Japanese unit of length, equal to six Japanese feet (shaku). The
exact value has varied over time and location but has generally
been a little shorter than 2 meters.
The Ken however was not only a measurement for the
construction of buildings. ıt evolved into an aesthetic module
that ordered the structure materials, and spatial organization of
Japanese architecture.
THEORIES OF PROPORTION
--golden section
classical order
renaissance theory
modular
ken
anthropometry
scale
 GOLDEN SECTION
The golden ratio (also called the golden rectangle) is a proportioning system that
governs the relationship of smaller parts to the whole. It has long been believed to
produce some of the most aesthetically pleasing shapes in nature, and as such has
been used in many works of art and architecture.
 HOW TO CALCULATE GOLDEN SECTION

A / B = C / A 1.6180339 = golden section

B / A = A / C = 0.618 = golden section
A rectangle whose sides are proportioned according to Golden Section is called a Golden
Rectangle. If a square is drawn in its smaller side, the remaining portion of the rectangle would
be a smaller but similar Golden Rectangle. This operation can be repeated indefinitely to
produce a gradation of squares and golden rectangles. In this system, each part remains similar
to all of the other parts, as well as to the whole.

If a Golden section rectangle is divided by drawing a square in it, the remaining rectangle is
again a golden section rectangle. If that remaining rectangle is divided again and this is
continued until no more squares could be drawn, in the emerging pattern, the corners of the
rectangles could be connected as to form a logarithmic spiral. It was found that the patterns of
seeds in plants and also nautilus shells follow this logarithmic spiral.
GOLDEN RECTANGALE
Some works of Pier Mondrian
Examples of applying Golden Ratio
(Left) Old Supreme Court building, Hong Kong follows a classical proportioning system
to reflect its sovereignty.

(Right) The spiral roof of The Core, the educational centre in the Eden’s Project, UK, is
generated from Golden Rectangle.
THEORIES OF PROPORTION
golden section
classical order
renaissance theory
--modular
ken
anthropometry
scale
MODULAR

Modulor diagram according to different postures by Le Corbusier, 1954

The Modulor system is a scale of measurements and proportions of the human body
designed by Swiss architect Le Corbusier (1887–1965). Le Corbusier bridged the
relationship between the Imperial System (e.g. inch and feet) and the Metric System
(e.g. millimetre and metre) by providing a system which takes the heights and
proportions of the human form as a universal standard. The system is based on the
human body in different gestures. Le Corbusier applied the system in his drawings,
furniture design and architecture.
Le Corbusier developed the
Modulor in the long tradition
of Vitruvius and Leonardo da
Vinci’s Vitruvian Man, to
discover mathematical
proportions in the human
body and then to use that
knowledge to improve both
the appearance and function
of architecture. The system is
based on a number of
variables including: human
measurements, the double
unit, the Fibonacci numbers,
and the golden ratio.
Le Corbusier’s Le Chaise Lounge
Unité d’Habitation by Le Corbusier
Year of completion: 1952
Location: Marseille, France

The free façade of Unite d´Habitation is formed by a carefully orchestrated pattern of single-and
doubleheight balconies generated from 15 different types of living spaces and public, communal
spaces, in which dimensions are determined by the Modulor system.
This residential project was Le Corbusier’s
first opportunity to implement the
Modulor system. The Unite d´Habitation
in Marseille was meant to provide a
prototype for other urban housing
projects. The building had a standard
module of 2.26 m (Modulor man’s
dimension).

Details from inside of Unité d'Habitation, Marseille

Is there any other scale we need to consider when designing a building?

Transformation of Modulor system for a nursery school designed by a French

student Vassent Garaud
1. Proportion is important as the order of architecture for usefulness, strength and
beauty.

2. The golden ratio, a common relationship of scale in nature, introduces order and
creates harmony in visual art and architecture.

3. Vitruvius suggested that building dimensions should relate to human scale, and a
standard module should be developed.

4. Le Corbusier elaborated the golden ratio and developed the Modulor system as a
universal standard.

5. A good architecture should employ appropriate proportions for its functions and
its particular users (usefulness), and should fulfil structural requirements (strength)
and provide aesthetically pleasing order (beauty).
THEORIES OF PROPORTION
golden section
classical order
renaissance theory
modular
ken
--anthropometry
scale
ANTHROPOLOGY
 • What is architecture for?

• Why we should know human proportions?

• Why we need standardization?

Tokyo, Capsule Hotel

ANTHROPOMETRY refers to the measurements of the size and proportions of the human body.

While the architects of Renaissance saw the proportions of the human figure as a reaffirmation
that certain mathematical ratios reflected the harmony of their universe, anthropometric
proportioning methods seek not abstract or symbolic ratios, but functional ones. They are
predicated on the theory that forms and spaces in architecture are either containers or
extensions of the human body and should therefore be determined by its dimensions.
In the past, in different cultures dimensions of human organs (such as the finger, foot, arm etc.)
were used as the standard dimension units:

British:
Inch (One finger): 2.54 cm
Foot (One foot): 30.48 cm
Yard (Three feet): 91.44 cm

Turkish:
Endaze (One open arm): 65.25 cm
Arşın (One open arm+1/4 chest): 68.58

The difficulty with anthropometric proportioning is the nature of the data required for its use.
Average dimensions must always be treated with the caution since variations from the norm will
always exist due to the difference between men and women, among various age and racial
groups, even from one individual to the next.
The sizes and shapes of building elements and components are the outcomes of human
dimensions and his/her certain functions. Every furniture that man created are produced
according to his/her dimensions.
Accordingly, the dimensions and dimensions systems we use today have been originated from
human proportions and dimensions. Human being is the basis of all dimensions. Human
dimensions and the relations between those dimensions (proportions) have been studied for a
very long time.

Anthropometrics deals with this subject and detects those dimensions, because the dimensions
and proportions of the human body affect the proportion of the things we handle, the
dimensions of our furniture, and the dimensions of the spaces we use. (For this reason, in order
to coordinate the design of devices, systems, and environments with our physiological and
psychological capacities and requirements, another branch of science emerged, which is called
ergonomics.)
There are great variations in the anthropometric measurements and body proportions of the
world population. These anthropometric differences are reflected in the different standards that
relate to each specific population. Increasing international economic interdependence, however,
makes it necessary to go beyond national frontiers and to establish international
anthropometric standards for consumer goods and the design of workplaces.
 Types of human dimensions

The dimensions and the proportions of the human body affect the proportions of
things we handle, the height and distance of things we try to reach, and the
dimensions of the furnishing we use for sitting , working, sleeping, and eating.

• The fit between form and dimensions of a space and our own body dimensions
called as static dimensions.

• Dimensional requirements that result from how we reach for something on a shelf,
sit down at a table, walk down a set of stairs, or interact with other people are
called functional dimensions. These functional dimensions and will vary according
to the nature of the activity engaged in and social situation.
 static dimensions functional dimensions
• the dimensions of the human body also afffect the volume of space we require for movement,
activty and rest.

• there are differences between static and functional dimensions of the human body.
Buildings scaled to human dimensions and physical capabilities in an ergonomic
manner have architectural elements, such as steps, doorways, railings, work surfaces,
seating, shelves, fixtures etc. that fit well to the average person. Moreover, the spaces
that are left between these elements should be arranged carefully so that a human
being can act and move efficiently between them. The dimensions of these spaces and
the circulation areas are determined according to the dimensions of furniture and the
standard dimensions of a human being in static and dynamic positions.
the dimensions of the human body also
afffect the volume of space we require
for movement, activty and rest.
the dimensions of the human body also
afffect the volume of space we require
for movement, activty and rest.
 the dimensions of the human body also
afffect the volume of space we require
for movement, activty and rest.

A hidden hotel in Tokyo that was designed as a guesthouse for backpackers.

An architect should plan and design his buildings in accordance with human dimensions in an
ergonomic manner. He/she should design the furnitures according to human dimensions and
design spaces according to those furnitures.
Design for disabled people, design for all need different requirements.
THEORIES OF PROPORTION
golden section
classical order
renaissance theory
modular
ken
anthropometry
--scale
Scale
While proportion refers to an ordered set of mathematical relationships among the
dimensions of a form and space, scale refers to how we perceive the size of something in
relation to something else. It is a proportional relationship between two sets of
dimensions. In dealing with the issue of scale therefore, we are always comparing one
thing to another.

Scale also refers to the mathematical relationship between an object and a measurable
quantity (the scale referent). In an architectural drawing, we use a scale to specify the
ratio that determines the relationship between the drawing and the actual building. We
say that an object is ―full-scale‖ when it corresponds 1 to 1 (1:1) with real life. If the same
object is rendered such that any given linear dimension is one-half the length of the
original object, we understand this to be at ―half scale‖ or 1:2.
Scale

Scale refers to the size of an object (a whole) in relationship to another

object.

Psychologists have studied how we perceive visual information and their

findings have showed that we perceive and judge the size of something
in relation to something else. A thing appears smaller or larger in
relation to the size of other things in its environment.
Scale
Scale also refers to the mathematical relationship between an object
and a measurable quantity (the scale referent). In an architectural
drawing, we use a scale to specify the ratio that determines the
relationship between the drawing and the actual building.

We say that an object is ―full-scale‖ when it corresponds 1 to 1 (1:1)

with real life. If the same object is rendered such that any given linear
dimension is one-half the length of the original object, we understand
this to be at ―half scale‖ or 1:2.
Scale
Scale is shown as a mathematical ratio, which means that it gives a direct relationship between
the measurements in the drawing or model and the reality.

Converting between reality and your representation

A wall which is one meter long will be drawn as 1cm long, or 0.01m, in a 1:100 scale drawing. To
find the scaled measurement you can divide the real measurement by the scale factor.
So, 1m divided by 100 = 1cm.

The same one meter long wall, at a scale of 1:500, would be drawn as 0.2cm long, or 0.002m.
This answer can be found by dividing 1m by 500.

Converting between representational scales

The next step is to convert between drawing scales. This is where it gets fun, but the technique
is the same:

a 1:50 drawing will be twice as big as a 1:100 drawing(100/50 = 2)

a 1:500 drawing will be 2.5 times smaller than a 1:200 drawing (500/200 = 2.5)
Scale
Scale
Scale
UNDERSTANDING SCALE
Scale is how we relate our representations to reality; a magic correlation of mathematics with
experience. Scale is one of the architectural ideas that truly blends the abstract and the real.

you need to develop an understanding of scale in two ways:

• in a mathematical, physical sense; and
• in terms of your body and experience of space.

The first of these, the mathematical, can be learned, working with fairly simple systems of ratios
and percentages.

The second, understanding scale in experiential terms, will probably take time to embed, but
will eventually come to you so naturally it becomes difficult to identify it as a skill in its own
right.
Scale
visual scale

Psychologists have studied how we perceive visual information and their findings have
showed that we perceive and judge the size of something in relation to something else. A
thing appears smaller or larger in relation to the size of other things in its environment.

One of the studies is known as the Ebbinghaus Illusion. The Ebbinghaus illusion (or
Titchener circles) is the optical illusion that shows relative size perception. In this illusion,
two circles of the same size are perceived to be different sizes because of the size of the
surrounding objects
Line segments which are shown below are at the same size or different?
Another example is the Muller-Lyer Illusion where line segments of the same size appear
to be of different lengths based on the shapes that are placed at the ends.
We perceive the size of a building in comparison to the other structures near it (or human
beings near it) or we perceive the size of elements (such as doors or windows in a
building) in relation to the other parts or to the whole of a composition. We also
understand the true sizes of the buildings when we compare them to standard elements
such as residential window units or modular materials such as bricks.

We understand the size of elements in relation to the other parts or to the whole of a
composition .
SCALE IN ARCHITECTURE
Scale is size in relation to ourselves and the world around us. Human scale is that scale
that feels comfortable to man. We naturally measure things against ourselves.
Monumental scale is impressive. Our public
buildings are monumental. This is a statement of
hierarchy. Those institutions represented by
those buildings are bigger than us and we should
stand in awe of them.
 Courtyards in different scales

The courtyard of Great Mosque of Kairouan,

Tunisia
SCALE IN URBAN DESIGN
The experience of life in a city is influenced by the space itself. Sustainable urban design
must encourage participation in city life through design at the human scale, sense of
place, and vistas. Human scale refers to the way we proportion our surroundings and
relate our own height to the places in which we find ourselves. Comfortable scale is the
outcome of well-proportioned street width, appropriate setback of buildings from the
road, and the height of buildings, trees, streetlamps, and other design features.
Appropriate scale enhances our sense of place and comfort. Disproportionate scale, on
the other hand, can make us feel out of place and disconnected. Similarly, having long
views, known as vistas, will enhance walkability. The shared benefits of human scale and
vistas contribute to a city’s sense of place.
 SCALE IN URBAN DESIGN

Underscoring the importance of quality urban space and a human dimension of cities; correcting
an often wrong perception by practitioners of the relation between human senses and
dimensions in cities (human scale versus car scale); and proposing numerous solutions for
achieving a lively, safe, sustainable, and healthy city – John Gehl makes valid points against
modernist planning theory and practice. For him, city planning and development should combine
“life, space, buildings”, and prioritize them in that order. His “city at eye level” contributes to a
people-centered perspective on how urban space can truly function.
SCALE IN URBAN DESIGN
 SCALE IN URBAN DESIGN

Piazza del Campo in Siena.

 SCALE IN URBAN DESIGN

Piazza del Campo in Siena.

 SCALE IN URBAN DESIGN

Piazza del Campo in Siena.

 SCALE IN URBAN DESIGN

Different views from

SCALE IN URBAN DESIGN
SCALE IN URBAN DESIGN
SCALE IN URBAN DESIGN
SCALE IN URBAN DESIGN
SCALE IN ART

"In Bed" by Ron Mueck (2005) "Boy" by Ron Mueck (1999)

Photo realistic giant sculptures of Ron Mueck* play with the scale of human figures
*Ron Mueck is an Australian hyper-realist sculptor working in Great Britain.
Claes Oldenburg (born January 28, 1929) is
an American sculptor, best known for
his public art, installations typically featuring
very large replicas of everyday objects.
Another theme in his work is soft
sculpture versions of everyday objects.
 Scale
human scale
Human scale in architecture is based on the dimensions and proportions of the human body.

It has already been mentioned in the section on anthropometric proportioning that our
dimensions vary from individual to individual and should not be used as an absolute measuring
device.

Human scale refers to the size of a form when compared with our own human size. Human
dimensions and scale have a determinative effect both in our perception and also in our
creation of buildings and spaces.

Architecture is the largest of the visual arts. In terms of perception, one of the challenges for the
user is to determine just how big a building is. For doing this we use our own size as the
reference. We can understand the dimensions of a building better, when we compare that to
our human dimensions. How big a building is relative to the size of the average human being is
said to be its scale.
 While something that is monumental in scale makes us feel small in comparison, a
space that is intimate in scale describes an environment in which we feel comfortable,
in control, or important. The difference between monumental scale and domestic
scale results from the difference of proportions. In monumental architecture the
harmony is created by the proportioning of ultra large elements, where as in domestic
(human scale) architecture, harmony is created by the proportioning of human scale
elements (doors, windows etc.).

Pantheon, Rome Harran houses, Şanlıurfa

Size and scale in architecture: Monumental Architecture-grand in size (left);
Domestic Architecture-humble in size - Mudbrick houses in Turkey (right)
 Courtyards in different scales

The courtyard of Great Mosque of Kairouan,

Tunisia
Of a room’s three dimensions, its height has a greater effect on its scale than either its width
and length. While the walls of the room provide enclosure, the height of the ceiling plane
overhead determines its qualities of shelter and intimacy.
USER REQUIREMENTS

As we design for human and his requirements we should create needed environmental
conditions and know the properties of these conditions.

The expections of human from an environment is called as ‘user requirements’ . When

we say ‘human’ in fact we mean ‘user’ namely the person who will use the space in a
proper purpose. So we called these requirements as ‘user requirements’ .

We can classify ‘user requirements’ under 2 topics;

1- physical requirements
2-psycho-social requirements
1- PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS

When the user is in action in a specific place; the conditions that should be required
for doing these actions. These are the properties that can change due to the user
number, action properties, the elements which are used in that space for the action.

These physical user requirements can be classified under 6 topics:

a) spatial requirements
b) thermal requirements
c) audial requirements
d) visual requirements
e) health requirements
f) safety requirements
1- PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS

a) spatial requirements
Static, dynamic, anthropometric proportions, actions, the way of doing these actions,
behaviours of the user in a specific place.
In our country, due to the regulations (01.11.2018) some spatial dimensions as M2 are assigned.

GAZİANTEP BÜYÜKŞEHİR BELEDİYESİ İMAR YÖNETMELİĞİ

Gaziantep Metropolitan Municipality Zoning and Construction Law
1- PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS

b) thermal requirements

Proper temperature, air circulation, humidity, and radiation

ACTION-SPACE TEMPRATURE AIR CIRCULATION HUMDITY

LIVING 18-24 0 C 1-3 times % 35-60
BEDROOM 15-19 0 C 1-2 times % 35-60
KITCHEN 15-19 0 C 5-40 times MAX % 70
BATHROOM 24-26 0 C 2-4 times -
CIRCULATION 11-15 0 C 1-2 times % 30-70
1- PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS

c) audial requirements

The sound level of a space and the technical properties of sounds.

ACTION-SPACE SOUND LEVEL

LIVING 40-50 dB
BEDROOM 20-30 dB
CLEANING SPACES 60-75 dB
KITCHEN 55-70 dB
1- PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS

d) visual requirements

The proper light and brightness level of a space.

ACTION-SPACE LIGHT LEVEL (lux)

LIVING 100
BEDROOM 50
KITCHEN 200
BATHROOM 100
CIRCULATION 50-100
1- PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS

e) health requirements

Bringing clear water to the space, destruction and removing the garbage and wastes,
protecting from microbes and harmful substances.

f) safety requirements

We can say safety and security requirements are like; structural, against natural
disaster (fire, earthquake, flood, landslide), against thief and accidents occurred by
the actions.
For structural safety requirements, and for precaution against natural disasters some
regulations are prepared.

The accidents through the actions happen because of; %67 personal factors, %25
faulty maintenance, %8 faulty design.
2- PSYCHO-SOCIAL REQUIREMENTS

When a user is in an action, the requirements which are needed to prevent

psychological inconvenience.

We can handle the psycho-social requirements under 6 main topics.

a) privacy requirements
b) behavioral requirement
c) esthetic requirements
d) social (common) requirements
2- PSYCHO-SOCIAL REQUIREMENTS
a) privacy requirements
As a space being proper in the name of audial, visual, personal and social privacy.

- audial privacy; the sound transition between neighbor volumes ( a living space
wall and a bedroom wall should not be neighbor.
- visual privacy; some action spaces should not be seen from other spaces ( the
toilet window size)
- personal privacy; a person can stand –alone when he/she needs.
- social privacy; the way of living which is designed by society itself.
2- PSYCHO-SOCIAL REQUIREMENTS
b) behavioral requirements
The distances which are neeeded when in action.

personal distance (personal) space; 45cm.

distance between people (social zone); 45-120 cm.
Public zone; more thane 360 cm.

These distances can change from society to society.

c) esthetic requirements

Esthetic requirements reflects; the society that user belongs to, the purpose of space,
the elements of that space, physical properties like form, colour, texture of these
elements.

d) social (common) requirements

Social relations and necessities in a space.