KENYA WATER INSTITUTE

WATER AND WASTE WATER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

COURSE DESCRIPTION
COURSE TITLE: IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE I
COURSE CODE: IEN 2311
HOURS TAUGHT: 42
PREREQUISITES: Soil mechanics I
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: Sarah Nangami Wanyonyi
Phone: 0727860773
Email: sarahnangami3@gmail.com
PURPOSE OF COURSE
This course unit is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills, and attitudes to enable
him/her plan, design, construct, operate and maintain irrigation and drainage systems. The students
should be able to know the importance of irrigation, identify types of irrigation systems, analyze
soil properties and discuss irrigation hazards.
EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
a) Explain the importance of irrigation and drainage
b) Describe irrigation methods
c) Discuss irrigation hazards
d) Construct and install irrigation and drainage systems
e) Operate and maintain irrigation and drainage systems
COURSE CONTENT
Week Topic Sub Topics
1 Introduction • Introduction
• Need for irrigation
Soil-Water-Plant • Soil physical properties influencing irrigation
Relationships • Water relations of soils
2 • Crop water relations
• Movement of water in soils
3 • Movement of water in soils
• Irrigation constants and important terminologies
4 • Evapotranspiration
5 • Crop water requirements
• Factors affecting water requirements of crops,
 6 • Determination of crop water requirements
7 C.A.T 1
8 Water Application • Water application Methods(Surface methods/ open
methods - border, check basin, furrow;
9 • Closed irrigation systems: Sprinkler
10 • Closed irrigation systems: Drip
11 Irrigation Hazards: C.A.T 2/ ASSIGNMENT
• Causes of irrigation hazards
• Effects of irrigation hazards on soil and plants
• Control of irrigation hazards
12 Drainage: • Need for drainage, Drainage systems,
• Materials used in drainage.
13 Emerging Issues In • Gender participation in irrigation
Irrigation: • Use if ICT in irrigation. Climate change on
14 REVISION/EXAMS
15 EXAMS

MODE OF DELIVERY
Lecture, group discussions, field trips
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND / OR EQUIPMENT
Internet access, computer access, E-resources, board maker, duster, chalk,
COURSE ASSESSMENT
Main exam: written 70%; CATS: Written (15%), Practicals (15 %)
READING MATERIALS / LIST
References

1. Irrigation theory and practice by A.M.Michael

2. Irrigation Engineering by Sharma R.K and Sharma T.K 2007
3. K.N.Tiwari, & N.S.raghuwanshi. (n.d.). Irrigation Engineering .

Approval

COD:
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 1: Introduction

Lesson 1
Topic 1: Introduction
Definition of Irrigation
Irrigation is defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land, in accordance with
the ‘crop water requirements’ throughout the ‘crop period’ for full-fledged nourishment of the
crops
1.1 Need for Irrigation
Increase in agricultural production and productivity depends, to a large extent, on the availability
of water. Hence, the importance of irrigation is, however, the availability of irrigation facilities.
1. Insufficient, uncertain and irregular rain causes uncertainty in agriculture. The period of
rain is restricted to only four months in a year, June to September, when monsoon arrives. The
remaining eight months are dry. There is some rainfall during the months of December and January
in some parts of the country.
Even during monsoon, the rainfall is scanty and undependable in many parts of the country.
Sometimes the monsoon delayed considerably while sometimes they cease prematurely. This
pushes large areas of the country into drought conditions. With the help of irrigation, droughts and
famines can be effectively controlled.
2. Higher productivity on irrigated land:
Productivity on irrigated land is considerably more than the productivity on un-irrigated land.
3. Multiple cropping possible:
Since India has a tropical and sub-tropical climate, it has potentialities to grow crops on a year-
round basis. However, since 80% of the annual rainfall is received in less than four months,
multiple cropping is generally not possible. Provision of irrigation facilities can make possible the
growing of two or three crops in a year in most areas of the country. This will considerably enhance
agricultural production and productivity.
4. Role in new agricultural strategy:
The successful implementation of the High Yielding Programme enhances agricultural production
to a great extent.
5. Bringing more land under cultivation:
Total reporting area for land utilization statistics was 306.05 million hectares in 1999-2000. Of
this 19.44 million hectares was current fallow land. Current fallows include lands which are lying
fallow for less than one year other than current fallows includes land lying un-ploughed for one to
five years.
Cultivable waste land comprises another 13.83 million hectares. Cultivation On all such lands is
impossible in some cases while in others it requires substantial capital investment to make land fit
for cultivation. Provision of irrigation facilities can make some portion of this land cultivable.
6. Reduces instability in output levels:
Irrigation helps in stabilising the output and yield levels. It also plays a protective role during
drought years. Since both income and employment are positively and closely related to output,
prevention of fall in output during drought is an important instrument for achieving stability of
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 1: Introduction

income and employment in the countryside. Irrigation has enabled many states to acquire ‘partial
immunity’ from drought.
7. Indirect benefits of irrigation:
Irrigation confers indirect benefits through increased agricultural production. Employment
potential of irrigated lands, increased production, helps in developing allied activities, means of
water transport etc. are improved income of government from agriculture. Availability of regular
water supply will increase the income of farmers imparting a sense of security and stability in
agriculture.
Advantages
• Increases agricultural productivity
• Allows for multiple cropping during throughout the year
• Provide jobs.
• Reduces risk of crop failures.
• Higher productivity results in
• Steady supply of food at lower prices (supply demand principle of economics)
• Improves socioeconomic conditions of farmers
Disadvantages
1. Excessive irrigation may cause decrease in crop yield
2. Excessive irrigation may cause leaching of pesticide, insecticide, nitrogen and nitrates to
groundwater and may also transport them to surface water systems.
3. In poorly drained soils water logging and salinity may occur.
4. In poorly maintained canals- excessive seepage may cause water logging.
5. Excessive groundwater pumping may cause decrease in groundwater levels which may damage
aquifer structure and increase the risk of land subsidence.
1.2 Purpose of Irrigation
Some of the main purposes of irrigation are enlisted below:
1. To supply essential moisture for plant growth
2. Transportation of fertilizers (Fertigation)
3. To leach or dilute salts in soil
4. To help in field preparation, dust control etc.
5. Other benefits of irrigation include cooling of the soil and atmosphere to create more favourable
environment for crop growth and frost control
Irrigation Management
Management of water based on the soil and crop environment to obtain better
yield by efficient use of water without any damage to the environment.
Management of water, soil, plants, irrigation structure, irrigation reservoirs,
environment, social setup and it’s inter liked relationship are studied in the irrigation
management.
Importance of irrigation management
• To the development of nation through proper management of water resources for the purpose
of crop production and other activities such as industrialization, power generation etc., which
in turn provides employment opportunities and good living condition of the people.
• To store the regulate the water resources for further use or non-season use
• To allocate the water with proper proportion based on area and crop under cultivation.
(Balanced equity in distribution)
• To convey the water without much loss through percolation and seepage (Efficiency in use)
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 1: Introduction

• To apply sufficient quantity to field crops. (Optimization of use)

• To utilize the water considering cost-benefit (Economically viable management)
• To distribute the available water without any social problem (Judicial distribution)
• To meet the future requirement for other purposes like domestic use of individual and to
protect against famine (Resource conservation).
• To protect the environment from over use or misuse of water (Environment safe use)
1.3 Sources of Water
Natural Sources
Rain, snow, hail and sleet are precipitated upon the surface of the earth as meteorological water
and may
be considered as the original source of all the water supplied. Surface and groundwater are main
sources
of irrigation water. Three aspects should be considered in appraising water resources which are the
quantity, the quality, and the reliability of availability of water. Rainwater, rivers, lakes, streams,
ponds
and springs are natural sources of water. Dams, wells, tube wells, hand-pumps, canals, etc. are
man-made
sources of water.

Fig. 1.3. Hydrological cycle (K.N.Tiwari & N.S.raghuwanshi)

Irrigation water sources can be broadly classified into two main groups, namely,
1. Surface water sources and
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 1: Introduction

2. Groundwater sources.
Irrigation water supply can be either obtained from surface water sources or groundwater sources
or both. Both of these depend upon the precipitation
a) Surface Water
Water present on the surface of the earth in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes, ponds and streams is
called surface water. Surface water accumulates mainly by direct runoff from precipitation i.e.,
rain or snow melting. The amount of available surface water depends largely upon rainfall.
Surface water sources consists river, lake, and reservoir supplies. Dams or reservoirs are
constructed to create artificial storage of water. Canals or open channels can be constructed to
convey surface water from the rivers or reservoirs to the farm fields where it may directly be
applied to the field or stored in farm irrigation structures like ponds or tanks. The water is also
conveyed through pipes by gravity or pumping. Thus, sources of surface water are i) Rivers and
streams ii) Reservoirs iii) Tanks, ponds and lakes.
River
A river is a natural water course, usually of freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, a lake, a sea, or
another river. In a few cases, a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before
reaching another body of water.

Reservoir
A reservoir is a natural or an artificial lake, storage pond or impoundment from a dam which is
used to store water. Reservoirs may be constructed across the rivers or may be excavated in the
ground.

Lake
A lake is an inland water body of considerable size. Lakes can serve as the source or termination
point for rivers or smaller streams. Lakes are distinct from lagoons as they are not part of the ocean.
Lakes are larger and deeper than ponds.
Ponds
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 1: Introduction

A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is usually smaller than
a lake. Generally, they contain shallow water with marsh and aquatic plants and animals.
Tank
Tanks are large excavations in which water is stored.
b) Ground Water
A part of the water which infiltrates into the soil after any rainfall event percolates to the
groundwater table. Ground waters, generally, characterized by higher concentrations of dissolved
solids, lower levels of colour, higher hardness (as compared with surface water), dissolved gasses
and freedom from microbial contamination. Wells are generally used to extract groundwater.
The extraction of groundwater is mainly by:
1. Dug well with or without straining walls
2. Dug cum bore wells
3. Cavity Bore
4. Radial collector wells
5. Infiltration galleries
6. Tube wells& bore wells.
Groundwater that flows naturally from the ground is called a spring.
1.4 Factors Limiting the adoption of Irrigation
Despite large-scale investment and expansion of irrigation facilities, it is a matter of serious
concern that about 60 per cent of the total cropped area is still dependent on rain. There are a
number of problems related to irrigation and they have to be solved.
(1) Delays in completion of projects:
The biggest problem in our major and medium irrigation sectors right from the First Five Year
Plan has been the tendency to start more and more new projects resulting in wanton proliferation
of projects. There is also delay in utilisation of potentials already present. In most of the projects,
there have been delays in construction of field channels and water courses, land leveling and land
shaping.
(2) Inter-state water disputes:
Development of water resource is, therefore, being planned by states individually taking into
account their own needs and requirement. However, all major rivers are inter-state in character.
As a result, differences with regard to storage, priorities and use of water arise between different
states. Narrow regional outlook brings inter-state rivalries over distribution of water supply.
(3) Regional disparities in irrigation development:
This indicates a wide regional variation in the development of irrigation facilities.
(4) Water logging and salinity:
Introduction of irrigation has led to the problem of water logging and salinity in some of the states.
The working group constituted by the Ministry of Water Resources in 1991 estimated that about
2.46 million hectares in irrigated commands suffered from water logging. The working group also
estimated that 3.30 million hectares had been affected by salinity/alkalinity in the irrigated
commands.
(5) Increasing cost of irrigation:
The cost of providing irrigation has been increasing over the years.
(6) Losses in operating irrigation projects:
While just prior to Independence public irrigation schemes showed a surplus after meeting working
expenses and other charges. The position deteriorated considerably in the post-Independence
period.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 1: Introduction

(7) Decline in water table:

There has been a steady decline in water table in the recent period in several parts of the country,
especially in the western dry region, on account over exploitation of ground water and insufficient
recharge from rain water.
References
1. K.N.Tiwari, & N.S.raghuwanshi. (n.d.). Irrigation Engineering .
2. Irrigation theory and practice by A.M.Michael
3. Irrigation Engineering by Sharma R.K and Sharma T.K 2007
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Lesson 2
Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationship
2.1 Soil physical properties influencing irrigation
2.1.1 Introduction
Soil-water-plant relationship relates to the properties of soil and plant that affect the movement,
retention and use of water. Due to inadequate and/or uneven distribution of rainfall during the
cropping season, it becomes necessary to apply additional water to the soil for plant use in the
form of irrigation. Therefore, proper understanding of the soil-water-plant relationship is a
prerequisite for the sound design of any efficient irrigation system.

Fig.2.1.Volume composition & sectional view of soil (Tiwari & Raghuwanshi).

A soil matrix consists of solid, liquid and gaseous phases (Fig 2.1). The solid phase is the soil
matrix comprising mineral, organic matter and various chemical compounds. The liquid phase
contains all the dissolved substances. Liquid phase also referred by the soil moisture or soil water
or soil solution. The gaseous portion of the soil consists of soil air and it occupies those spaces
between the soils particles which are not filled with water (Fig 2.1).
In a completely dry soil, all of the pore spaces (i.e., space between soil particles) are filled with
air, and in a completely wet soil all of the pores are filled with water. However, in most of the field
situations the pore spaces are filled with both air and water. Finally, soil water and air vary in
composition, both in time and space.
2.1.2 Soil texture
It refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in a given soil. Various combinations of
sand silt and clay are used to classify soil according to its texture (Table 21.1).
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Table 2.1. Common textural classes found in the field

The textural class of a soil can be accurately determined in the laboratory by mechanical
analyses and is used to identify soil textural class based on information on Percent sand, silt and
clay fraction in soil sample.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Table 2.2. Size groupings of soil particles

Water holding capacity, permeability and infiltration rate of soil depends on the texture. For
example, fine textured soils (clayey soils) have relatively higher water holding capacity, but the
permeability for water and air is slow resulting in poor drainage and hence water logging. On the
other hand, coarse textured soils (sandy soils) have very low water holding capacity and hence
rapid drainage takes place.
Therefore, crops grown on these soils require frequent irrigations in smaller amounts. Considering
its various effects, the loamy soils are ideal for growing most crops under irrigated conditions.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Fig. 2.2. Textural soil classes

Fig. 2.2. Textural soil classes.

2.1.3 Soil Structure
The structure of a soil refers to the arrangement of the individual soil particles with respect to each
other and the formation of aggregates within the soil mass (Fig. 2.3). Soil structure has important
role in water movement, plant root penetration, air movement etc.

Fig. 2.3. Soil structure. (Source: Rao, et al., 2010)

The dominant shape of soil aggregates in a horizon determines their structural type, and it include
speroidal (granular or crumbly subtypes), platy; prism like (columnar or prismatic subtypes) and
block like (cube and sub-angular subtypes) (Fig. 2.4). The soil structure primarily influences root
penetration and proliferation, total porosity and permeability of air and water.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Fig. 2.4. Soil structural types. (Source: Rao, et al., 2010)

Types of soil structures
Soil material fits and binds together in many different ways. With some, the bonding is very
weak, in others very strong. With some, the size of aggregates is very fine, in others coarse and
large. With some the aggregates are dense containing few pores, in others quite open with plenty
of pores. There are six broad categories of soil structures:
a) Granular
Are individual particles of sand, silt, and clay grouped together in small, nearly spherical grains.
Water circulates very easily through such soils. They are commonly found in the A-horizon of
the soil profile;

b) Blocky
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Are soil particles that cling together in nearly square or angular blocks having more or less sharp
edges. Relatively large blocks indicate that the soil resists penetration and movement of water.
They are commonly found in the B horizon where clay has accumulated;

c) Prismatic
Are soil particles which have formed into vertical columns or pillars separated by miniature, but
definite, vertical cracks. Water circulates with greater difficulty and drainage is poor. They are
commonly found in the B-horizon where clay has accumulated;

d) Platy
Is made up of soil particles aggregated in thin plates or sheets piled horizontally on one another.
Plates often overlap, greatly impairing water circulation.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

2.2.4 Soil Porosity

Many important soil processes take place in soil pores (the air or water-filled spaces between
particles). Soil texture and structure influence porosity by determining the size, number and
interconnection of pores. Coarse-textured soils have many large (macro) pores because of the
loose arrangement of larger particles with one another. Fine-textured soils are more tightly
arranged and have more small (micro) pores. Macro pores in fine-textured soils exist between
aggregates. Unlike texture, porosity and structure are not constant and can be altered by
management, water and chemical processes. Surface crusting and compaction decrease porosity
and inhibit water entry into the soil.
Porosity = volume of voids/total volume of soil mass including that of water and air
Void ratio = volume of voids / volume of solids, expressed as a ratio
The porosity of soil varies with (i) structure of soil (ii) size, shape and gradation of soil particles
and, (iii) presence of organic matter.
Void in the soil influence production through their effect on water holding capacity of soil,
movement of air, water and roots.
2.2.5. Permeability
Soil permeability is the property of the soil to transmit water and air and is one of the most
important qualities to consider in agriculture.
It is also defined as the velocity of flow under a unit hydraulic gradient. It depends on presence of
minute openings in the soil as also on the size, shape and arrangement of such openings. Sandy
soils of course texture have large pores and hence high permeability. Clayed soils of fine texture
have relatively small pores and hence low permeability. Permeability is also affected by water
temperatures, texture and soil structure.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

The more permeable the soil, the greater the

seepage.

Soils are generally made up of layers and soil

quality often varies greatly from one layer to
another. Before construction of water
structures, it is important to determine the
relative position of the permeable and
impermeable layers. The design of a pond
should be planned to avoid having a permeable
layer at the bottom to prevent excessive water
loss into the subsoil by seepage.
Which factors affect soil permeability?
Many factors affect soil permeability. Sometimes they are extremely localized, such as cracks and
holes, and it is difficult to calculate representative values of permeability from actual
measurements. A good study of soil profiles provides an essential check on such measurements.
Observations on soil texture, structure, consistency, colour/mottling, layering, visible pores and
depth to impermeable layers such as bedrock and claypan form the basis for deciding if
permeability measurements are likely to be representative.
Note: you have already learned that soil is made up of a number of horizons, each of them usually
having different physical and chemical properties. To determine the permeability of soil as a
whole, each horizon should be studied separately.
Soil permeability relates to soil texture and structure
The size of the soil pores is of great importance with regard to the rate of infiltration (movement
of water into the soil) and to the rate of percolation (movement of water through the soil). Pore
size and the number of pores closely relate to soil texture and structure, and also influence soil
permeability.
Permeability variation according to soil texture
Usually, the finer the soil texture, the slower the permeability, as shown below:
Soil Texture Permeability
Clayey From very slow to
Fine
soils very rapid
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Moderately fine
Loamy
Moderately
soils
coarse
Sandy
Coarse
soils

Example
Average permeability for different soil textures in cm/hour
Sand 5.0
Sandy loam 2.5
Loam 1.3
Clay loam 0.8
Silty clay 0.25
Clay 0.05

Permeability variation according to soil structure

Structure may greatly modify the permeability rates shown above, as follows:
Structure type Permeability1
- Greatly
overlapping
Platy
- Slightly
overlapping From very slow to
very rapid
Blocky
Prismatic
Granular
This may vary according to the degree to which the structure is developed.
It is common practice to alter the soil structure to reduce permeability, for example, in
irrigated agriculture through the puddling of rice fields and in civil engineering through the
mechanical compactionof earthen dams. Similar practices may be applied to fish-ponds to
reduce water seepage.

Soil permeability classes

Permeability is commonly measured in terms
of the rate of water flow through the soil in a
given period of time. It is usually expressed
either as a permeability rate in centimetres
per hour (cm/h), millimetres per hour (mm/h),
or centimetres per day (cm/d), or as
a coefficient of permeability k in metres per
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

second (m/s) or in centimetres per second

(cm/s).

For agriculture and conservation uses, soil permeability classes are based on permeability rates,
and for civil engineering, soil permeability classes are based on the coefficient of permeability
2.2.6 pH value of soil
Ph value or hydrogen ion concentatrion is a measure of intensity of acidity or alkalinity of a soil.
Its value ranges from 0-14, of which 7 is neutral in the sense of chemical reaction. Below 7 the
soil is acidic, above 7 it is alkaline. Soil productivity increases as pH approaches neutral. Most
irrigation soils have a pH ranging between 6.0 - 8.5.
2.2.7 Depth of soil
Sufficient depth of soil for the storage of irrigation water and penetration of roots is essential.
Shallow soils require frequent irrigation for optimal growth of crops. Deep soils of medium texture
and granular structure provide for adequate storage of water and good root penetration. Soils of
arid regions are relatively deep compared to humid regions.
2.2.8 Infiltration capacity
Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. Infiltration
rate in soil science is a measure of the rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation. It
is most often measured in millimetres per hour or inches per hour. The rate decreases as the soil
becomes saturated. If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur
unless there is some physical barrier. It is related to the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the
near-surface soil. The rate of infiltration can be measured using an infiltrometer.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Infiltration is caused by two forces: gravity and capillary action. While smaller pores offer greater
resistance to gravity, very small pores pull water through capillary action in addition to and even
against the force of gravity.
The rate of infiltration is determined by soil characteristics including ease of entry, storage
capacity, and transmission rate through the soil. The soil texture and structure, vegetation types
and cover, water content of the soil, soil temperature, and rainfall intensity all play a role in
controlling infiltration rate and capacity. For example, coarse-grained sandy soils have large
spaces between each grain and allow water to infiltrate quickly. Vegetation creates more porous
soils by protecting the soil from raindrop impact, which can close natural gaps between soil
particles, loosening soil through root action and enhancing the presence of soil organism like
termites, worms and small mammals that have a direct impact on soil bulk densities. This is
why forested areas have the highest infiltration rates of any vegetative types.
The top layer of leaf litter that is not decomposed protects the soil from the pounding action of
rain; without this the soil can become far less permeable. In chaparral vegetated areas, the
hydrophobic oils in the succulent leaves can be spread over the soil surface with fire, creating large
areas of hydrophobic soil. Other conditions that can lower infiltration rates or block them include
dry plant litter that resists re-wetting, or frost. If soil is saturated at the time of an intense freezing
period, the soil can become a concrete frost on which almost no infiltration would occur. Over an
entire watershed, there are likely to be gaps in the concrete frost or hygroscopic soil where water
could infiltrate.
Once water has infiltrated the soil it remains in the soil, percolates down to the ground water table,
or becomes part of the subsurface runoff process.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Process

The process of infiltration can continue only if there is room available for additional water at the
soil surface. The available volume for additional water in the soil depends on the porosity of the
soil[1] and the rate at which previously infiltrated water can move away from the surface through
the soil. The maximum rate that water can enter a soil in a given condition is the infiltration
capacity. If the arrival of the water at the soil surface is less than the infiltration capacity, it is
sometimes analyzed using hydrology transport models, mathematical models that consider
infiltration, runoff and channel flow to predict river flow rates and stream water quality.
2.2 Plant factors that Influence Irrigation
1. Rooting characterizes; the distribution and actives of rooting determining how much water is
extracted from various depth of the soil profile. plants may have:
I. Tap roots that penetrate deeply into the soil under favorable conditions
II. Shallow primary roots
III. Lateral roots root extended and distribution is altered by the physical chemical and
biological properties of the soil. A high water table limits the root growth due to
lack of sufficient aeration. farming practices also influence rooting charactertics
2. Evapo-transpiration; the water removed from the soil profile by Evapo-transpiration depend
on the4distributionan d actives of the root within the soil structures and activities of the root
within the profile. A general rule is that40,30,20 and 10 percent of the total Evapo-
transpirationis removed respectively from each successive deeperone-deeper of the rooting
depth. (fig. 27) seasonal Evapo-transpiration values of crops are needed to evaluate and
determine seasonal irrigation system for peak needs
3. Effects of the soil water level in crop growth and yield; water between field capacity and
permanent wilting point is not equally available for crop growth. Crop growth and transpiration
generally decrease as the wilting point approaches. The point at which growth or transplanting
of a plant is regarded for want of the soil water is influenced by distribution and the depth of
root system conduct ivies of the soil for water, crop characteristics, low or high evaporation
demand, e.t.c
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

2.3 Water factors that Influence Irrigation

1. When to irrigate. irrigation frequency means the time in the day between irrigation during
period of no rainfall. Generally, irrigation shall start when 50 percent but not over60percent of
the available moisture is used from the root zone. Irrigation frequency is used for the design of
irrigation system refer to the number of days between two irrigations in the period of the
highest consummative used of the crop grown

𝐹ield capacity o𝐹 the soil in e𝐹𝐹ective crop root zone−moisture content o𝐹 the same zone
at the starting o𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Designing frequency= 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
Irrigation period refers to the number of days allowed for applying one irrigation to the
given design area in the period of peak consumptive use of the crop being irrigated
2. How much water to apply. The amount of water to be replaced at each irrigation is the amount
the soil can hold between field capacity and the water content level immediately prior to
irrigation or the amount that has Evapo –transpired by the crop since the last irrigation water
requirement and crop to be released is usually 40to50 percent of available water in the roots
zones of soil having a uniform available water capacity with depth
3. Water application method. The method of applying irrigation water is influenced by the
quantity of the available water supply, type of soil topography and crop to be grown. Irrigation
water may be applied by controlled flooding method, sprinkler method and drip method.
Whatever r be the method of irrigation, the essential requirement in water use is the application
of the right amount of water and its uniform distribution in the field so as to wet the root zone
to its storage capacity.
References
1. K.N.Tiwari, & N.S.raghuwanshi. (n.d.). Irrigation Engineering .
2. Irrigation theory and practice by A.M.Michael
3. Irrigation Engineering by Sharma R.K and Sharma T.K 2007
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Lesson 3
2.2 Soil Water Relations
2.2.1 Introduction
As we discussed earlier the basic components of the soil consists of solid mineral particles, organic
matter, the voids among the particles and water and air occupying the voids. Fig. 2.5 shows a
schematic representation of the soil in relative proportions both in masses and volumes. The
physical properties of the soil, including its ability to store water, are highly related to the fraction
of the bulk soil volume that is filled with water and air. For plant growth and development to be
normal, a balance of water and air in the pore space must be attained. If water is limited, plant
growth may be inhibited by water stress. If air (aeration) is limited, usually by too much water,
then growth may be limited by insufficient aeration.
The relationship between the three phases of soil can be described in a number of mathematical
relationships. These relationships can be used to calculate one soil property from another.

Fig. 2.5. Three phases of soil.

Referring to Fig. 2.5 the following notations are used:
Va = Volume of air
Vw = Volume of water
Vs = Volume of solids
Vv = Volume of voids (Va+Vw)
Vt = Total Volume (Va+Vw+Vs)
Ma = Mass of air (negligible)
Mw = Mass of water
Ms = Mass of solids
Mt = Total mass (Ma+Mw+Ms)
2.2.1 Particle density (ρs)
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

It is the ratio of a given mass (or weight) of soil solids to that of its volume and it is given by

Sometimes it is referred to as true density. It is usually expressed in terms of g/cm3and varies

between the narrow limits of 2.6 to 2.75 g/ cm3. Particle density is a constant for a soil with a
given texture and is independent of size and arrangement of the soil particles.
21.2.2 Dry Bulk Density (ρb)
It is the density of the undisturbed (bulk) soil sample which is the ratio of dry mass of the soil to
its total
volume. It is given by

This is expressed as gm/cm3.Drybulk density can be calculated by collecting a known volume of

soil to get the soil volume (Vt), and drying the associated soil to get the mass of dry soil (Ms).
21.2.3 Total (Wet) Bulk Density (ρ)
It is the mass of moist soil per unit volume and is represented as:

Bulk density has a pronounced effect on the soil properties like permeability of soil for water and
air, and penetration of plant roots through the soil. Compression or compaction of soil particles
can increase bulk density but it reduces the soil porosity and in turn the soil water storage
capacity. The bulk density values for different soil textural classes are given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3. Bulk density values of various soil types (USDA - SCS)
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Example 2.1:
Calculate the dry bulk density from the following data
Fresh weight of soil = 2505g; Weight of water = 740g; Height of core = 10cm;
Diameter of the core = 12cm
Solution:
Volume of the core =

Dry Bulk density =

2.2.4 Porosity (ᶮ)
Porosity is the void space in a given volume of soil that is occupied by air and water. The total
porosity is
calculated as follows:

Generally total porosity varies from 30% to 60% for agricultural soils. Coarse textured soils are
normally
less porous (35%– 50%) than the fine textured soils (40% – 60%). However, the mean size of
individual
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

pores is greater (>0.06mm in diameter) in the coarse textured soils than the fine textured soils.
From irrigation water management point of view, knowledge of porosity in a given volume of
soil is very important, because it is an index of moisture storage capacity and the aeration
conditions. These are two most important factors that influence the plant growth.
Example 2.2
Calculate the porosity from the following data
Bulk density = 1.31 g/ cm3and particle density = 2.64 g /cm3.

Porosity ( n ) =
2.2.5 Void Ratio (e)
It is the ratio of the pore space to the volume of solids and is given by

2.2.6 Soil Water Content

The mass water content or soil moisture content(θm) is the ratio of the mass of water in a sample
to the dry soil mass, expressed as either a decimal fraction or as percentage. It is often referred to
as ‘gravimetric water content’. The mass water content is found by

It is determined by weighing the soil sample collected from field, drying the sample for at least
24 hours at 105 0C, and then weighing the dry soil. Difference in mass of the wet and dry sample
represents the mass of water in the soil sample (Mw). The mass of the sample after drying
represents the mass of dry soil (Ms).
The volumetric water content ( ) represents the volume of water contained in total volume of
undisturbed soil. The volumetric water content is defined as

Determination of volumetric water content requires the volume of the undisturbed soil sample
which is sometimes difficult to measure.However, it can also be determined from mass water
content and specific gravity (ratio of bulk density of soil to density of water) as follows

Where,
Pw= density of water which is 1 g/cm3
When comparing water amounts per unit of land area, it is frequently more convenient to speak
in equivalent depths of water rather than water content. The relationship between volumetric
water content and the equivalent depth of water in a soil layer is:
d=Θv.L
Where,
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

d = equivalent depth of water in a soil layer and

L = depth increment of the soil layer.
Example 2.3
A field soil sample prior to being disturbed has a volume of 82 cm3. The sample weighed 125
grams.
After drying at 1050C for 24 hours, the dry soil sample weighs 100 grams. What is the mass
water content? What is the volumetric water content? What depth of water must be applied to
increase the volumetric water content of the top 1m of soil to 0.40?
Given: Ms = 100 g
Mw = 125 g - 100 g = 25 g
Vt= 82 cm3
Find: Θm, Θv and d
Solution:

Dry bulk density=

Θv = Θm = of soil.
The current depth of water in 1 m of soil is: d = Θv . L = 0.3025 1 = 0.3025 m.
The depth of water in 1 m of soil when Θv = 0.40 will be
d = Θv . L = 0.4 X 1 = 0.4 m.
Thus, the depth of water to be added is 0.0975 m (0.4m -0.3025m).
2.3 Kinds of Soil Water
Water present in the soil is referred to as the soil moisture. It is divided into three categories viz.,
gravitational water, capillary water and hygroscopic water (Fig. 21.6).
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Fig. 2.6. Physical classification of soil water.

2.3.1 Gravitational Water
Water held between 0.0 to 0.33 bars (0 to −33 kPa) soil moisture tension, that moves downward
freely under the influence of gravity to the water table is termed as gravitational water (Fig. 21.).
It is also referred to as free water. Gravitational water is of no use to plants as it drains out due to
gravity. It reduces aeration in the soil and hence, its removal from soil is necessary for optimum
plant growth.
2.3.2 Capillary Water
Capillary water is the water held in the capillary pores (micro pores). Capillary water is retained
on the soil particles by surface forces, adhesion i.e., attraction of water molecules for soil
particles, cohesion i.e., attraction between water molecules and surface tension phenomena.
Adhesion is a process of the attraction of solid surface for water molecules and forms a very thin
film of water at solid-liquid interface. On the other hand, cohesion is attraction of water
molecules for each other. Capillary water is held between tension of about 0.33 bars (−33 kPa or
1/3 atmosphere, moisture content at field capacity) to 31 bars (−3100 kPa or 31 atmospheres,
hygroscopic coefficient) as shown in Fig. 21.7. However, the water within the capillary range is
not equally available i.e., it is readily available starting from 0.33 bars up to a certain point often
referred to as critical soil moisture and thereafter up to 15 bars (−1500 kPa) it is available in
lesser amounts. Further below, the water is held very tightly in thin films and is practically
not available for plant use between 15 bars and 31 bars tension.
2.3.3 Hygroscopic Water
It is the water held tightly to the surface of soil particles by adsorption forces. Hygroscopic water
is held tightly in thin films of 4 – 5 milli microns thickness on the surface of soil colloidal
particles at 31 bars tension (−3100 kPa) and above (Fig. 21.7). It is essentially non-liquid and
moves primarily in the vapour form. This water is unavailable to the plants as huge pressure
force would be needed to extract it.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Fig. 2.7. Diagrammatic representation of different types of water.

References
1. K.N.Tiwari, & N.S.raghuwanshi. (n.d.). Irrigation Engineering .
2. Irrigation theory and practice by A.M.Michael
3. Irrigation Engineering by Sharma R.K and Sharma T.K 2007
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Lesson 4
2.3 Soil Water Movement
2.3.1 Types of Water Movement
Movement of water within the soil is a highly complex phenomenon due to the variation in the
states and directions in which water moves and the variation in the forces that cause it to move.
Generally, three types of water movement within the soil are recognized –saturated flow,
unsaturated flow and water vapour flow (Fig. 2. 3..1). Water in the liquid phase moves through the
water filled pores within the soil (saturated condition) under the influence of gravitational force.
Water exists as thin films surrounding the soil particles (unsaturated condition), which moves
under the action of surface tension. Water in the vapour form diffuses though air filled pores along
the vapour pressure gradient. In all cases water flow is along the energy gradients i.e., from a
higher to lower potential.

Fig. 2.3.1. Different types of soil water movement.

2.3.2 Soil Water Movement in Saturated Condition
Under saturated condition of soil, all the macro and micro pores are filled with waterand any water
flow under this condition is referredto as saturated flow.The saturated flow of water depends upon
two factors namely hydraulic gradient i.e., the hydraulic force driving the water through the soil
and hydraulic conductivity i.e., the ease with which the soil pores permit water movement.
Assuming the soil to be a bundle of straight and smooth tubes, knowledge of the size distribution
of the tube radii could enable us to calculate the total flow through a bundle caused by known
pressure difference, using Poiseuille’s equation:
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Where, q = volume of flow per unit time cm3/sec

P= pressure difference between two ends of the tube of length l, dynes/cm2
r = radius of the tube, cm
l = length of the tube, cm
μ = viscosity of liquid, dynes-sec/m2
The above equation indicates that the pore size is of outstanding significance, as its fourth power
is proportional to the rate of saturated flow. Generally the rate of flow follows:
Sand > Loam > Clay
Unfortunately, soil pores are not like straight tubes, but are of varying shapes and sizes, highly
irregular and interconnected. This complexity in shape causes change in fluid velocity from point
to point, even along the passage. For this reason, flow through complex porous media is generally
described in terms of macroscopic flow velocity vector, which is the overall average of the
microscopic velocities over a total volume of soil. Thequantity of water flowing through a section
of saturated soil per unit of time is given by the Darcy’s law. Fig. 23.2 show typical setup for
Darcy’s Law.

Fig. 23.2 Definition sketch of Darcy’s Law.

(Source: http://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org)
The law states that, the quantity of water passing through a unit cross sectional area of soil is
directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient. Mathematically,

Where, Q = volume flow cm3

q = volume of flow per unit time cm3/sec
t = time, sec
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

A= cross-sectional area of the soil through which the water flows, cm2
Ksat= saturated hydraulic conductivity, cm/sec
Δh = change in water potential between the ends of the column, cm
(for example, 1 - 2 )
L = the length of column, cm
i = , hydraulic gradient.
V = velocity of flow cm/sec or velocity flux, v. It is the flow per unit area.
The negative sign denotes that the direction of flow is opposite to that of the head causing the flow.
It is omitted in further discussions as its significance lies only in indicating the direction which is
the same (towards the decreasing gradient) in all cases.
Darcy’s law is valid only when flow is laminar. Reynold’s number, the index used for describing
the nature of flow is given by

Where, Re = Reynold’s number

ρ= density of fluid
V=velocity of flow
D = mean diameter of the soil particles
μ= dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
The Darcy’s law is valid for flows where Re is less than one.
In equation 23.3 the replacing Δμ by Δψ and we get

Where, Δψ = is the change in potential between two points at a distance l.

Application of Darcy’s law and continuity equation of three dimensional flow of an incompressible
fluid
through a porous medium results in the derivation of Laplace equation. It is given by

It states that the second partial derivatives of the water potential with respect to x,y and z directions
sums to zero.
23.3 Unsaturated Water Movement
As gravity drainage continues the soil macrospores emptied and are mostly filled up with air and
the micro pores or capillary pores with water and some air. Movement of water occurring under
this condition is termed as the unsaturated flow condition. In the case of unsaturated flow
condition, the water potential is the sum of metric potential ( ψm) and gravitational potential (ψg)
. Metric potential is only applicable in the case of horizontal movement of water. In the case of
downward movement of water, capillary and gravitational potential act together. In the case of
upward capillary movement of water, metric potential and gravitational potential oppose one
another. For unsaturated flow condition of water through soil, equation 23.5 can be modified as:
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Darcy’s law can be applied in the case of unsaturated flow conditions with some modifications.
Unsaturated, 1-D horizontal flow is given by

Unsaturated, 1-D vertical flow is given by

Where K is hydraulic conductivity and D is diffusivity.

23.4 Hydraulic Conductivity
The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is the ability of soil to transmitwater when subjected to a
hydraulic
gradient. Hydraulic conductivity is defined by Darcy'slaw Eq. (23.3).

Fig. 23.3.Soil hydraulic conductivity versus soil water potential. (Source: Rao et. al, 2010)
The hydraulic conductivity is defined as the ratio of Darcy's flow velocity atunit hydraulic gradient.
K has a dimension of length per unit of time (L/T) which is same as that for velocity. The hydraulic
conductivity is more or less constant in a soil having a stable structure, however, it changes as the
soil structure, density and porosity change. With variation in soil texture the hydraulic conductivity
values are different. Typical values of saturated Hydraulic conductivity for different soil texture
are given in Table 2.3.1.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Table 23.1. Saturated hydraulic conductivity for different soil textures

(Source: Hansen et al., 1979)

Clay soil with a large proportion of fine pores shows poor hydraulic conductivity as compared to
a sandy soil with higher proportion of larger pores (Fig. 2.3.3). Higher bulk density and massive
structure reduce the hydraulic conductivity of the soil. Saturated hydraulic conductivity for a
particular soil is
always constant, whereas unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is a function of soil water content.
2.3.4.1 Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity
Darcy’s law can be applied for the determination hydraulic conductivity in laboratory. There are
two methods which are used for the determination for this purpose.
23.4.1.1 Constant Head Permeameter
The constant-head permeameter test is the most commonly used method for the determination of
the saturated hydraulic conductivity of coarse-grained soils in the laboratory. In this method a
constant hydraulic gradient is maintained by adjusting the inflow to maintain a constant level in
the inflow tank. Figure 23. 4 show the setup of constant head and falling head permeameters.

Fig. 2.3.4. Experimental set for the determination of saturated hydraulic conductivity in
Laboratory. A)
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Constant head method. B) Falling head method.

The hydraulic conductivity, K is determined by the equation

Where,
V= flow volume in time t
A= cross sectional area of sample
L= length of sample
Δh = difference in head (h1-h2).
2.3.4.1.2 Falling Head Permeameter
The falling-head test is meant for fine-grained soils. Like the constant-head method, the falling-
head test is having the direct application of Darcy's law to a one-dimensional, saturated column of
soil with a uniform cross-sectional area. The falling-head method differs from the constant-head
method in that the liquid that percolates through the saturated column is kept at an unsteady-state
flow regime in which both the head and the discharged volume vary during the test. In the falling-
head test method, a cylindrical soil sample of cross-sectional area A and length L is placed between
two highly conductive plates. The soil sample column is connected to a standpipe of cross-
sectional area a, in which the percolating fluid is introduced into the system. Thus, by measuring
the change in head in the standpipe from h1 to h2 during a specified interval of time t, the saturated
hydraulic conductivity can be determined as follows

Example 23.1:
If the elevation of h1 is 35m and the elevation of h2 is 0m, what is the hydraulic gradient if the
distance from h1 to h2 is 5.6 km? (Answer in m/km).
Solution:
Given, h2-h1= 35m and L=5.6 km
We know: i= (h2-h1)/L
i= 35/5.6 = 6.25m/km.Ans.
Example 23.2:
Find the velocity of the water flow between two wells located at a distance of 1000 m and the
hydraulic conductivity is 114m/day. Drop in elevation between two well is given as 60 m.
Solution:
Given: K=114m/day, h2-h1=60m, L=1000m
We know, Hydraulic gradient, i = h2-h1/L = 60/1000
= 0.06
We know,
V=KI or
V=K(h2-h1/L)
V=114m/day * 0.06
V=6.84 m/day. Ans.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Example 23.3
An aquifer is 2045 m wide and 28 m thick. Hydraulic gradient across it is 0.05 and its hydraulic
conductivity is145m/day. Calculate the velocity of the groundwater as well as the amount of water
that passes through the end of the aquifer in a day if the porosity of the aquifer is 32%.
Solution:
Given: K=145m/day, i= 0.05, W=2045m, D=28m, Porosity =32%
First we must solve for V. We know,
V= Ki =145m/day X 0.05
=7.25m/day
Now that we know V we can determine the discharge (Q) of water through the end of the aquifer
Q= Area. Velocity = A. V= (2045m x 28m) x 7.25m/day
Q=415,135 m3/day.
This means that each day, if the aquifer had a porosity of 100%, like a river, would have discharge
of 415,135 m3/day.
However, the aquifer has porosity of 32 % and hence discharge through aquifer would be
415,135 m3/day X0.32 = 132843.2 m3/day. Ans
Example 23.4:
A constant head permeability test was performed on a medium dense sand sample of diameter 60
mm and height 150 mm. The water was allowed to flow under a head of 600 mm. The permeability
of sand was 4 x 10-1 mm/s. Determine (a) the discharge (mm3/s), (b) the discharge velocity.
Solution:
(a) We know,

Discharge

(b) Discharge velocity 1.60 mm/s

Example 23.5:
During a falling head permeability test, the head fell from 600 mm to 300 mm in 540 s. the
specimen was 50 mm in diameter and had a length of 100 mm. The cross – sectional area of the
stand pipe was 60 mm2.
Compute the coefficient of permeability of the soil.
Solution

Given, a = 60 mm2, L= 100 mm,

t = 540 s, h1= 600 mm, h2= 300 mm.

We know,
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

References
1. K.N.Tiwari, & N.S.raghuwanshi. (n.d.). Irrigation Engineering .
2. Irrigation theory and practice by A.M.Michael
3. Irrigation Engineering by Sharma R.K and Sharma T.K 2007
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Lesson 5
2.4 Irrigation constants and important terminologies
2.4.1 Soil Moisture Constants
In the previous lecture (21) we have discussed the types of soil water and also measures of water
content in the soil. From previous discussion, it is clear that a part of capillary water is useful for
plant uptake and thus we need to replenish this part of soil water during irrigation. In order to
manage irrigation, we need to define soil water constants that are used as reference points for
practical irrigation water management.
These constants are briefly explained below:
2.4.1.1 Saturation Capacity
Saturation capacity of soil refers to the condition when all the macro and micropores are filled
with water and the soil is at maximum water retention capacity (Fig. 24.1). The metric suction at
this condition is almost zero and it is equal to free water surface.
2.4.1.2 Field Capacity
The field capacity is the amount of water held in soil after excess water has been gravity drained
and the rate of downward movement has relatively stable, which usually takes place within 1 – 3
days after a rain or irrigation. At field capacity, the soil moisture tension depending on the soil
texture ranges from 0.10 to 0.33bars. Field capacity is the upper limit of available soil moisture.
The field capacity is greatly influenced by soil texture, finer the soil particles higher the water
retention due to very large surface are and vice versa. It can be seen from Table 2.1 that moisture
content at field capacity of clay soil is much higher (40%) as compared to that of coarse sand
(10%).
Field capacity of soil can be determined by ponding water over the area of 2 to 5m2 for two to
three days, with surface evaporation prevented by spreading polyethylene sheet on thick straw
mulch over the soil surface. After three days soil samples from different depth will give the field
capacity. As a rule of thumb, 1 day of drainage will generally be adequate for sandy soils,2 days
for silt loam soils, and 3 days for silty clay loam soils.
2.4.1.3 Permanent Wilting Point
Permanent wilting point is considered as lower limit of available soil moisture. At this stage, water
is held tightly by the soil particles that the plant roots can no longer obtain enough water to satisfy
the transpiration requirements; and remain wilted unless the moisture replenished. The soil
moisture tension at permanent wilting point is about 15 bars.
2.4.1.4 Available Soil Moisture
Available soil moisture is the moisture between field capacity (0.33 bars) and permanent wilting
point (15 bars) which is referred as readily available water (TAW) for plant growth. The water
present above the field capacity and below the permanent wilting point is not available to the plant.
The available soil moisture is expressed as depth of water per unit of soil and is calculated
according the following formula:
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Where,
TAW = Total available water (cm)
ΘFC = Volumetric moisture content at field capacity (fraction)
ΘPWP = Volumetric moisture content at Permanent wilting point (fraction)
drZ = Depth of root zone(cm).

Fig. 2.4.1. Soil condition at Saturation, Field Capacity and Permanent wilting point.
(Source: www.terragis.bees.unsw.edu.au: accessed on May 30, 2013)

Table 2.4.1. soil water characteristics for various soil textures*

Although plants are theoretically able to obtain water from the soil whenever water contents exceed
PWP, the actual rate at which they transpire decreases as stomata close in response to declining
soil water contents. Fig. 2.4.2 indicate that soil moisture stress coefficient (Ks) remains almost
unity for soil water content reductions between Fc and θt indicate that water is more readily
available. However, as the moisture content decrease below θt soil moisture stress coefficient
decreases below unity and causes decreases in the crop transpiration (ET) at the same rate.
Therefore, irrigations are generally scheduled to maintain soil water contents above θt. The water
content between θFc&θt is called Readily Available Water (RAW). The concept of maximum
allowable deficiency (MAD), is also used to determine the amount of water that can be used
without adversely affecting the plant. The MAD is defined as:
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

The value of MAD depends on soil and crop generally assumed a constant, but should be
optimised based on local conditions.

Fig. 2.4.2. Soil moisture stress as a function of TAW.

Definitions of important terms
Actual Utilization - Actual utilization is the gross area actually irrigated each year.
Application Efficiency (AE) - It is the ratio of the average depth of the irrigation water stored in
the root zone to the average water applied.
Area Assessed - The area irrigated on which water rate have been levied.
Base Period - The number of days over which duty of water is reckoned, determined or measured.
Base period equals the period between first and last irrigation to raise a crop.
Classification of Irrigation Projects - The irrigation projects can be classified as:
i. Major Irrigation Scheme - Culturable Command Area (CCA) more than 10,000 hectare
(ha)
ii. Medium Irrigation Scheme- Culturable Command Area (CCA) more than 2000 hectare
(ha) and upto 10,000 hectare (ha)
iii. Minor Irrigation Scheme - Culturable Command Area (CCA) upto 2000 hectare (ha)
Closure period - The period when the canal is closed for regular maintenance, repairs and other
purposes.
Consumptive Use Efficiency - The ratio of consumptive water use by crop and the soil moisture
stored in the root zone of the soil during the crop growth period.
Consumptive Water Use - The quantity of water cosumed in evaporation transpiration and
metabolic processes during crops growth, including water consumed by accompanying weed
growths. It is expressed in water-depth units per unit area, also called Consumptive Water Use or
Evapotranspiration.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Conveyance - The movement of water from its source through the main or secondary canals or
conduits to the tertiary or distributory off takes.
Conveyance Losses or Transmission Losses - Losses of water in transit from the source of supply
to the point of field turn out whether in natural channels or in artificial ones, such as canals,
distributaries or watercourses. They comprise evaporation from the water surface, seepage and
incidental transpiration by vegetation growing in or along the canals network. These also include
the operation losses in the canal system.
Crop irrigation ratio – The crop irrigation ratio is the ratio of area irrigated under the crop to the
total area (irrigated plus unirrigated) under the same crop expressed in percentage.
Crop Water Requirement - The total water needed for evapotranspiration from planting to
harvest for a given crop in a specific climate regime, when adequate soil water is maintained, by
rainfall and/or irrigation so that it does not limit plant growth or crop yield.
Culturable Command Area (CCA) - It is the area which can be physically irrigated from the
scheme and is fit for cultivation or The difference between the gross command area and the
unculturable area falling under the command or Total area in which cultivation is possible.
Culturable Irrigable area (CIA) - The culturable command area less the area not available for
irrigation due to high relief or other reasons.
Culturable Lift Irrigation - The culturable command area that can be irrigated only by lift
irrigation.
Curve of Demand - A graph showing chronologically the amount of water needed for irrigation
at various times during a crop season.
Curve of Supply - A graph showing chronologically the quantity of water available for irrigation
during a time period from a given source.
Delta - It is the quantity of irrigation water expressed in depth units over the irrigated area. It is
stated with reference to the place at which it is measured or reckoned, that is, delta at farm, delta
at out-let, head of watercourses, or lateral head, delta at distributary head, delta at head of main
canal.
Design Duty of Water - Duty of water assumed in a irrigation project for designing capacities of
channels.
Distributary or Tertiary - Canal or conduit taking water from the con-veyance system and
supply it to one tertiary unit.
Distribution Efficiency - It is the measure of uniformity of irrigation water distribution over a
field.
Diversion Structure - The structure that diverts water from the water sources and supplies it to
the irrigation system.
Division Structure - A structure in the conveyance system that divides the flow into two or
more canals or conducts, or both.
Dryland Crops - The crops which do not normally require irrigation because the prevailing
quantity and incidence of the local rainfall is suitable and sufficient for cultivation.
Duty of a Well - The average annual area of land irrigated by well for maturing a crop.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Duty or Duty of Water - The relation between the area irrigated, or to be irrigated, and the
quantity of water used, or required, to irrigate it for the purpose of maturing its crop. Duty is
stated as area per unit area of flow.
Farm Field Inlet - A structure which supplies water to a farm field.
Farm Irrigation Efficiency - The percentage of the water consumed by crops in a farm to the
water made available at the farm gate.
Farm Losses - Losses of water on the farm due to uneven distribution, evaporation and
percolation into the subsoil due to over irrigation. These include surface run-off and deep
percolation.
Field Application - The application of water from the field inlet to the field.
Field Application Efficiency - The field application efficiency is made up of two parts (1) the
efficiency of water transport system in the field and (2) the efficiency with which the water is
applied. It is, by definition, the relation between the quantity of water furnished at the field inlet
and the quantity of water needed to maintain the soil moisture above some target level required
for the crop.
Field Capacity (FC ) - The moisture remaining in a soil following wetting and natural drainage
until free drainage has practically ceased.
Field Channel - Channel usually taking water from the watercourse and supplying it to one or
more forms or fields.
Field Irrigation Requirements - The requirements of irrigation water for crops at the diversion
point of supply channel.
Flow Irrigated Area - Area which can be irrigated from the source of water, by flow under
gravity alone.
Gross Command Area (GCA) - The total geographical area which can normally be
commanded or serviced from a irrigation project without consideration of water supplies
available for irrigation. It is the total area covered by an irrigation project including unculturable
area under habitation, road, tanks, waste land, forest land etc.
Gross Irrigated Area – The gross irrigated area is the total irrigated area under various crops
during the whole agricultural year, counting the area irrigated under more than one crop during
the same year as many times as the number of crops grown. Inter-cultured or mixed crops are
treated as one crop.
Gross Irrigation Ratio – The gross irrigation ratio is the ratio of gross irrigated area to the gross
cropped area in a year.
Intensity of Irrigation - The percentage of total area of normally irrigated crops in a year to
total culturable command area.
Irrigation - The supply of water by artificial means for raising crops.
Irrigated Area - The area to which irrigation water has been applied.
Irrigation Method - The manner in which irrigation water is applied to the land for raising a
crop.
Irrigation Potential Created - (As per Planning Commission)
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

a. The irrigation potential created by a project at a given time during or after its construction is
the aggregate gross area that can be irrigated annually by the quantity of water that could be
made available by all connected and completed works upto the end of the water courses or the
last point in the water delivery system upto which the Government is responsible for
construction.
b. Before an area is included and reported under 'Potential Created', it may be ensured that the
storage, head-works as well as the distribution system including irrigation outlets to serve the
area are completed together with necessary water courses covering chaks or blocks upto 40
hectares in area and that works completed will make available the requisite water for the purpose
in a design year for the assumed cropping pattern. The irrigation outlets should be of a capacity
of about 0.03 cumec. The capacity may, however, vary depending on local conditions relating to
topography, crop pattern, etc. but it should not normally exceed 0.06 cumec. The figures of the
potential which relate to the gross irrigated 'new area' and 'old area stabilized' should be reported
separately. The potential which refers to the 'old areas stabilized' should, however, not be
considered as adding to the total irrigation potential created since this area would have already
counted earlier once.
Irrigation Potential Utilized - (As per Planning Commission)
a. The irrigation potential utilized is the total gross area actually irrigated by a project during the
year under consideration. The figures relating to the stabilization of 'old area' should be furnished
separately in this case also since these will not be additive to the gross area irrigated.
b. As, generally, the utilzation of irrigation potential created can take place only in the year
following the creation of such potential, it will be appropriate if the irrigation potential utilized in
a particular year is considered with the potential created upto the end of the preceding year for
the purpose of comparison.
Irrigation Return Flow - It is the leakage or seepage or both of water from irrigation works,
namely, canals and dams or regenerated flow from fields which could be used for irrigation areas
downstream.
Irrigation System - It includes storage and diversion structure, main canal, distributory, minors,
water courses, field channels, and allied structures including head regulator, cross drainage
works and control structures.
Irrigation Water Requirement - The amount of crop water requirement that is not provided by
effective rainfall, utilization of stored soil moisture or upward flow of water to the root zone
from a saturated zone.
Irrigation Works - The works related to storage, diversion, conveyance and delivery of
irrigation supplies to the project command.
Lift Irrigated Area - That area where the level is too high to allow irrigation by gravity flow,
but which can be irrigated by lifting water to the necessary level at some point in the supply
system.
Lift Irrigation - It is the method of irrigation in which the water is lifted with mechanical or
manual means.
Main Canal - Principal canal for the conveyance of water supplied to the branch
canal/distributary.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Management Allowed Deficit (MAD) - It is the desired soil moisture deficit at the time of
irrigation.
Net Irrigated Area – The net irrigated area is the area irrigated during the year counting the area
only once, even if two or more crops are irrigated in different seasons on the same piece of land.
Net Irrigation Ratio – The net irrigation ratio is the ratio of net area irrigated to the net area
sown in a year expressed in percentage.
Net Water Requirement - The consumptive use requirements of crops minus the effective
rainfall.
Nominal Duty or Normal Duty - The duty sanctioned as per the schedule of an irrigation
department.
Non-beneficial Consumptive Use - The water consumed by native non-crop vegetation,
evaporated from bare and ideal land surfaces and from water surfaces.
Non-perennial Area - The area which does not receive perennial irrigation.
Outlet Command Area - The area, in irrigation practice, for distribution of water from an
outlet. It is the area that can be served by an individual outlet.
Outlet or Turnout - A structure that supplies water to a block in which different farmers use the
flow in rotation.
Overall Irrigation Efficiency of the System - It is the ratio of the average depth of irrigation
water which is beneficially used to the average depth of irrigation water supplied from the
headwork.
Panchnama - A written statement executed by canal authority in presence of and witnessed by
the irrigators or members of water committee of the concerned canal system against an offender
found misusing, wasting or taking water unauthorizedly.
Peak Period Consumptive Use - It is the average daily water used during the period of highest
consumptive use.
Perennial Irrigated Area - The area served by a perennial canal.
Reservoir Storage Efficiency (Es) - It is the ratio of the volume of water released from the
reservoir for irrigation, to the volume of water received in the storage reservoir (surface or
underground) for irrigation.
Water Use Efficiency (WUE) - It is defined as the marketable crop produced per unit of water
consumed in evapotranspiration.
Wilting Point (WP) - It is the moisture content of the soil below which plants can no longer
extract moisture at a rate sufficient for its growth.

References
1. K.N.Tiwari, & N.S.raghuwanshi. (n.d.). Irrigation Engineering .
2. Irrigation theory and practice by A.M.Michael
3. Irrigation Engineering by Sharma R.K and Sharma T.K 2007
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Lesson 6
2.6 Evapotranspiration
2.6.1 Evaporation and Transpiration
Evapotranspiration is one of the major components of the hydrologic cycle and affects crop water
demand. Therefore, its quantification is necessary for proper irrigation planning. The term
evapotranspiration refers to combination of two processes, namely, evaporation and transpiration
(Fig. 25.1). Evaporation is a process by which water is lost in the form of vapour from natural
surfaces, such as free water surface, bare soil, from live or dead vegetation. Transpiration is a
process by which water is lost in the form of vapour through plant leaves. Therefore,
evapotranspiration is a combined loss of water from the soil (evaporation)and plant (transpiration)
surfaces to the atmosphere through vaporization of liquid water, and is expressed in depth per unit
time (for example mm/day).
Consumptive use (CU) – CU is used to designate the losses due to ET and water that is used for
its metabolic activities of plants thus CU exceed ET by the amount of water used for digestion,
photosynthesis, transport of minerals and photosynthates, structural support and growth. Since this
difference is usually less than 1%, ET and CU are normally assumed to be equal. But both (CU
&ET) terms are used simultaneously.

Fig.2.6.1. Evapotranspiration process.

ET can be either directly measured for a given crop, soil and climatic conditions or computed using
the reference crop ET, which is generally estimated by various methods depending upon
availability of data for a particular case.
2.6.2 Concept of Reference Crop Evapotranspiration
Reference Crop ET – is the potential ET for a specific crop (usually either grass or alfalfa) and set
of surrounding (advective) conditions. According to Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977)” ET from an
extensive surface of 8 10 15 cm tall, green grass covers of uniform height, actively growing,
completely shading the ground and not short of water”. Allen et al. (1998) modified the above
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

definition to represent hypothetical grass surface. Reference crop evapotranspiration from an

extensive surface of green grass of uniform height (0.12m), actively growing, completely shading
the ground with an albedo of 0.23 and having ample water supply is called reference crop
evapotranspiration and is denoted by ETo (Fig. 25.2).

Fig. 2.6.2. Estimation of reference crop evapotranspiration.

Climatic parameters are the only factors affecting ETo and it can be computed from weather
data. ET for specific crop can be estimated using reference crop ET and crop coefficients.
Typical ranges for ETo values for different agro-climatic regions are given in Table 25.1.
Table 25.1. Average ETo for different agro-climatic regions in mm/day
2.6.3 ET Estimation Methods
Due to wide application of evapotranspirtaion data, various indirect ET estimation methods have
been developed over the years. These methods can be grouped into four major categories.
Although there is large number of methods developed in each category, a few examples are
given below:
1. Temperature based (Thornwaite, SCS Blainey Criddle, FAO24 Blaney Criddle, Hargreaves)
2. Radiation based (Turc, Preistly Taylor, Jensen-Haise, and FAO 24 Radiation)
3. Pan evaporation based ( Pan evaporation, FAO 24 Pan)
4. Combination (Penman, Penman Moneith, FAO 56 Penman Monteith)
Data requirement as well as performance of each of these methods varies. In order to help user
with ETo estimation, A Decision Support System for ETo estimation is developed at IIT
Kharagpur (Bandopadhyaya
et al. 2012), which estimates ETo by 22 well established method and ranks them based on their
ETo estimation performance.
2.6.3.1 Hargreaves Methods
Hargreaves method is a temperature based method and it was derived to overcome non
availability of solar radiation data at many locations. Hargreaves and Samani (1985)
recommended estimating solar radiation from extraterrestrial radiation and proposed the
following equation for estimating ETo in mm/day
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Where,
TD = difference between mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures in °C,
RA= extraterrestrial solar radiation in MJ m-2 d-1,
Tmean = mean monthly air temperature in °C.
2.6.3.2 Thornthwaite Method
The relationship is expressed as:

Where,
ETo = Monthly potential evapotranspiration (cm) or reference crop ET (i.e., ETo)
T= Mean monthly temperature (°C)
I = A heat index for a given area which is the sum of 12 monthly index values i
i is derived from mean monthly temperatures using the following formula:

a = an empirically derived exponent which is a function of I

2.6.3.3 Pan Method

The amount of water evaporating from a pan is determined by measuring change in water level
in the pan and correcting from precipitation (assuming that water loss due to wind action,
animals, birds etc., has been prevented or is negligible). USBR Class A Pan evporometer is most
commonly used for estimation of pan evaporation and is shown in Fig. 25.3. It is relatively
inexpensive and simple way of assessing the evaporative capabilities of the atmosphere.

Fig. 2.6.3. Pan evaporimeter.

Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Reference Crop ET (ETo) is related to Epas follows:

ETo = Ep .kp (25.5)
Where,
ETo = Reference crop ETo in mm/day
Ep = pan evaporation (mm/day)
Kp = pan coefficient
Kp accounts for differences in pan type and conditions upwind of the pan, and for dissimilarities
between
plants and evaporation pans. Kp values for USBR class a Pan can be chosen from Table 25.2.
Table 2.6.2. Pan Coefficient for USBR Class a pan at varying location of fetch, mean RH
and wind run

(Source: FAO 24)

2.6.3.4 FAO-56 Penman – Monteith Method
Allen et al. (1998) modified the Penman–Monteith equation for estimation of grass reference
crop evapotranspiration (ETo). The mathematical relationship is as follows:
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Where,
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Rn = Net radiation at the crop surface (MJ/m2/day)
G = Soil heat flux density (MJ/m2/day)
T = Air temperature at 2 m height (°C)
U2 = Wind speed at 2 m height (m/s)
es = Saturation vapour pressure (kPa)
ea = Actual vapour pressure (kPa)
(es – ea) = Saturation vapour pressure deficit (kPa)
Δ = Slope vapour pressure curve (kPa/°C)
γ = Psychrometric constant (kPa/°C)
Details of parameter estimation for the above ETo methods can be found in Allen et al. (1998)
and Michael (2008).
Application & Limitations
• Method requires all weather data, i.e., minimum and maximum temperature, minimum and
maximum RH, wind speed, Solar radiation or sunshine hour
• Wide applicability i.e., in arid, semi-arid, humid, sub-humid conditions
• Gives a very satisfactory estimate of ETo
• Can provide basis for developing consistent crop coefficients
2.6.4 Crop Evapotranspiration
Estimation of evapotranpiration for a specific crop (ETc) requires first calculating the reference
evapotranspiration (ET0) and then multiplying the crop coefficients (Kc) to estimate actual:
ETc = ETo x Kc
Where, ETc is the ET of a specific crop, ETo is the grass-reference ET, and Kc is the crop
coefficient for a given crop.
2.6.4.1 Crop Coefficient Concept
While ETo accounts for variations in weather and is used as an indicator of atmospheric demand
for water,
Kc values account for the difference between EToand ETc and link them. Kc is the crop
coefficient for a
given crop and growth stage, and is usually determined experimentally. Each agronomic crop has
a set of
specific crop coefficients used to predict water use rates at different growth stages.
There are four main crop growth stages: initial, crop development, mid-season, and late season:
a) Initial period – planting to 10% ground cover
b) Crop development – 10% ground cover to effective cover i.e., flowering
c) Mid-season – Effective cover to start of maturity i.e., senescence of leavesd) Late season –
Start of maturity to harvest.
These crop development stages along with crop coefficient variation for a typical crop are
depicted in Fig. 2.6.3. Table 2.6.3shows values of crop coefficient during different stages. Crop
coefficient values vary with the development stage of the crop. In the case of annual crops, Kc is
typically low at seedling, emergence and establishment stage, increases with increase in ground
cover and attains maximum value at mid-season stage and there after decreases towards ripening
and maturity stage.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Fig. 2.6.3. Variation of crop coefficient with crop growth stages. (Source: Allen et al. 1998)
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

(Source: Allen et. al., 1998)

* First and second values correspond to harvest at high grain moisture and at complete field dry
conditions, respectively.
** No ground cover, 50% canopy
Example 2.6.1:
Determine ETo for March from pan evaporation data of Palakkad, Kerala. Daily mean pan
evaporation for
the month of March = 7.01mm, Average relative humidity = 63.45 %, Average wind speed at 2m
height =
1.157 m/s. At Palakkad, evaporation pan is placed in an area surrounded by green crops. The
windward
side distance of green crops is about 100 m.
Solution:
For the given conditions, Kp from Table 25.2 is 0.8
ETo = Kp x Epan
= 0.8 x 7.01
Example 2.6.2:
Determine monthly water requirements and total water requirement of a groundnut crop grown
in the
rice fallows at Palakkad, Kerala.= 5.61 mm. Ans

Solution:
For the month of January:
Kc =0.51
No of days =31
ETo = 4.60
Therefore, ETc = ETo x Kc x No of days
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

= 4.60 x 0.51 x 31
= 72.725 mm
For the month of February:
Kc =0.93
No of days =28
ETo = 5.00
Therefore, ETc = ETo x Kc x No of days
= 5.00 x 0.93 x 28
= 130.2 mm
For the month of March:
Kc =1.14
No of days =31
ETo = 5.59
Therefore, ETc = ETo x Kc x No of days
= 5.59 x 1.14 x 31
= 197.47 mm
For the month of April:
Kc =0.82
No of days =30
ETo = 5.20
Therefore, ETc = ETo x Kc x No of days
= 5.20 x 0.82 x 30
= 85.2 mm
Total water requirement = Jan +Feb+Mar+Apr = 485.72 mm Ans.
Irrigation requirement for the above months are calculated by subtracting monthly effective
rainfall from
ETc of respective months.
Key Words: Evapotranspiration, Crop coefficient
References
1. K.N.Tiwari, & N.S.raghuwanshi. (n.d.). Irrigation Engineering .
2. Irrigation theory and practice by A.M.Michael
3. Irrigation Engineering by Sharma R.K and Sharma T.K 2007
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Lesson 7
2.7 Crop water requirements
2.7.1 Crop Water Requirement
It is defined as the total quantity of water required by a crop irrespective of its source in a given
period of time for its normal growth and development under field conditions at a given place. In
means that it is the total quantity of water required to mature an adequately irrigated crop to meet
the losses due to evapotranspiration (ET), plus the losses during the application of irrigation water
(unavoidable losses) and the additional quantity of water required for special operations such as
land preparation, transplanting, leaching of salts below the crop root zone, frost control etc. It is
expressed in depth per unit time.

In other words, crop water requirement is total water demand for growing a crop. Crop water
demand can also be expressed in term of supply as:
WR = IRR + ER +ΔS +GWC (26.2)
Where:
WR = Total depth of water required during the life of crop irrespective of source
CU = Consumptive use (total water required for all plant processes)
ER = Effective rainfall received during crop life
ΔS = Profile water use i.e., difference in soil moisture in the crop root zone at the beginning and
end of the crop
GWC= Groundwater contribution, if any
IRR = Irrigation
In the previous lecture crop ET estimation procedure based on reference crop ET and crop
coefficient approach is described. A number of methods are available for estimation of reference
crop ET (ETo) using the weather data. However, crop ET can also be measured using the field
water balance or lysimeter. These methods are laborious and time consuming and therefore,
indirect methods of crop ET estimation are commonly used and will be covered in this lecture.
The term effective rainfall has a different meaning to different users. For example, for hydrologist
effective rainfall means runoff, whereas for irrigation engineers of agriculturist effective rainfall
means useful or utilizable rainfall for the purpose of crop growth. Dastane (1974) has defined
effective rainfall as “that portion of the total annual or seasonal rainfall which is useful directly
and/or indirectly for meeting the crop water needs in crop production at the site where it falls but
without pumping”. Thus, it is the portion of rainfall that does not include losses due to surface
runoff, unnecessary deep percolation and residual moisture after harvest. This concept of effective
rainfall is suggested for use in planning and operation of irrigation projects. A number of factors
affects effective rainfall include, rainfall characteristics, land topography, soil and crop
characteristics, management practices, carryover moisture content and groundwater contribution.
A number of methods are in practice for determining effective rainfall. These include, field water
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

balance approach, drum culture approach for rice, and empirical relationship (SCS method). The
water requirement of different crops are given in Table 2.6.1.
Table 2.6.1. Water requirement of different crops

2.7.1.1 Net Irrigation Requirement

The net irrigation requirement is the total amount of irrigation water required to bring the soil
moisture content in the root zone depth of the crops to field capacity i.e., difference between the
field capacity and the soil moisture content in the root zone before application of irrigation water.
This may be obtained by the relationship given below:

Where,
NIR = net amount of water to be applied during an irrigation, cm
Mfci = gravimetric moisture content at field capacity in the ith layer of the soil, (%)
Mbi = gravimetric moisture content before irrigation in the ith layer of the soil, (%)
ρbi = bulk density of the soil in the ith layer, g/cm3
Di = depth of the ith soil layer, cm, within the root zone, cm
N = number of soil layers in the root zone D.
2.7.1.2 Gross Water Requirement
The total amount of water, inclusive of losses, applied through irrigation is termed as gross
irrigation requirement which in other words in net irrigation requirement plus application and
other losses.

2.7.1.3 Duty of Water (D)

This is defined as the area that can be irrigated with a continuous non-stop supply of irrigation
water at the rate of one cumec or cusec throughout the base period. It is expressed as acre/cusec
or hectare/cumec.
2.7.1.4 Base Period (B)
This is the period over which irrigation water is to be supplied for the production of any crop.
Normally this is equal to the period between the first and last irrigation applied to a crop.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

2.7.1.5 Delta (Δ)

This the depth of water required by a crop during the crop season to meet its requirements. This
does not have any relevance to the area of the cropped field. It is expressed in mm or cm.
Relationship between D, Δ and B

Where, Δ in cm, B in days and D in ha/cumec.

Factors water requirements
Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental aspects
Weather parameters
The principal weather parameters affecting water requirements are radiation, air temperature,
humidity and wind speed.
Crop factors
The crop type, variety, and development stage should be considered when assessing the water
requirements from crops grown in large, well-managed fields. Differences in resistance to
transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection, ground cover and crop rooting characteristics
result in different water requirement levels in different types of crops under identical
environmental conditions.
Management and environmental conditions
Factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility, limited application of fertilizers, the presence of
hard or impenetrable soil horizons, the absence of control of diseases and pests and poor soil
management may limit the crop development and reduce the evapotranspiration.
2.7.2 Methods of Crop Water Requirement Determination
2.7.2.1 Direct Measurement of Evapotranspiration
Plant water use is an important management input, thus, it is critical to know ET. Several
methods have been developed to measure evapotranspiration is already discussed earlier
2.7.2.1.1 Aerodynamic Methods
The vapour pressure of the air and air flow velocities can be measured at several levels above a
plant canopy. By evaluating these measurements, the instantaneous evapotranspiration rate can
be determined. Summing these instantaneous measurements provides an estimate of
evapotranspiration for a day. This technique requires very accurate equipment because the air
moves erratically above the canopy.
2.7.2.1.2 Soil Water Balance Methods
Soil water is the source for evapotranspiration, and several methods have been used to relate
changes in soil water to plant water use. The primary components of the soil water balance are
illustrated in Figure 2.6.1. The soil water balance can be expressed as:

Where,
ET = amount of evapotranspiration during the period,
AWe = amount of soil water in the root zone at the end of a period,
AWb = amount of soil water in the root zone at the beginning of a period,
P = total precipitation during the period,
dg = gross irrigation during the period,
Uf = groundwater contribution to water use during the period,
Ri= surface water that runs onto the area during the period,
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Ro = surface runoff that leaves the area during the period, and
dp = deep percolation from the root zone during the period.

Fig.2.7.1. Sketch illustrating the components of the soil water balance.

Soil water content can be measured using neutron scattering or other techniques described earlier.
Deep percolation is difficult to measure and is often assumed to be insignificant unless substantial
rainfall occurs or large irrigations are applied. A significant problem with the soil water balance
technique is that repetitive measurements must be made throughout the season. One week is
usually the shortest period for using the soil water balance method to estimate ET.
2.7.2.1.3 Lysimetry
Lysimeters are measuring device used for estimating evapotranspiration. It consists of specially
designed open-top tanks buried in the field that are filled with undisturbed soil, and planted with
the same crop as the surrounding area. Water used for ET by plants grown in the lysimeter must
come from the soil water within the tank. ET can be measured by monitoring soil water contents
and water applications from irrigation or rain. The soil tank is used to isolate soil water from the
surrounding area and to prevent runoff, upward groundwater flow, and drainage entering into the
system. For some applications drainage is allowed and the volume of deep percolation is measured.
The soil water within the tank can be measured with traditional methods such as neutron probes.
The amount of water in the tank can also be determined by weighing the tank, soil, plants, and soil
water. Since soil water is the only item that changes significantly over short time periods, the
change in weight equals the amount of water used for ET.
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Fig.2.7.2. Cutaway drawing of weighing type lysimeter.

Example 2.7.1:
A tank has a water spread area of 40 ha. With an average water depth of 3m. Calculate the area
of paddy crop (120-day duration) that can be irrigated, if the duty is expressed as:
• 960 ha per m3s-1
• 110 ha cm and
• 90 ha / million cu m of water
Solution:
The total water available = 40 x 3 x 100 ha. cm

1. Area that can be irrigated = 111 ha. Ans.

2. Area that can be irrigated 108 ha. Ans.

3. Water available in million cu. m

Area that can be irrigated = 108 ha. Ans.

The bulk density of the soil in the root zone was 1.65 gm/cc. the available moisture holding
capacity of
Irrigation and Drainage 1DWE Y2 S1: Topic 2: Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

the soil was 18.0 cm/m depth. Determine

1. The moisture content at different depths in the root zone
2. Moisture content in the root zone at the time of irrigation
3. Net depth of water to be applied to bring the moisture content to field capacity
4. Gross irrigation requirement at an estimated field irrigation efficiency of 70 %
Solution:
a. Soil moisture content at different depths

0-25 cm: = 6.08% = 6.08 x 1.65 = 10 cm/ m depth

= 10 x 25/100 = 2.5 cm

25-50 cm: = 6.46% = 6.46 x 1.65 = 10.66 cm/ m depth

= 10.66 x 25/100 = 2.66 cm

50-75 cm: = 6.53% = 6.53 x 1.65 = 10.77 cm/ m depth

= 10.77 x 25/100 = 2.69 cm

75-100 cm: = 7.98% = 7.98 x 1.65 = 13.18 cm/ m depth

= 13.18 x 25/100 = 3.292 cm
b. Moisture content in the root zone at the time of irrigation = 2.5+2.66+2.69+3.292 = 11.14 cm
c. Net irrigation requirement = 18 – 11.14 = 6.85 cm
d. Gross irrigation requirement = 6.85 / 70 x 100 = 9.79 cm. Ans.
Example 2.7.3:
Determination of monthly water requirements of groundnut having monthly crop coefficient 1.12
and ETo = 5.06 mm /day. Consider month with 30 days.
Solution:
Daily water requirement ETc= ETo x Kc = 5.06 x 1.12 = 5.66 mm
Monthly water requirement = 5.66 mm x 30 = 170.016 mm Ans.

References
1. K.N.Tiwari, & N.S.raghuwanshi. (n.d.). Irrigation Engineering .
2. Irrigation theory and practice by A.M.Michael
3. Irrigation Engineering by Sharma R.K and Sharma T.K 2007
Chapter 1 - Introduction to evapotranspiration
This chapter explains the concepts of and the differences between reference crop
evapotranspiration (ETo) and crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) and
various management and environmental conditions (ETc adj). It also examines the factors that
affect evapotranspiration, the units in which it is normally expressed and the way in which it can
be determined.

Evapotranspiration process
The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost on the one hand from the soil
surface by evaporation and on the other hand from the crop by transpiration is referred to as
evapotranspiration (ET).

Evaporation

Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapour (vaporization) and
removed from the evaporating surface (vapour removal). Water evaporates from a variety of
surfaces, such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet vegetation.

Energy is required to change the state of the molecules of water from liquid to vapour. Direct
solar radiation and, to a lesser extent, the ambient temperature of the air provide this energy.
The driving force to remove water vapour from the evaporating surface is the difference
between the water vapour pressure at the evaporating surface and that of the surrounding
atmosphere. As evaporation proceeds, the surrounding air becomes gradually saturated and the
process will slow down and might stop if the wet air is not transferred to the atmosphere. The
replacement of the saturated air with drier air depends greatly on wind speed. Hence, solar
radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind speed are climatological parameters to
consider when assessing the evaporation process.

Where the evaporating surface is the soil surface, the degree of shading of the crop canopy and
the amount of water available at the evaporating surface are other factors that affect the
evaporation process. Frequent rains, irrigation and water transported upwards in a soil from a
shallow water table wet the soil surface. Where the soil is able to supply water fast enough to
satisfy the evaporation demand, the evaporation from the soil is determined only by the
meteorological conditions. However, where the interval between rains and irrigation becomes
large and the ability of the soil to conduct moisture to pear the surface is small, the water
content in the topsoil drops and the soil surface dries out. Under these circumstances the limited
availability of water exerts a controlling influence on soil evaporation. In the absence of any
supply of water to the soil surface, evaporation decreases rapidly and may cease almost
completely within a few days.

Transpiration

Transpiration consists of the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant tissues and the
vapour removal to the atmosphere. Crops predominately lose their water through stomata.
These are small openings on the plant leaf through which gases and water vapour pass (Figure
1). The water, together with some nutrients, is taken up by the roots and transported through the
plant. The vaporization occurs within the leaf, namely in the intercellular spaces, and the vapour
exchange with the atmosphere is controlled by the stomatal aperture. Nearly all water taken up
is lost by transpiration and only a tiny fraction is used within the plant.

Transpiration, like direct evaporation, depends on the energy supply, vapour pressure gradient
and wind. Hence, radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind terms should be considered
when assessing transpiration. The soil water content and the ability of the soil to conduct water
to the roots also determine the transpiration rate, as do waterlogging and soil water salinity. The
transpiration rate is also influenced by crop characteristics, environmental aspects and
cultivation practices. Different kinds of plants may have different transpiration rates. Not only the
type of crop, but also the crop development, environment and management should be
considered when assessing transpiration.

Evapotranspiration (ET)

Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of distinguishing
between the two processes. Apart from the water availability in the topsoil, the evaporation from
a cropped soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar radiation reaching the soil
surface. This fraction decreases over the growing period as the crop develops and the crop
canopy shades more and more of the ground area. When the crop is small, water is
predominately lost by soil evaporation, but once the crop is well developed and completely
covers the soil, transpiration becomes the main process. In Figure 2 the partitioning of
evapotranspiration into evaporation and transpiration is plotted in correspondence to leaf area
per unit surface of soil below it. At sowing nearly 100% of ET comes from evaporation, while at
full crop cover more than 90% of ET comes from transpiration.

Potential evapotranspiration (ETp)

Is evaporation under conditions of optimum availability of water and optimum agronomic

conditions

Actual evapotranspiration (ETa)

Is evaporation occurring in reality for a given crop and soil under the moisture conditions
existing at that moment

Reference evapotranspiration (ETo)

Is evaporation from an extended surface of 8-15 cm tall green grass cover of uniform height
actively growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water (afalfa is the suggested
crop)

Crop evapotranspiration (ETc)

Is evaporation of actual crop under consideration at a particular growth stage and under specific
agronomic management

ETc=ETo x Kc

Kc=crop coefficient
Units
The evapotranspiration rate is normally expressed in millimetres (mm) per unit time. The rate
expresses the amount of water lost from a cropped surface in units of water depth. The time unit
can be an hour, day, decade, month or even an entire growing period or year.

As one hectare has a surface of 10000 m2 and 1 mm is equal to 0.001 m, a loss of 1 mm of

water corresponds to a loss of 10 m3 of water per hectare. In other words, 1 mm day -1 is
equivalent to 10 m3 ha-1 day-l.

Water depths can also be expressed in terms of energy received per unit area. The energy
refers to the energy or heat required to vaporize free water. This energy, known as the latent
heat of vaporization (), is a function of the water temperature. For example, at 20°C,  is about
2.45 MJ kg-1. In other words, 2.45 MJ are needed to vaporize 1 kg or 0.001 m3 of water. Hence,
an energy input of 2.45 MJ per m2 is able to vaporize 0.001 m or 1 mm of water, and therefore 1
mm of water is equivalent to 2.45 MJ m-2. The evapotranspiration rate expressed in units of MJ
m-2 day-1 is represented by  ET, the latent heat flux.

Table 1 summarizes the units used to express the evapotranspiration rate and the conversion
factors.

TABLE 1. Conversion factors for evapotranspiration

depth volume per unit area energy per unit area *

mm day-1 m3 ha-1 day-1 l s-1 ha-1 MJ m-2 day-1

1 mm day-1 1 10 0.116 2.45

1 m3 ha-1 day-1 0.1 1 0.012 0.245
1 l s-1 ha-1 8.640 86.40 1 21.17
1 MJ m-2 day-1 0.408 4.082 0.047 1
* For water with a density of 1000 kg m-3 and at 20°C.

EXAMPLE 1. Converting evaporation from one unit to another

On a summer day, net solar energy received at a lake reaches 15 MJ per square metre per day. If 80%
of the energy is used to vaporize water, how large could the depth of evaporation be?
From Table 1: 1 MJ m-2 day-1 = 0.408 mm day-1
Therefore: 0.8 x 15 MJ m-2 day-1 = 0.8 x 15 x 0.408 mm d-1 = 4.9 mm day-1
The evaporation rate could be 4.9 mm/day

Factors affecting evapotranspiration

Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental aspects are factors
affecting evaporation and transpiration. The related ET concepts presented in Figure 3 are
discussed in the section on evapotranspiration concepts.

Weather parameters
The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are radiation, air temperature,
humidity and wind speed. Several procedures have been developed to assess the evaporation
rate from these parameters. The evaporation power of the atmosphere is expressed by the
reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo). The reference crop evapotranspiration represents the
evapotranspiration from a standardized vegetated surface. The ETo is described in detail later in
this Chapter and in Chapters 2 and 4.

Crop factors

The crop type, variety and development stage should be considered when assessing the
evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-managed fields. Differences in resistance to
transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection, ground cover and crop rooting
characteristics result in different ET levels in different types of crops under identical
environmental conditions. Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) refers to the
evaporating demand from crops that are grown in large fields under optimum soil water,
excellent management and environmental conditions, and achieve full production under the
given climatic conditions.

Management and environmental conditions

Factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility, limited application of fertilizers, the presence of
hard or impenetrable soil horizons, the absence of control of diseases and pests and poor soil
management may limit the crop development and reduce the evapotranspiration. Other factors
to be considered when assessing ET are ground cover, plant density and the soil water content.
The effect of soil water content on ET is conditioned primarily by the magnitude of the water
deficit and the type of soil. On the other hand, too much water will result in waterlogging which
might damage the root and limit root water uptake by inhibiting respiration.

When assessing the ET rate, additional consideration should be given to the range of
management practices that act on the climatic and crop factors affecting the ET process.
Cultivation practices and the type of irrigation method can alter the microclimate, affect the crop
characteristics or affect the wetting of the soil and crop surface. A windbreak reduces wind
velocities and decreases the ET rate of the field directly beyond the barrier. The effect can be
significant especially in windy, warm and dry conditions although evapotranspiration from the
trees themselves may offset any reduction in the field. Soil evaporation in a young orchard,
where trees are widely spaced, can be reduced by using a well-designed drip or trickle irrigation
system. The drippers apply water directly to the soil near trees, thereby leaving the major part of
the soil surface dry, and limiting the evaporation losses. The use of mulches, especially when
the crop is small, is another way of substantially reducing soil evaporation. Anti-transpirants,
such as stomata-closing, film-forming or reflecting material, reduce the water losses from the
crop and hence the transpiration rate.

FIGURE 4. Reference (ETo), crop evapotranspiration under standard (ETc) and non-
standard conditions (ETc adj)
Where field conditions differ from the standard conditions, correction factors are required to
adjust ETc. The adjustment reflects the effect on crop evapotranspiration of the environmental
and management conditions in the field.

Distinctions are made (Figure 4) between reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo), crop
evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) and crop evapotranspiration under non-
standard conditions (ETc adj). ETo is a climatic parameter expressing the evaporation power of
the atmosphere. ETc refers to the evapotranspiration from excellently managed, large, well-
watered fields that achieve full production under the given climatic conditions. Due to sub-
optimal crop management and environmental constraints that affect crop growth and limit
evapotranspiration, ETc under non-standard conditions generally requires a correction.

Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo)

The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the reference
crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is denoted as ETo. The reference
surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with specific characteristics. The use of other
denominations such as potential ET is strongly discouraged due to ambiguities in their
definitions.

The concept of the reference evapotranspiration was introduced to study the evaporative
demand of the atmosphere independently of crop type, crop development and management
practices. As water is abundantly available at the reference evapotranspiring surface, soil
factors do not affect ET. Relating ET to a specific surface provides a reference to which ET from
other surfaces can be related. It obviates the need to define a separate ET level for each crop
and stage of growth. ETo values measured or calculated at different locations or in different
seasons are comparable as they refer to the ET from the same reference surface.

The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. Consequently, ETo is a climatic
parameter and can be computed from weather data. ETo expresses the evaporating power of
the atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year and does not consider the crop
characteristics and soil factors. The FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the
sole method for determining ETo. The method has been selected because it closely
approximates grass ETo at the location evaluated, is physically based, and explicitly
incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic parameters. Moreover, procedures have been
developed for estimating missing climatic parameters.

Typical ranges for ETo values for different agroclimatic regions are given in Table 2. These
values are intended to familiarize inexperienced users with typical ranges, and are not intended
for direct application.
CHAPTER 5 - IRRIGATION SYSTEM

5.1 Main intake structure and pumping station

5.2 Conveyance and distribution system
5.3 Field application systems
5.4 Drainage system

The irrigation system consists of a (main) intake structure or (main) pumping station, a
conveyance system, a distribution system, a field application system, and a drainage system (see
Fig. 69).

Fig. 69. An irrigation system

The (main) intake structure, or (main) pumping station, directs water from the source of supply,
such as a reservoir or a river, into the irrigation system.

The conveyance system assures the transport of water from the main intake structure or main
pumping station up to the field ditches.

The distribution system assures the transport of water through field ditches to the irrigated fields.

The field application system assures the transport of water within the fields.

The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation) from the
fields.

5.1 Main intake structure and pumping station

5.1.1 Main intake structure

5.1.2 Pumping station

5.1.1 Main intake structure

The intake structure is built at the entry to the irrigation system (see Fig. 70). Its purpose is to
direct water from the original source of supply (lake, river, reservoir etc.) into the irrigation
system.

Fig. 70. An intake structure

5.1.2 Pumping station

In some cases, the irrigation water source lies below the level of the irrigated fields. Then a
pump must be used to supply water to the irrigation system (see Fig. 71).

Fig. 71. A pumping station

There are several types of pumps, but the most commonly used in irrigation is the centrifugal
pump.

The centrifugal pump (see Fig. 72a) consists of a case in which an element, called an impeller,
rotates driven by a motor (see Fig. 72b). Water enters the case at the center, through the suction
pipe. The water is immediately caught by the rapidly rotating impeller and expelled through the
discharge pipe.

Fig. 72a. Diagram of a centrifugal pump

 Fig. 72b. Centrifugal pump and motor

The centrifugal pump will only operate when the case is completely filled with water.

5.2 Conveyance and distribution system

5.2.1 Open canals

5.2.2 Canal structures
The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals transporting the water through the
whole irrigation system. Canal structures are required for the control and measurement of the
water flow.

5.2.1 Open canals

An open canal, channel, or ditch, is an open waterway whose purpose is to carry water from one
place to another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways supplying water to one or more
farms. Field ditches have smaller dimensions and convey water from the farm entrance to the
irrigated fields.

i. Canal characteristics

According to the shape of their cross-section, canals are called rectangular (a), triangular (b),
trapezoidal (c), circular (d), parabolic (e), and irregular or natural (f) (see Fig. 73).

Fig. 73. Some examples of canal cross-sections

The most commonly used canal cross-section in irrigation and drainage, is the trapezoidal cross-
section. For the purposes of this publication, only this type of canal will be considered.

The typical cross-section of a trapezoidal canal is shown in Figure 74.

Fig. 74. A trapezoidal canal cross-section

The freeboard of the canal is the height of the bank above the highest water level anticipated. It
is required to guard against overtopping by waves or unexpected rises in the water level.

The side slope of the canal is expressed as ratio, namely the vertical distance or height to the
horizontal distance or width. For example, if the side slope of the canal has a ratio of 1:2 (one to
two), this means that the horizontal distance (w) is two times the vertical distance (h) (see Fig.
75).

Fig. 75. A side slope of 1:2 (one to two)

The bottom slope of the canal does not appear on the drawing of the cross-section but on the
longitudinal section (see Fig. 76). It is commonly expressed in percent or per mil.

Fig. 76. A bottom slope of a canal

An example of the calculation of the bottom slope of a canal is given below (see also Fig. 76):

or

ii. Earthen Canals

Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank is made up from the removed earth, as
illustrated in Figure 77a.

Fig. 77a. Construction of an earthen canal

The disadvantages of earthen canals are the risk of the side slopes collapsing and the water loss
due to seepage. They also require continuous maintenance (Fig. 77b) in order to control weed
growth and to repair damage done by livestock and rodents.
Fig. 77b. Maintenance of an earthen canal

iii. Lined Canals

Earthen canals can be lined with impermeable materials to prevent excessive seepage and growth
of weeds (Fig. 78).

Fig. 78. Construction of a canal lined with bricks

Lining canals is also an effective way to control canal bottom and bank erosion. The materials
mostly used for canal lining are concrete (in precast slabs or cast in place), brick or rock masonry
and asphaltic concrete (a mixture of sand, gravel and asphalt).

The construction cost is much higher than for earthen canals. Maintenance is reduced for lined
canals, but skilled labour is required.

5.2.2 Canal structures

The flow of irrigation water in the canals must always be under control. For this purpose, canal
structures are required. They help regulate the flow and deliver the correct amount of water to
the different branches of the system and onward to the irrigated fields.

There are four main types of structures: erosion control structures, distribution control structures,
crossing structures and water measurement structures.

i. Erosion control structures

a. Canal erosion

Canal bottom slope and water velocity are closely related, as the following example will show.

A cardboard sheet is lifted on one side 2 cm from the ground (see Fig. 79a). A small ball is
placed at the edge of the lifted side of the sheet. It starts rolling downward, following the slope
direction. The sheet edge is now lifted 5 cm from the ground (see Fig. 79b), creating a steeper
slope. The same ball placed on the top edge of the sheet rolls downward, but this time much
faster. The steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of the ball.

Fig. 79. The relationship between slope and velocity

Water poured on the top edge of the sheet reacts exactly the same as the ball. It flows downward
and the steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of the flow.

Water flowing in steep canals can reach very high velocities. Soil particles along the bottom and
banks of an earthen canal are then lifted, carried away by the water flow, and deposited
downstream where they may block the canal and silt up structures. The canal is said to be under
erosion; the banks might eventually collapse.

b. Drop structures and chutes

Drop structures or chutes are required to reduce the bottom slope of canals lying on steeply
sloping land in order to avoid high velocity of the flow and risk of erosion. These structures
permit the canal to be constructed as a series of relatively flat sections, each at a different
elevation (see Fig. 80).

Fig. 80. Longitudinal section of a series of drop structures

Drop structures take the water abruptly from a higher section of the canal to a lower one. In a
chute, the water does not drop freely but is carried through a steep, lined canal section. Chutes
are used where there are big differences in the elevation of the canal.

ii. Distribution control structures

Distribution control structures are required for easy and accurate water distribution within the
irrigation system and on the farm.

a. Division boxes

Division boxes are used to divide or direct the flow of water between two or more canals or
ditches. Water enters the box through an opening on one side and flows out through openings on
the other sides. These openings are equipped with gates (see Fig. 81).

Fig. 81. A division box with three gates

b. Turnouts

Turnouts are constructed in the bank of a canal. They divert part of the water from the canal to a
smaller one.

Turnouts can be concrete structures (Fig. 82a), or pipe structures (Fig. 82b).

Fig. 82a. A concrete turnout

Fig. 82b. A pipe turnout

c. Checks

To divert water from the field ditch to the field, it is often necessary to raise the water level in the
ditch. Checks are structures placed across the ditch to block it temporarily and to raise the
upstream water level. Checks can be permanent structures (Fig. 83a) or portable (Fig. 83b).

Fig. 83a. A permanent concrete check

Fig. 83b. A portable metal check

iii. Crossing structures

It is often necessary to carry irrigation water across roads, hillsides and natural depressions.
Crossing structures, such as flumes, culverts and inverted siphons, are then required.

a. Flumes

Flumes are used to carry irrigation water across gullies, ravines or other natural depressions.
They are open canals made of wood (bamboo), metal or concrete which often need to be
supported by pillars (Fig. 84).

Fig. 84. A concrete flume

b. Culverts

Culverts are used to carry the water across roads. The structure consists of masonry or concrete
headwalls at the inlet and outlet connected by a buried pipeline (Fig. 85).

Fig. 85. A culvert

c. Inverted siphons

When water has to be carried across a road which is at the same level as or below the canal
bottom, an inverted siphon is used instead of a culvert. The structure consists of an inlet and
outlet connected by a pipeline (Fig. 86). Inverted siphons are also used to carry water across
wide depressions.

Fig. 86. An inverted siphon

iv. Water measurement structures

The principal objective of measuring irrigation water is to permit efficient distribution and
application. By measuring the flow of water, a farmer knows how much water is applied during
each irrigation.

In irrigation schemes where water costs are charged to the farmer, water measurement provides a
basis for estimating water charges.

The most commonly used water measuring structures are weirs and flumes. In these structures,
the water depth is read on a scale which is part of the structure. Using this reading, the flow-rate
is then computed from standard formulas or obtained from standard tables prepared specially for
the structure.

a. Weirs

In its simplest form, a weir consists of a wall of timber, metal or concrete with an opening with
fixed dimensions cut in its edge (see Fig. 87). The opening, called a notch, may be rectangular,
trapezoidal or triangular.

Fig. 87. Some examples of weirs

A RECTANGULAR WEIR

A TRIANGULAR WEIR

A TRAPEZOIDAL WEIR
b. Parshall flumes

The Parshall flume consists of a metal or concrete channel structure with three main sections: (1)
a converging section at the upstream end, leading to (2) a constricted or throat section and (3) a
diverging section at the downstream end (Fig. 88).

Fig. 88. A Parshall flume

Depending on the flow condition (free flow or submerged flow), the water depth readings are
taken on one scale only (the upstream one) or on both scales simultaneously.
c. Cut-throat flume

The cut-throat flume is similar to the Parshall flume, but has no throat section, only converging
and diverging sections (see Fig. 89). Unlike the Parshall flume, the cut-throat flume has a flat
bottom. Because it is easier to construct and install, the cut-throat flume is often preferred to the
Parshall flume.

Fig. 89. A cut-throat flume

5.3 Field application systems

5.3.1 Surface irrigation

5.3.2 Sprinkler irrigation
5.3.3 Drip irrigation

There are many methods of applying water to the field. The simplest one consists of bringing
water from the source of supply, such as a well, to each plant with a bucket or a water-can (see
Fig. 90).

Fig. 90. Watering plants with a bucket

This is a very time-consuming method and it involves quite heavy work. However, it can be used
successfully to irrigate small plots of land, such as vegetable gardens, that are in the
neighbourhood of a water source.

More sophisticated methods of water application are used in larger irrigation systems. There are
three basic methods: surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation.

5.3.1 Surface irrigation

Surface irrigation is the application of water to the fields at ground level. Either the entire field is
flooded or the water is directed into furrows or borders.

i. Furrow irrigation

Furrows are narrow ditches dug on the field between the rows of crops. The water runs along
them as it moves down the slope of the field.

The water flows from the field ditch into the furrows by opening up the bank or dyke of the ditch
(see Fig. 91a) or by means of syphons or spiles. Siphons are small curved pipes that deliver
water over the ditch bank (see Fig. 91b). Spiles are small pipes buried in the ditch bank (see Fig.
91c).

Fig. 91a. Water flows into the furrows through openings in the bank
Fig. 91b. The use of siphons

Fig. 91c. The use of spiles

ii. Border irrigation

In border irrigation, the field to be irrigated is divided into strips (also called borders or
borderstrips) by parallel dykes or border ridges (see Fig. 92).

The water is released from the field ditch onto the border through gate structures called outlets
(see Fig. 92). The water can also be released by means of siphons or spiles. The sheet of flowing
water moves down the slope of the border, guided by the border ridges.

Fig. 92. Border irrigation

iii. Basin irrigation

Basins are horizontal, flat plots of land, surrounded by small dykes or bunds. The banks prevent
the water from flowing to the surrounding fields. Basin irrigation is commonly used for rice
grown on flat lands or in terraces on hillsides (see Fig. 93a). Trees can also be grown in basins,
where one tree usually is located in the centre of a small basin (see Fig. 93b).

Fig. 93a. Basin irrigation on the hillside

Fig. 93b. Basin irrigation for trees

5.3.2 Sprinkler irrigation

With sprinkler irrigation, artificial rainfall is created. The water is led to the field through a pipe
system in which the water is under pressure. The spraying is accomplished by using several
rotating sprinkler heads or spray nozzles (see Fig. 94a) or a single gun type sprinkler (see Fig.
94b).

Fig. 94a. Sprinkler irrigation using several rotating sprinkler heads or spray nozzles

Fig. 94b. Sprinkler irrigation using a single gun type sprinkler

5.3.3 Drip irrigation

In drip irrigation, also called trickle irrigation, the water is led to the field through a pipe system.
On the field, next to the row of plants or trees, a tube is installed. At regular intervals, near the
plants or trees, a hole is made in the tube and equipped with an emitter. The water is supplied
slowly, drop by drop, to the plants through these emitters (Fig. 95).

Fig. 95. Drip Irrigation

5.4 Drainage system

A drainage system is necessary to remove excess water from the irrigated land. This excess water
may be e.g. waste water from irrigation or surface runoff from rainfall. It may also include
leakage or seepage water from the distribution system.

Excess surface water is removed through shallow open drains (see Surface drainage, Chapter
6.2.1). Excess groundwater is removed through deep open drains or underground pipes (see
Subsurface drainage, Chapter 6.2.2).

CHAPTER 6 - DRAINAGE

6.1 Need for drainage

6.2 Different types of drainage

6.1 Need for drainage

During rain or irrigation, the fields become wet. The water infiltrates into the soil and is stored
in its pores. When all the pores are filled with water, the soil is said to be saturated and no more
water can be absorbed; when rain or irrigation continues, pools may form on the soil surface
(Fig. 96).

Fig. 96. During heavy rainfall the upper soil layers become saturated and pools may form.
Water percolates to deeper layers and infiltrates from the pools.
Part of the water present in the saturated upper soil layers flows downward into deeper layers and
is replaced by water infiltrating from the surface pools.

When there is no more water left on the soil surface, the downward flow continues for a while
and air re-enters in the pores of the soil. This soil is not saturated anymore.

However, saturation may have lasted too long for the plants' health. Plant roots require air as
well as water and most plants cannot withstand saturated soil for long periods (rice is an
exception).

Besides damage to the crop, a very wet soil makes the use of machinery difficult, if not
impossible.

The water flowing from the saturated soil downward to deeper layers, feeds the groundwater
reservoir. As a result, the groundwater level (often called groundwater table or simply water
table) rises. Following heavy rainfall or continuous over-irrigation, the groundwater table may
even reach and saturate part of the rootzone (see Fig. 97). Again, if this situation lasts too long,
the plants may suffer. Measures to control the rise of the water table are thus necessary.

Fig. 97. After heavy rainfall the groundwater table may rise and reach the rootzone

BEFORE HEAVY RAINFALL

 AFTER HEAVY RAINFALL

The removal of excess water either from the ground surface or from the rootzone, is called
drainage.

Excess water may be caused by rainfall or by using too much irrigation water, but may also have
other origins such as canal seepage or floods.

In very dry areas there is often accumulation of salts in the soil. Most crops do not grow well on
salty soil. Salts can be washed out by percolating irrigation water through the rootzone of the
crops. To achieve sufficient percolation, farmers will apply more water to the field than the crops
need. But the salty percolation water will cause the water table to rise. Drainage to control the
water table, therefore, also serves to control the salinity of the soil (see Chapter 7).

6.2 Different types of drainage

6.2.1 Surface drainage

6.2.2 Subsurface drainage
Drainage can be either natural or artificial. Many areas have some natural drainage; this means
that excess water flows from the farmers' fields to swamps or to lakes and rivers. Natural
drainage, however, is often inadequate and artificial or man-made drainage is required.

There are two types of artificial drainage: surface drainage and subsurface drainage.

6.2.1 Surface drainage

Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the surface of the land. This is normally
accomplished by shallow ditches, also called open drains. The shallow ditches discharge into
larger and deeper collector drains. In order to facilitate the flow of excess water toward the
drains, the field is given an artificial slope by means of land grading (see Fig. 98).

Fig. 98. The field is given an artificial slope to facilitate drainage

6.2.2 Subsurface drainage

Subsurface drainage is the removal of water from the rootzone. It is accomplished by deep open
drains or buried pipe drains.

i. Deep open drains

The excess water from the rootzone flows into the open drains (see Fig. 99). The disadvantage of
this type of subsurface drainage is that it makes the use of machinery difficult.

Fig. 99. Control of the groundwater table by means of deep open drains

ii. Pipe drains

Pipe drains are buried pipes with openings through which the soil water can enter. The pipes
convey the water to a collector drain (see Fig. 100).

Fig. 100. Control of the groundwater table by means of buried pipes

Drain pipes are made of clay, concrete or plastic. They are usually placed in trenches by
machines. In clay and concrete pipes (usually 30 cm long and 5 - 10 cm in diameter) drainage
water enters the pipes through the joints (see Fig. 101, top). Flexible plastic drains are much
longer (up to 200 m) and the water enters through perforations distributed over the entire length
of the pipe (see Fig. 101, bottom).

Fig. 101. Clay pipes (top) and flexible plastic pipe (bottom)

iii. Deep open drains versus pipe drains

Open drains use land that otherwise could be used for crops. They restrict the use of machines.
They also require a large number of bridges and culverts for road crossings and access to the
fields. Open drains require frequent maintenance (weed control, repairs, etc.).

In contrast to open drains, buried pipes cause no loss of cultivable land and maintenance
requirements are very limited. The installation costs, however, of pipe drains may be higher due
to the materials, the equipment and the skilled manpower involved.
CHAPTER 7 - SALTY SOILS

7.1 Salinization
7.2 Salinity
7.3 Crops and saline soils
7.4 Sodicity
7.5 Improvement of saline and sodic soils
7.6 Prevention of salinization

7.1 Salinization

A soil may be rich in salts because the parent rock from which it was formed contains salts. Sea
water is another source of salts in low-lying areas along the coast. A very common source of
salts in irrigated soils is the irrigation water itself. Most irrigation waters contain some salts.

After irrigation, the water added to the soil is used by the crop or evaporates directly from the
moist soil. The salt, however, is left behind in the soil. If not removed, it accumulates in the soil;
this process is called salinization (see Fig. 102). Very salty soils are sometimes recognizable by a
white layer of dry salt on the soil surface.

Fig. 102. Salinization, caused by salty irrigation water

Salty groundwater may also contribute to salinization. When the water table rises (e.g. following
irrigation in the absence of proper drainage), the salty groundwater may reach the upper soil
layers and, thus, supply salts to the rootzone (see Fig. 103).

Fig. 103. Salinization, caused by a high

Soils that contain a harmful amount of salt are often referred to as salty or saline soils. Soil, or
water, that has a high content of salt is said to have a high salinity.

7.2 Salinity

7.2.1 Water salinity

7.2.2 Soil salinity

7.2.1 Water salinity

Water salinity is the amount of salt contained in the water. It is also called the "salt
concentration" and may be expressed in grams of salt per litre of water (grams/litre or g/l) (see
Fig. 104), or in milligrams per litre (which is the same as parts per million, p.p.m). However, the
salinity of both water and soil is easily measured by means of an electrical device. It is then
expressed in terms of electrical conductivity: millimhos/cm or micromhos/cm. A salt
concentration of 1 gram per litre is about 1.5 millimhos/cm. Thus a concentration of 3 grams per
litre will be about the same as 4.5 millimhos/cm.

Fig. 104. A salt concentration of 10 g/l

7.2.2 Soil salinity

The salt concentration in the water extracted from a saturated soil (called saturation extract)
defines the salinity of this soil. If this water contains less than 3 grams of salt per litre, the soil is
said to be non saline (see Table below). If the salt concentration of the saturation extract contains
more than 12 g/l, the soil is said to be highly saline.

Salt concentration of the soil water (saturation extract)

Salinity
in g/l in millimhos/cm
0-3 0 - 4.5 non saline
3-6 4.5 - 9 slightly saline
6 - 12 9 - 18 medium saline
more than 12 more than 18 highly saline

7.3 Crops and saline soils

Most crops do not grow well on soils that contain salts.

One reason is that salt causes a reduction in the rate and amount of water that the plant roots can
take up from the soil (see Fig. 105). Also, some salts are toxic to plants when present in high
concentration.

Fig. 105. A high salt concentration in the soil is harmful for the plants as the water uptake
is reduced
Some plants are more tolerant to a high salt concentration than others. Some examples are given
in the following table:

Highly tolerant Moderately tolerant Sensitive

Date palm Wheat Red clover
Barley Tomato Peas
Sugarbeet Oats Beans
Cotton Alfalfa Sugarcane
Asparagus Rice Pear
Spinach Maize Apple
Flax Orange
Potatoes Prune
Carrot Plum
Onion Almond
Cucumber Apricot
Pomegranate Peach
Fig
Olive
Grape

The highly tolerant crops can withstand a salt concentration of the saturation extract up to 10 g/l.
The moderately tolerant crops can withstand salt concentration up to 5 g/l. The limit of the
sensitive group is about 2.5 g/l.

7.4 Sodicity
Salty soils usually contain several types of salt. One of these is sodium salt. Where the
concentration of sodium salts is high relative to other types of salt, a sodic soil may develop.
Sodic soils are characterized by a poor soil structure: they have a low infiltration rate, they are
poorly aerated and difficult to cultivate. Thus, sodic soils adversely affect the plants' growth.

7.5 Improvement of saline and sodic soils

7.5.1 Improvement of saline soils

7.5.2 Improvement of sodic soils

Numerous areas in the world are naturally saline or sodic or have become saline due to improper
irrigation practices. Crop growth on many of these is poor. However, their productivity can be
improved by a number of measures.

7.5.1 Improvement of saline soils

Improvement of a saline soil implies the reduction of the salt concentration of the soil to a level
that is not harmful to the crops.

To that end, more water is applied to the field than is required for crop growth. This additional
water infiltrates into the soil and percolates through the rootzone. During percolation, it takes up
part of the salts in the soil and takes these along to deeper soil layers. In fact, the water washes
the salts out of the rootzone. This washing process is called leaching (see Fig. 106).

Fig. 106. Leaching of salts

The additional water required for leaching must be removed from the rootzone by means of a
subsurface drainage system (Chapter 6). If not removed, it could cause a rise of the groundwater
table which would bring the salts back into the rootzone. Thus, improvement of saline soils
includes, essentially, leaching and sub-surface drainage.

7.5.2 Improvement of sodic soils

Improvement of sodic soils implies the reduction of the amount of sodium present in the soil.
This is done in two stages. Firstly, chemicals (such as gypsum), which are rich in calcium, are
mixed with the soil; the calcium replaces the sodium. Then, the replaced sodium is leached from
the rootzone by irrigation water.

7.6 Prevention of salinization

7.6.1 Irrigation water quality
7.6.2 Irrigation management and drainage

Soils will become salty if salts are allowed to accumulate. Proper irrigation management and
adequate drainage are not only important measures for the improvement of salty soils, they are
also essential for the prevention of salinization.

7.6.1 Irrigation water quality

The suitability of water for irrigation depends on the amount and the type of salt the irrigation
water contains. The higher the salt concentration of the irrigation water, the greater the risk of
salinization. The following Table gives an idea of the risk of salinization:

Salt concentration of the Soil salinization Restriction on use

irrigation water in g/l risk
less than 0.5 g/l no risk no restriction on its use
0.5 - 2 g/l slight to moderate should be used with appropriate water
risk management practices
more than 2 g/l high risk not generally advised for use unless
consulted with specialists

The type of salt in the irrigation water will influence the risk of developing sodicity: the higher
the concentration of sodium present in the irrigation water (particularly compared to other soils),
the higher the risk.

7.6.2 Irrigation management and drainage

Irrigation systems are never fully efficient. Some water is always lost in canals and on the
farmers' fields. Part of this seeps into the soil. While this will help leach salt out of the rootzone,
it will also contribute to a rise of the water table; a high water table is risky because it may cause
the salts to return to the rootzone. Therefore, both the water losses and the water table must be
strictly controlled. This requires careful management of the irrigation system and a good
subsurface drainage system.