Problem Solving and Reasoning

This chapter focuses on the importance of

problem solving and on the different strategies
to solve problems related to Mathematics. This
chapter will explore on the different steps in
problem solving introduced by Polya and the
different problem-solving strategies that can be
used to solve routine and non-routine
problems.
 In this chapter, we will be discussing
the following lessons:
Lesson 1: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Lesson 2: Polya’s four step in problem solving

Lesson 3: Problem Solving Strategies

Lesson 1
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, you must have:

a. Differentiate between inductive and deductive

reasoning.

b. Identify whether a given statements/arguments

illustrates inductive or deductive reasoning.
 What can we conclude with this
arguments?
All Science teachers are bald.
Mark is a Science teacher.
Therefore, ____________.

Is the argument inductive or deductive?

_____________________
How did you identify whether an argument is
inductive or deductive?_____________________
 Inductive Reasoning
Is drawing a general conclusions from a
repeated observation or limited sets of
observations of specific examples. Basically,
there is a given data, then we draw conclusion
based from the frame these data or simply from
specific case to general case. The conclusion
drawn by using inductive reasoning is called
conjecture.
 Conjecture
• The conjecture may be true or false
depending on the truthfulness of the
argument. A statement is a true
statement provided that it is true in all
cases and it only takes one example to
prove the conjecture is false, such
example is called a counterexample.
 Examples 1:
2 is an even number.
52 is an even number.
132 is an even number.
Therefore, all numbers ending with 2 are
even numbers.
Example 2:

The coin I pulled from the bag is a penny.

That coin is a penny.
That coin from a bag is a penny.
Therefore, all the coins from the bag is a
penny.
Example 3:
What is the next term?
3, 6, 12, 24,

Conjecture:
Multiply each term by 2 to get the next term.

The next term is 24𝑥2 = 48

Again Inductive reasoning
from specific case to
general case.
 Deductive reasoning
Is drawing general to specific
examples or simply from general case
to specific case. Deductive reasoning
starts with a general statement
(hypothesis) and examines to reach a
specific conclusion.
Example 1:
All birds have feathers.

Ducks are birds.

Therefore, ducks have feathers.

Example 2:
All students eat pizza.

Shaine is a student at Guimaras State College.

Therefore, Shaine eats pizza.

Example 3:

The Catalog states that all entering freshmen

must take mathematics placement test.

You are entering freshman.

Therefore, you will have to take a mathematics

placement test.
 The Comparison between the
Deductive and Inductive reasoning
 Again Deductive reasoning
from general case to specific
case.
 It’s your turn!
1. Christopher is sick. If Christopher is sick, he won’t
be able to go to work. Therefore,
______________________.

2. Essay test is difficult. Problem solving test is

difficult. Therefore, _________________.

3. Mark is a Science teacher. Mark is bald.

Therefore,_____________________.
Lesson 2
Polya’s four-step in problem solving
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, you must have:

a) Apply the Polya’s four steps in problem solving.

b) Organize one’s methods and procedures for proving

and solving problems.
 Do you know George Polya?
Are you familiar with the steps in problem solving?

POLYA’S FOUR-STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING

Goerge Polya (1887-1985) was a mathematics educator who
strongly believed that the skills of problem solving can be
taught. He developed a framework known as Polya’s Four-
Steps in Problem Solving. This process addressed the difficulty
of students in problem solving. He firmly believed that the
most efficient way of learning mathematical concepts is
through problem solving and students and teachers become a
better solver.
This section presents the four-step process that forms
the basis of any serious attempt at problem solving.
The Polya’s four steps in problem solving are:

• Step 1: Understand the problem

• Step 2: Devise a plan.
• Step 3: Carry out the plan.
• Step 4: Look back.
 In order to become a good problem
solver, one should follow Polya’s four steps
which help to examine each of the steps
and determine what is involved. Usually, a
mathematical problem is presented in
words whether orally or written. We will
solve the mathematical problems using
mathematical symbols, and then interpret
the answer. This process is summarized
below:
 Step 1: Understanding the Problem
Basically, the problem lies in understanding the
problem itself. To understand the problem, we might
consider the following: o What is being asked?

• What is the condition?

• What sort of a problem is it?
• What is known or unknown?
• Is there enough information?
• Can you draw a figure to illustrate the problem?
• Can you restate the problem in your words?
 Step 2: Devise a Plan
Devising a plan is a way to solve the problem by
picturing how we are going to attack the problem.

• What strategy do you know?

• Have you seen the same type of problem in a
slightly different form?
• Try a strategy that seems will work. o Try to think of
a familiar problem having the same or a similar
unknown.
There are lots of problem solving strategies
to choose from. Here are some of these
strategies:
• Guess and check
• Make an organized list
• Look for a pattern
• Draw a diagram/picture
• Make a model /Block Model Approach
• Work backward
• Use a formula
• Write an equation
 Step 3: Carry Out the Plan
In carrying out the plan, we need to use the
strategy you selected in step 2 and start solving the
problem. These are the things we need to consider:

• Be patient.
• Work carefully.
• Modify the plan or try a new plan.
• Keep trying until something works.
• Implement the strategy if the first one isn’t working.
• Keep a complete and accurate record of your work.
• Be determined and don’t get discouraged if the plan does not work
immediately.
 It’s your turn!
“Riza has 15 chocolates which she divides equally
among her three friends. How many chocolates does
each of her friends receive?”
1. What do you think is given in the problem?
2. What is being asked?
3. Is/are the information enough to solve the
problem? Justify your answer.
4. Draw an illustration of the problem situation.
5. How many chocolates did one of her friend
received?
Lesson 3
Problem-Solving Strategies
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, you must have:

a) Recognized the different strategies in

problem solving.
b) b) Apply appropriate strategies in solving
routine and non-routine problem.
• Are you familiar with the
different problem-solving
strategies?

• Can you name some of this

strategies?
 Problem Solving Strategies
The key to one’s success in mathematics is his
ability to use mathematics in the real world - both
now and in the future. To succeed, one needs
mathematics skills and some solving tools too.
Learning how to solve problems encourages students
to view problems from various perspectives. When
these are presented to them with many opportunities
to practice their skills, they build up on these skills as
they identify, organize, and analyze important
variables that will help them decide and choose the
strategies they could use to creatively solve problems.
There are a variety of strategies to choose from.

• Guess and check

• Make an organized list
• Look for a pattern
• Draw a diagram/picture
• Make a model /Block Model Approach
• Work backward
• Use a formula
• Write an equation
 Guess and Check
It is a problem-solving strategy that students can
use to solve mathematical problems by guessing the
answer and then checking that the guess fits the
conditions of the problem. The Guess and Check strategy
for problem solving can be helpful for many types of
problems. When using this strategy, students are
encourage to make a reasonable guess, check the guess
and revise the guess if necessary. By repeating this
process a student can arrive at a correct answer that has
been checked. Using this strategy does not always yield a
correct solution immediately, but it provides information
that can be used to better understand the problem and
may suggest the use of another strategy. Students have a
natural affinity for this strategy and should be encouraged
to use it when appropriate.
Example:
 Make an Organized List
An organized list is a
problem-solving strategy which
enables students to organize the
data and visually consider their
options when answering a
problem.
Example:
 Look for Pattern
A pattern is a regular, systematic
repetition and which often occurs in
problems where there is a progression
of data. Students are encouraged to
analyze patterns in data by decoding
rules that create the pattern and make
predictions and generalizations based
on their analysis.
 Students are required to analyze patterns in data
and make predictions and generalizations based on their
analysis. They then must check the generalization against
the information in the problem and possibly make a
prediction from, or extension of, the given information. a
pattern is a regular, systematic repetition. A pattern may
be numerical, visual or behavioral. By identifying the
pattern, you can predict what will come next and what
will happen again and again in the same way. Looking for
patterns is a very important strategy for problem solving
and is used to solve many different kinds of problems.
Sometimes you can solve a problem just by recognizing a
pattern, but often you will have to extend a pattern to
find a solution. Making a number table often reveals
pattern, and for this reason it is frequently used in
conjunction with this strategy.
Example:
Drawing a diagram/picture
Draw a diagram is a strategy
where students sketch drawings to
help them see the relationships in
a problem. Diagrams and drawings
can help students visualize the
problem situations.
Example:
 Make a model/Block Model Approach
The Model Approach of solving word problems is an
approach that uses strips, bars, or rectangular regions
called models to make the problem solver visualize
concepts or even manipulate problem situations. The
steps to follow when using this approach are the
following: (1) reading and trying to understand the
question; (2) drawing and labelling the diagrams with all
the relevant information and dividing the bars into equal
units, (3) equating the number of units to a quantity using
a diagram to form a proportion statement, the value of
the quantity may be given or obtained by computing
some given figures in the questions, and (4) Using unitary
or proportion method to get the answer.
 The use of physical models is often useful in
solving problems. There may be several models
appropriate for a given problem. The choice of a
particular model is often related to the student’s
previous knowledge and problem - solving
experience. Objects and drawings can help to visualize
problem situations. Acting out the situation also is a
way to visualize the problem. Writing an equation is
an abstract way of modelling a problem situation. The
use of modelling provides a method for organizing
information that could lead to the selection of
another problem-solving strategy.
Example:
 Working backwards
Working backwards is the
strategy of undoing key elements
in the problem in order to find a
solution.
 Example:
Dan thinks of a number. He multiply this number by
13 and subtract the result by 25 and he gets 40. What
number did he started?
Solution:
We will start from the result which is 40. What
number when subtracted by 25 will result
to 40?
So, ____ - 25 = 40
Then, (40 + 25)/13 = 5
Thus, Dan thinks of a number 5.
 Use a Formula
Formulas are one of the most powerful
mathematical tools at our disposal. Often, the solution to
a problem involves substituting values into a formula or
selecting the proper formula to use. Some of the formulas
that will be useful for students to know are listed in the
vocabulary and Formulas section of this book. However,
other formulas will be useful to students, too. If the
strategy code for a problem is, then the problem can be
solved with a formula. When students encounter
problems for which they don’t know an appropriate
formula, they should be encouraged to discover the
formula for themselves.
Example:
 Write an Equation
This strategy utilizes variables to represent
unknowns. It follows the acronym 3R’s ESP in
solving problem (Oronce, 1996). The first R
stands for Read the problem carefully. Then
Represent the unknown using any letters of the
alphabet as variable. Next, Relate each
unknown to form Equation. After the equation
has been formed, students solve that equation.
The number obtained must be checked to prove
that the answer is correct.
Example:
 BE SAFE
AND
GODBLESS YOU ALL CLASS!
