AN INTRODUCTION TO
MARINE FUEL ANALYSIS
by

Nigel Draffin
M.I.Mar.E.S.T.

Revised Edition

Foreword by
Angus Ogilvie
Technical Director
Cockett Marine Oil Ltd

Published by
Petrospot Limited
England
2018

iii
AN INTRODUCTION TO MARINE FUEL ANALYSIS

Published in the United Kingdom by

Petrospot Limited
Petrospot House, Somerville Court, Trinity Way,
Adderbury, Oxfordshire OX17 3SN, England

www.petrospot.com
Tel: +44 1295 814455
Fax: +44 1295 814466

© Nigel Draffin 2018

First published 2009

Revised edition 2018

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from

the British Library

ISBN 978-1-908663-28-3

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic,
mechanical, photographic, recorded or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, Petrospot Limited.

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative

information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the
understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal,
accounting, or other professional service. If legal advice or other expert
assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person
should be sought.

Petrospot books are available at special quantity discounts

for use in corporate training programmes or onboard ships

Petrospot Limited (www.petrospot.com)

Printed in the United Kingdom by SRP Limited

iv
 Foreword - First edition

Foreword - First edition

No two fuels are exactly the same, even though they may appear to be identical.
Fuel quality can change depending on the crude oil and feedstocks from which it
is derived, on the type of processing it receives at the refinery and on the way it is
stored, blended and delivered to ships. Until the early 1970s, and in some areas
well beyond that, shipowners never worried unduly about the quality of the fuel
they were buying. Since then, once the quality of the fuel started to deteriorate as
a result of ‘enhancements’ to the refining process, bunker buyers have become
all too aware of the operational, financial and legal difficulties associated with
buying and using poor quality fuels.
In the 1980s, in response to increasing concern over the steady deterioration
of the quality of bunker fuels, the first dedicated specialist fuel testing services
began to appear. Now, these services, with testing laboratories in all the main
bunkering centres, play a vital role in determining whether a fuel is suitable for
burning in a diesel engine or whether it should be offloaded – or debunkered – to
become subject to yet another bunker claim.
Nowadays, for many owners, it is standard practice to send a bunker sample off
to a laboratory for testing before the fuel oil is used onboard, and this process is
well established and understood by buyers and suppliers alike.
However, often the problems start when a testing laboratory has analysed the
fuel and returned the results. What do those results mean? How should they be
interpreted? What happens if the fuel is slightly outside the agreed specifications?
What if other – as yet unknown or unspecified – substances show up on the
analysis? How can an owner or charterer, or a supplier or trader find out what the
lab results actually mean and what to do about them?
On the basis that prevention is always better than cure, everyone involved in the
supply or purchasing of bunker fuels should be aware of the many parameters that
are covered in marine fuel specifications and know what is reasonable to expect
and possible to accept. Armed with this information, many routine problems can
be avoided and costly mistakes can be averted.
Nigel Draffin’s book brings home the importance of knowing the fuels you are
dealing with in a bright, simple and effective way. In this book lies a wealth of
information that will enable everyone from the newcomer to the ‘old hand’ to
understand bunker fuels and what they contain, how to test each key parameter
and what the test results actually mean, and what happens when problem results
appear. Although never a substitute for the huge amount of detail that can be
obtained from a professional analyst using a fully-equipped modern laboratory,
this book certainly provides a substantial amount of information that should be
welcomed and absorbed by anyone involved in any way with marine fuels.

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AN INTRODUCTION TO MARINE FUEL ANALYSIS

In this book, Nigel Draffin offers numerous detailed diagrams, tables, charts and
photographs which will certainly help anyone who has any doubts about what
can be found in marine fuels and, once found, what to do about it. In addition,
some very useful appendices provide places to go for help, lists of abbreviations
and a multi-lingual glossary of the words and terms most often found in fuel test
analysis reports.
I believe that this title is an important addition to the growing library of bunker-
specific books published by Petrospot, and complements Nigel Draffin’s previous
best seller, An Introduction to Bunkering.
Angus Ogilvie
Technical Director
Cockett Marine Oil Ltd
June 2009

vi
 Preface - Revised edition

Preface - Revised edition

Fuel analysis remains one of the most powerful tools in assisting the supplier,
seller and buyer to manage and handle marine fuels. Since the publication of the
first edition of this book in 2009, the market has changed, with new fuel grades,
new international standards and a big increase in the number of distillate fuel
samples being assessed. Much of this is due to the changes in regulation of
atmospheric pollution.
I was asked by Petrospot to update this book for 2015 and the introduction of the
0.10% sulphur emission control area (ECA) limit, but I chose to wait until the sixth
edition of ISO 8217 was published to ensure that the information was as relevant
as possible. I have tried to include all of the new fuel grades, test methods and
regulatory changes but would reiterate the comment from the original preface:
Readers need to be aware that the professionals in this field do not always agree
with each other. The test methods are under constant review and changes are
inevitable, so the information contained inside is the best I could provide at time
of publishing.
Furthermore, the definitive references to the standards and to the test methods
mentioned in this book can only be found in the latest published editions of the
standards concerned.
This revised edition aims to fulfil the aspirations of the first edition: to help the
non-specialist to make sense of the reports received from the analysis of their
fuels and to understand the practicalities and limitations of the methods we use
to assess fuel quality.

Nigel Draffin
April 2018

vii
AN INTRODUCTION TO MARINE FUEL ANALYSIS

Acknowledgements

The author extends his thanks to everyone who has helped in the creation of
An Introduction to Marine Fuel Analysis, particularly Wanda Fabriek, John
Stirling, Geoff Jones, Jan K. Paulsen and Chris Fisher, who have cast an eye
over different parts of the text and suggested many additions and changes which
hopefully make the book better.
He also thanks Angus Ogilvie for writing the original foreword and for his help and
encouragement over many years working together on training courses. Special
thanks are also due to Michael Green of Intertek ShipCare and to the team at
Veritas Petroleum Services (VPS) for help and encouragement with this second
edition.
He gives special thanks to all those who have allowed their photographs to
appear and enliven the text.
The author also extends his thanks to Llewellyn and Lesley Bankes-Hughes and
their team at Petrospot for their work in editing and producing the book and to
Cheryl Marshal in particular, who designed and produced the finished article.

Nigel Draffin
April 2018

viii
 About the author

About the author

Nigel Draffin has been involved in shipping for over 50 years and with the
commercial bunker market for over 25 years. After joining Shell Tankers as an
apprentice engineer in 1966, he rose through the ranks, serving on all classes
of vessel, including VLCCs and LNG tankers. He came ashore in 1979 to join
the newbuilding department of Shell International Marine. After two years of
new construction in Ireland, South Korea and the Netherlands, he transferred
to Shell’s Research & Development unit, specialising in control systems, fuel
combustion and safety systems.
In 1986, Nigel moved to the commercial department as a bunker buyer and
economics analyst. In 1988, he was promoted to be Head of Operational
Economics, responsible for all of the fuel purchased for the Shell fleet, the
operation of the risk management policy and the speed/performance of the
owned fleet.
In March 1996, he joined the staff of E.A. Gibson Shipbrokers Ltd in the bunker
department, and became the manager. In 2006, this department merged with US-
based broking house LQM Petroleum Services, where Nigel was senior broker
and technical manager until he became a full-time consultant, lecturer and author
in 2015.
Nigel is a founder member of the International Bunker Industry Association (IBIA)
and has served several times on its council of management and executive board.
He has also served as the association’s Chairman. He is the author of IBIA’s
Basic Bunkering Course and Course Director of the Petrospot Academy, which
runs industry-recognised training events, such as the Oxford Bunker Course.
Nigel is the author of a growing library of clearly-written, highly-respected
reference books on every aspect of bunkering – including commercial issues,
operations, marine engines, risk management, fuel analysis, measurement, LNG
bunkering, marine lubricants and shipping – which have now sold in over 100
countries around the world.
Nigel is a member of the Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology
and Past Master of the Worshipful Company of Fuellers.

Llewellyn Bankes-Hughes
Managing Director, Petrospot Limited
April 2018

ix
AN INTRODUCTION TO MARINE FUEL ANALYSIS

x
 Contents

Contents

Foreword v

Preface vii

About the author ix

Contents xi

List of Figures xvii

Chapter 1 - Fuel analysis 1

Selecting and verifying quality.................................................................................................1
Units........................................................................................................................................4
Standard prefixes for the SI units of measure.....................................................................4
Examples.............................................................................................................................4
Other abbreviations.............................................................................................................4

Chapter 2 - Fuel specifications 5

Current standards....................................................................................................................6
ISO 8217.............................................................................................................................6
CIMAC 2003........................................................................................................................8
ASTM...................................................................................................................................8
JIS.......................................................................................................................................8
NATO...................................................................................................................................8
Buyer’s specifications........................................................................................................ 11
Legislation requirements on specifications........................................................................ 11
IMO requirements.............................................................................................................. 11
ISO 8217 future developments.......................................................................................... 11

Chapter 3 - Parameters 13
Density..................................................................................................................................13
API gravity.............................................................................................................................13
Viscosity................................................................................................................................14
Carbon residue......................................................................................................................14
Sediment...............................................................................................................................14
Compatibility..........................................................................................................................15
Ash........................................................................................................................................15
Flash point.............................................................................................................................16
Cold flow properties...............................................................................................................16
Pour point..............................................................................................................................16
Cloud point............................................................................................................................17

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 AN INTRODUCTION TO MARINE FUEL ANALYSIS

Cold filter plugging point........................................................................................................17

Cetane Index.........................................................................................................................17
Acid Number..........................................................................................................................17
Asphaltenes...........................................................................................................................18
Hydrogen Sulphide................................................................................................................18
Vanadium...............................................................................................................................18
Sodium .................................................................................................................................18
Water.....................................................................................................................................18
Sulphur..................................................................................................................................19
Aluminium..............................................................................................................................19
Silicon....................................................................................................................................19
Iron........................................................................................................................................19
Nickel.....................................................................................................................................19
Calcium.................................................................................................................................19
Magnesium............................................................................................................................20
Lead......................................................................................................................................20
Zinc........................................................................................................................................20
Phosphorus...........................................................................................................................20
Potassium..............................................................................................................................20
Deleterious materials.............................................................................................................20
Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Index....................................................................................21
Visual appearance.................................................................................................................23
Oxidation stability .................................................................................................................23
Lubricity.................................................................................................................................23

Chapter 4 - Other reported items 25

Fuel Ignition Analyser (FIA)...................................................................................................25
Specific energy......................................................................................................................25
Appearance...........................................................................................................................25
Injection temperatures...........................................................................................................25
Copper strip corrosion...........................................................................................................26
Distillation range....................................................................................................................26
Microbiological contamination...............................................................................................26
Organic contaminants...........................................................................................................26

Chapter 5 - Taking representative samples 29

Equipment.............................................................................................................................30
Methods.................................................................................................................................30
Spot sample.......................................................................................................................30
Composite sample.............................................................................................................30
Drip sample.......................................................................................................................31
Flow proportional sample..................................................................................................33

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 Contents

Transportation.......................................................................................................................34
Receiving the results.............................................................................................................34
Documentation......................................................................................................................35
Breaking the seal...................................................................................................................36

Chapter 6 - Test methods 39

Density (p).............................................................................................................................39
Specific gravity (SG)..............................................................................................................41
Viscosity (v)...........................................................................................................................41
Copper strip corrosion...........................................................................................................43
Distillation range....................................................................................................................43
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)......................................................................................................44
Water (H2O)...........................................................................................................................44
Carbon residue / Carbon residue 10%..................................................................................45
Asphaltenes...........................................................................................................................46
Sulphur (S)............................................................................................................................46
Total Sediment Existent / Total Sediment Potential / Total Sediment Accelerated.................47
Compatibility..........................................................................................................................48
Ash........................................................................................................................................50
Tests for metals.....................................................................................................................51
ICP Spectrometer..............................................................................................................53
Aluminium plus Silicon (Al + Si).............................................................................................54
Vanadium (V).........................................................................................................................54
Sodium (Na) .........................................................................................................................55
Iron (Fe).................................................................................................................................55
Nickel (Ni)..............................................................................................................................55
Calcium (Ca)..........................................................................................................................55
Zinc (Zn) ...............................................................................................................................56
Phosphorus (P).....................................................................................................................56
Magnesium (Mg)...................................................................................................................56
Lead (Pb)...............................................................................................................................56
Potassium (K) .......................................................................................................................57
Pour point..............................................................................................................................57
Flash point.............................................................................................................................57
Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP) ........................................................................................59
Cloud point............................................................................................................................61
Cetane Index.........................................................................................................................62
Acid Number..........................................................................................................................62
Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME)............................................................................................63
Microbiological contamination...............................................................................................63
Organic contaminants...........................................................................................................63

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 AN INTRODUCTION TO MARINE FUEL ANALYSIS

Equivalent tests.....................................................................................................................64
Test method date identifier....................................................................................................64
Sample volume and time for result........................................................................................66

Chapter 7 - Interpretation of results 69

ISO 4259...............................................................................................................................69
True value..............................................................................................................................69
95% confidence level............................................................................................................71
95% confidence buyer’s formula example.............................................................................72
95% confidence seller’s formula example.............................................................................72
CIMAC guidance...............................................................................................................75
European Union procedure for control on sulphur................................................................76
MARPOL procedure..............................................................................................................76
Fuel Oil Verification Procedure for MARPOL Annex VI Fuel Oil Samples .......................76

Chapter 8 - Problem results 81

Density..................................................................................................................................81
Injection viscosity..................................................................................................................81
Water.....................................................................................................................................82
Vanadium...............................................................................................................................83
Sodium..................................................................................................................................83
Sodium / Vanadium ..............................................................................................................83
Aluminium / Silicon................................................................................................................84
Carbon residue......................................................................................................................85
Ash........................................................................................................................................85
Lubricity.................................................................................................................................85
Flash point.............................................................................................................................85
Pour point..............................................................................................................................86
Sulphur..................................................................................................................................86
Acid number..........................................................................................................................86
Total Sediment Potential (TSP).............................................................................................87
Cetane Index.........................................................................................................................87
Used lubricating oil................................................................................................................87
Microbiological contamination...............................................................................................87
Referee analysis....................................................................................................................88
Witness..................................................................................................................................88
Challenge..............................................................................................................................89

Chapter 9 - Additional tests 91

FTIR.......................................................................................................................................91
GC-MS...................................................................................................................................92
Fuel Ignition Analyser / Fuel Combustion Analyser...............................................................93

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 Contents

Turbiscan...............................................................................................................................97
Other stability tests................................................................................................................98
Onboard tests........................................................................................................................98
Proprietary tests....................................................................................................................98
Viscosity.............................................................................................................................98
Density...............................................................................................................................99
Water content....................................................................................................................99
Compatibility......................................................................................................................99
Sulphur..............................................................................................................................99
Aluminium and Silicon.......................................................................................................99
Emergency tests..................................................................................................................100
Viscosity...........................................................................................................................100
Water...............................................................................................................................100
Sludge ............................................................................................................................100

Chapter 10 - The future 101

Appendix I - Where to go for help 103

Websites..............................................................................................................................103
Information and help........................................................................................................103
Technical issues..............................................................................................................103
Fuel specifications...........................................................................................................104
Fuel sampling..................................................................................................................104
Survey and analysis........................................................................................................104
Test methods...................................................................................................................104
Publications.........................................................................................................................105

Appendix II - Abbreviations 107

Appendix III - Glossary 111

Index 113

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AN INTRODUCTION TO MARINE FUEL ANALYSIS

xvi
 List of Tables and Figures

List of Tables and Figures

Figure 1. Ship’s officer using hydrometer...............................................................................1
Photograph courtesy of Shell Photographic Unit
Figure 2. Example text of a typical analysis report.................................................................3
Figure 3. Table of standard prefixes for the SI units of measure............................................4
Figure 4. Bunkering facilities in Colombo in 1951, before bunker quality became an issue...5
Photograph courtesy of the Shell Photographic Unit. Taken by Derrick Knight.
Figure 5. Summary table of principal grades..........................................................................7
Figure 6. Extract from ISO 8217 (E) 2017 Distillate fuel.........................................................9
Figure 7. Extract from ISO 8217 (E) 2017 Residual fuel......................................................10
Figure 8. Asphaltenic sludge in a purifier (outside of bowl)..................................................15
Photograph courtesy of Petrospot Ltd
Figure 9. Asphaltenic sludge in a purifier (inside of bowl)....................................................16
Photograph courtesy of Petrospot Ltd
Figure 10. Chart showing typical variations in Estimated Cetane Number
(ECN) for a given value of CCAI...........................................................................................22
Chart courtesy of Fueltec Solutions AS
Figure 11. Fuel pump plunger damaged by organic acid......................................................27
Photograph courtesy of Bunker Claims International
Figure 12. How not to take a ‘spot sample’...........................................................................30
Photograph courtesy of Petrospot Ltd
Figure 13. Comparison between drip and automatic sampler..............................................31
Figure 14. Drip sampler and cubitainer in use......................................................................32
Photograph courtesy of Lloyd’s Register
Figure 15. Drip sampler and cubitainer................................................................................32
Photograph courtesy of Maritec Pte Ltd
Figure 16. Sample bottle and seal........................................................................................34
Photograph courtesy of Veritas Petroleum Services
Figure 17. Sample label........................................................................................................35
Photograph courtesy of Intertek ShipCare
Figure 18. Sealed sample.....................................................................................................36
Photograph courtesy of Kittiwake Developments Ltd
Figure 19. Sealed sample bottle with two seals...................................................................37
Photograph courtesy of Nigel Draffin
Figure 20. Digital density meter............................................................................................39
Photograph courtesy of Inpechem Inspectors B.V.
Figure 21. Digital density test diagram.................................................................................40
Figure 22. Density table........................................................................................................40
Figure 23. Operation of an automatic viscometer.................................................................41
Photograph courtesy of Intertek ShipCare
Figure 24. Ostwald type capillary viscometer.......................................................................42

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 AN INTRODUCTION TO MARINE FUEL ANALYSIS

Figure 25. Viscosity table......................................................................................................43

Figure 26. Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) table............................................................................44
Figure 27. Water (H2O) table................................................................................................45
Figure 28. Carbon residue table...........................................................................................45
Figure 29. Sulphur (S) table.................................................................................................46
Figure 30. Total sediment test equipment in use..................................................................47
Photograph courtesy of Intertek ShipCare

Figure 31. Total sediment table.............................................................................................48

Figure 32. Examples of rating numbers of typical spots.......................................................49
Spot examples courtesy of Intertec OCA
Figure 33. Ashing a sample..................................................................................................50
Photograph courtesy of Veritas Petroleum Services (VPS)
Figure 34. Ash table..............................................................................................................50
Figure 35. ICP spectrometer ................................................................................................51
Photograph courtesy of Inpechem Inspectors B.V.
Figure 36. Schematic of an ICP system...............................................................................52
Figure 37. Determination of metals by Atomic Absorption Chromatography........................53
Photograph courtesy of Inpechem Inspectors B.V.
Figure 38. Aluminium plus Silicon (Al + Si) table..................................................................54
Figure 39. Vanadium (V) table..............................................................................................54
Figure 40. Sodium (Na) table...............................................................................................55
Figure 41. Calcium (Ca) table...............................................................................................55
Figure 42. Zinc (Zn) table.....................................................................................................56
Phosphorus (P) table.............................................................................................................56
Figure 43. Pour point table...................................................................................................57
Figure 44. Flash point table..................................................................................................58
Figure 45. Manual Penskey-Martens closed cup tester in use.............................................58
Photograph courtesy of Intertek ShipCare
Figure 46. Semi-automatic Penskey Martin Flash Point testing equipment.........................59
Photograph courtesy of Nigel Draffin
Figure 47. Cold filter plugging point table.............................................................................59
Figure 48. Cold filter plugging point apparatus.....................................................................60
Figure 49. CFPP testing equipment......................................................................................60
Photograph courtesy of Nigel Draffin
Figure 50. Cloud point testing.
The same apparatus is also used for analysis of pour point.................................................61
Photograph courtesy of Nigel Draffin
Figure 51. Cloud point table.................................................................................................61
Figure 52. Cetane Index table..............................................................................................62
Figure 53. Acid Number table...............................................................................................62
Figure 54. Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME)..........................................................................63
Figure 55. Identity of ‘equivalent’ tests table.........................................................................66

xviii
 List of Tables and Figures

Figure 56. Sample volume and time for result table.............................................................67

Figure 57. True value chart...................................................................................................71
Figure 58. 95% confidence level table..................................................................................74
Figure 59. Injection viscosity / temperature table.................................................................82
Figure 60. FTIR trace...........................................................................................................91
Photograph courtesy of Intertek ShipCare
Figure 61. GC-MS and operator...........................................................................................92
Photograph courtesy of Intertek ShipCare
Figure 62. Combustion pressure trace chart........................................................................93
Chart courtesy of Fueltec Solutions AS
Figure 63. Rate of heat release curve chart.........................................................................94
Chart courtesy of Fueltec Solutions AS
Figure 64. Combustion pressure trace chart........................................................................94
Diagram courtesy of Fueltec Solutions AS
Figure 65. Rate of heat release chart...................................................................................95
Diagram courtesy of Fueltec Solutions AS
Figure 66. Table showing extract of parameters as defined in IP 541 test method..............96
Courtesy of Fueltec Solutions AS
Figure 67. Diagram showing the principle for constant volume combustion used
in the FIA...............................................................................................................................97
Diagram courtesy of Fueltec Solutions AS

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AN INTRODUCTION TO MARINE FUEL ANALYSIS

xx