TRUBA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

SURVEYING LABORATORY MANUAL

(CE-303)
(B.TECH CIVIL 3rd SEM)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Any quarry
Email: deepesh.malviya@trubainstitu.ac.in
 INDEX
Expt.
Name of Experiment Page No.
No.
1 Determination of Tacheometric Constant. 2-8

2 Determination of Grade of given line. 9-12

3 Determination of Elevation by Tacheometric Survey. 13-17

4 Experiments using Total Station 18-23

5 Setting out of Simple and Combined curves 24-28

6 Observation of Aerial photographs under Stereoscope. 29-32

7 Use of GPS 33-36

Civil Engineering, III-Semester

CE303 Surveying
List of Experiments
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
“DETERMINATION OF TACHOMETER CONSTANT”

Name of Equipment: Tacheometer, Tripod Stand, Measuring Staff, Measuring Tape.

Title of Experiment: Determination of Tachometer Constant.
Aim of Experiment: Determination of the Multiplying and Additive Constant of given
Tachometer.
Experimental set up: A tachometer with tripod, tape, leveling staff, wooden pegs, ranging rods
etc.
FIGURE:

Figure No. 1
Formulae:
When the line of sight is horizontal, then
D = KS + c
Where,
D = Horizontal distance between instrument station and staff station.
K = Multiplying constant of a tachometer
S = Staff intersect i.e. difference between top and bottom stadia hair reading.

When line of sight is inclined and staff vertical then:

D = KS Cos2 Ø+ C.Cos Ø
Where,
D = Horizontal distance between instrument station and staff station.
K = Multiplying constant of a tachometer
 S = Staff intersect i.e. difference between top and bottom stadia hair reading.
q = The inclination of the line of collimation to the horizontal.
c = The additive constant of the tachometer
Theory:

 PRINCIPLE OF STADIA METHOD:

The stadia method is based on the principle that the ratio of perpendicular to the base is
Constant in similar isosceles triangles. In fig let two rays OA and OB is equally inclined to the
central ray OC. Let A2B2, A1B1 and AB be staff intercepts.
Evidently,

Figure No. 2
This constant k entirely depends upon the magnitude of the angle ß. If ß is made equal to
34’22”, the constant k=1/2Cot 17’11”=100. In this case the distance between the staff and the
point O will be 100 times the intercept. In actual practice, observation may be made with inclined
line of sight. In the latter case, the staff may be kept either vertically or normal to the line of
sight. We shall first derive the distance elevation formulae for the horizontal sights.
 Horizontal Sight:-
Considering fig in which o is the optical center of the objective of an external focusing
telescope.
Let,
A, C and B = The point cut by the three lines of sight corresponding to the three wires.
b, c and a = (Top, axial and bottom) hairs of the diaphragm.
ab = I = interval between the stadia hairs (stadia interval)
AB =S = Staff intercept.
F = focal length of the objective.
f1 = Horizontal distance of the staff from the optical centre of the objective.
f2 = Horizontal distance of the cross-wires from O.
d = Distance of the vertical axis of the instrument from O.
D = Horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical axis of the instrument.
M = Centre of the instrument, corresponding to the vertical axis.
Since the rays Bob and Aoa pass through the optical centre they are straight so that as AOB and
aob are similar,

Equation (4) is known as the distance equation. In order to get the horizontal distance, therefore,
the staff intercept (S) is to be found by subtracting the staff reading corresponding to the top and
bottom stadia hairs. The constant k = is known as the multiplying constant or stadia interval

factor and the constant (f + d) = C is known as the additive stadia if the instrument.
 Determination of Constant k and C:
The values of the multiplying constant k and the additive constant C can be computed by
the following methods:
 1st Method: -
In this method, the additive constant C = (f +d) is measured from the instruments while the
multiplying constant k is computed from field observations.
1) Focus the instruments to a distant object and measure along the telescope the distance between
the objective and crosshair.
Since f1 is very large in this case, f is approximately equal to f2 i.e. equal to the distance of the
diaphragm from the objective.
2) The distance d between the instrument axis and the objective is variable in case of external
focusing telescope, being greater for short sights and smaller for long sights. It should, therefore,
be measured for average sight. Thus, the additive constant (f +d) is known.
3) To calculate the multiplying constant K, measure a known distance and take the S1 on the staff
kept at that point, the line of sight being horizontal. Using equation,

For the average value, staff intercepts, s2, s3 etc., can be measured corresponding to distance d2,
d3 etc., and mean value can be calculated.
 2nd Method:-
In this method, both the constants are determined by field observations as under:
1) Measure a line, about 200 m long on fairly level ground and drive pegs at some intervals, say
50 meters.
2) Keep the staff on the pegs and observe the corresponding staff intercepts with horizontal sight.
3) Knowing the values of d and s for different points, a number of simultaneous equations can be
formed by substituting the values of d and s in equation (1.1). The simultaneous solution of
successive pairs of equations will give the values of K and C, and the average of these can be
found.
If s1 is the staff intercept corresponding to distance D1 and s2 corresponding to D2,
we have,
Thus, equations 3 and 4 give the values of K and C.
 Tacheometry: It is a branch of angular Surveying in which horizontal and vertical
distance of point are obtained by instrumental observation.
 Tacheometer: It is a transit theodolite having a stadia telescope i.e. telescope fitted with
stadia diaphragm.
A leveling staff can be used for sighting purpose up to 100m distance

Experimental Procedure:

1) Select an instrument station A on a fairly leveled ground and fix a peg.

2) Do the temporary adjustment over A.
3) With vertical circle to the left of the observer and reading 0°0’0” bisect staff held at 10m, 20m,
and 30m from A along straight line.
4) Note down the staff reading against top and bottom stadia hair on staff held at 10m, 20, 30m
from A.
5) In case of inclined line of sight the same procedure as stated above is followed step by step
with a vertical angle of 5°0’0” in the vertical circle of the theodolite. In this case, the vertical
circle is held to the left of the observer and with the reading 5°0’0” in the circle the staff is
bisected at 10m, 20m and 30m from A along straight but inclination line of collimation.
Observation Table:

Instrument Staff Vertical Stadia Hair Reading

Distance
Station Station Angle T C B

Sample Calculation:

Result:
1. The additive constant (C) for given tacheometer is =
2. The multiplying constant (K) for given tacheometer is =

Conclusion:

Question Bank for Viva:

1. What is mean by tacheometry?

2. What are the constants and there values of tacheometry?
3. Sketch different types of stadia diaphragm?
4. What are the various methods of finding tacheometric constant?
5. State all the systems (methods) of tacheometry?
6. Derive the expression for horizontal distance, reduced level of staff station for the
different cases of tacheometry?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
“DETERMINATION OF GRADIENT OF GIVEN LINE”

Name of Equipment: Tacheometer, Tripod Stand, Measuring Staff, Measuring Tape.

Title of Experiment: Determination of Gradient of Given Line.
Aim of Experiment: Determination of gradient of given length of road by Tacheomentric survey
Experimental set up: A tacheometer with tripod, tape, leveling staff, wooden pegs, ranging rods
etc.
Figure:

Figure No. 1
Formulae:
When the line of sight is horizontal, then
D = Ks + C
Where,
D = Horizontal distance between instrument station and staff station.
K = f/I = 100 Multiplying constant of a tacheometer
C= (f + d) = 0 additive constant of a tacheometer
S = Staff intersect i.e. difference between top and bottom stadia hair reading.
When line of sight is inclined and staff vertical then:
D = KS.Cos2Ø + C. CosØ
Where,
D = Horizontal distance between instrument station and staff station.
K = Multiplying constant of a tacheometer
S = Staff intersect i.e. difference between top and bottom stadia hair reading.
Ø= The inclination of the line of collimation to the horizontal.
C = The additive constant of the tacheometer

Distance between P&Q (D) = √ D12 + D22 - 2D1D2 Cosα)

Gradient = (RL of P - RL of Q) / Length
Theory:
Trignometrical levelling is the branch of surveying in which the relative elevations of the points
are determined from the observed vertical angles and known horizontal distance. Whereas in
ordinary leveling the difference in elevation is ascertained by running a line between the given
points.
Let P be the point whose reduce level is to determine and M be the reading on bench
mark.The instrument is set up at any convenient point B in the vicinity of the object. The
telescope is kept horizontal and staff reading M on the bench mark is taken. The point A sighted
and the angle of elevation is observed. The reduced level of a point P can be ascertained as
follows
Let D be the horizontal distance between the instrument and the object, H be the height of
point P. Ø be the angle of elevation, and then we have,
H = D. tanØ
RL of P = RLs of B.M. + h + V - HI
RL of Q = RLs of M + HI + V + h
Experimental Procedure:
1) Setup the instrument station A and level it carefully with respect to plate bubble tube. First the
centering is done.
2) Select the staff station at a convenient place and held it properly.
3) Release the vertical circle clamping screw and bisect the staff by making the horizontal line of
sight.
4) At the same time the horizontal vernier should read to (0° 0’0”) and clamp it in position.
5) Take three staff readings on the staff station and find the stadia intercept.
6) Release the upper plate clamping screw and bisect the another staff again and take all three
staff readings and then determine the staff intercept.
7) Determine the horizontal angle between these two staff station and note the value ø.
8) Now determine the horizontal distance and vertical distance between staff station and
instrument station respectively.
9) Determine the horizontal distance between two staff station by applying cosine rule.
10) Determine the of two staff station.
11) Finally determine the gradient of given length by given formula.
Observation Table:

Instrument Vertical Stadia Hair Reading

Staff Station
Station Angle T C B

Specimen Calculation:

Result: 1. The Gradient of a line is =

Question Bank for Viva:

1. What do you understand by gradiant?
2. What is the formula to find the gradiant?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3
“DETERMINATION OF ELEVATION BY TACHEOMENTRIC SURVEY”
Name of Equipment: Tacheometer, Tripod Stand, Measuring Staff, Measuring Tape.
Title of Experiment: Determination of Elevation by Tacheomentric Survey.
Aim of Experiment: Determination of elevation of points and horizontal distance between them
by Tacheomentric survey.
Experimental set up: A tacheometer with tripod, tape, leveling staff, wooden pegs, ranging rods
etc.
Theory:
Figure:

 Formula:
  When line of sight is inclined and staff is held vertically,
Where,
V = Vertical distance measured from horizontal line of sight to central hair reading on
staff.

Distance between P&Q (D) = √ D12 + D22 - 2D1D2 Cosα)

D= Distance between one corner to other corner of college building.
OP = Horizontal distance between instrument station and IV floor of one end of college
building.
OQ = Horizontal distance between instrument station and IV floor of other end of college
building.
α = Horizontal angle between OP and OQ.
 Distance and Elevation formula for staff vertical:
Let,
P = Instrument station
Q = Staff Station
M = Position of instrument axis.
O = Optical centre of the objective.
A, C, B = Point corresponding to the readings of the three hairs.
S = AB = Staff intercept
I =Stadia interval
Ø = Inclination of the line of sight from the horizontal.
L = Length MC measured along the line of sight.
D = MQ’= Horizontal distance between the instrument and the staff.
V= Vertical intercept, at Q between the line of sight and the horizontal line
H= Height of the instrument
R= Central hair reading
ß = Angle between the extreme rays corresponding to stadia hairs.
Draw a line A’CB’ normal to the line of sight OC.
Angle AA’C = 90°+ ß /2, being the exterior angle of the triangle COA’.
Similarly, from triangle COB’, angle OB’C = 90°- ß /2
Since ß /2, is very small (its value being equal to 17°11’for K=100), angle AA’C and angle BB’C
may be approximately taken equal to 90°.
Angle AA’C = angle BB’C = 90°
From triangle ACA’, A’C= AC. Cos Ø
A’B’=AB Cos Ø = S. Cos Ø
Since the line A’B’ is perpendicular to the line of sight OC,
Hence, we have,
MC = L = KA’B’ + C = KS. Cos L = Length MC measured along the line of sight.
D = MQ’= Horizontal distance between the instrument and the staff.
V = Vertical intercept, at Q between the line of sight and the horizontal line
H = Height of the instrument
R= Central hair reading
Draw a line A’CB’ normal to the line of sight OC.
Angle AA’C=90°+ ß /2, being the exterior angle of the triangle COA’.
Similarly, from triangle COB’, angle OB’C=90°- ß/2 Since ß/2, is very small (its value being
equal to 17°11’for K=100), angle AA’C and angle BB’C may be approximately taken equal to
90°.
angle AA’C = angle BB’C = 90°
From triangle ACA’, A’C= AC cos Ø
A’B’= AB cos Ø = s.cos Ø
Now, the horizontal distance D = L.cosØ
= (ks.cosØ+c). cosØ
D = KS.cos2Ø+C.cosØ --------------------------------------- (1)
Similarly, V = LsinØ
= (KS cosØ.+c )sinØ
= KScosØ.sinØ+csinØ

Elevation of the staff station for angle of elevation:

If the line of sight has an angle of elevation Ø,
Elevation of staff station= Elevation of instrument + h + v - r
Experimental Procedure:
1) The instrument is setup in such way that the two point whose horizontal distance in to be
determined were visible and the temporary adjustment were done.
2) The height of the instrument is determined by holding the staff vertically on any selected
BM and the R.L. of B.M. is taken as 100.00M.
 3) The staff is held at first point & Second point & reading of three hairs were taken with line
of sight horizontal.
4) Set the 0º0’0” on vernier A and 180º on vernier B interest the staff at station one , the
upper plate clamping screw and lower plate clamping should be tight during intersecting the first
staff station .After taking the reading, loosen the upper plate clamping screw & turn the telescope
clockwise intersect the staff at 2nd station. Tighter the upper plate clamping screw takes the staff
reading of cross hair & the reading of vernier A & vernier B. Again, loosen the lower plate
clamping screw &turn the telescope to intersect the staff at first station. Then repeat the
procedure same as above at least three times.

Observation Table:

Instrument Vertical Stadia Hair Reading

Staff Station
Station Angle T C B

Specimen Calculation:

Result:
1. The RL of P = m.
2. The RL of Q = m.

Conclusion:

Question Bank for Viva:

1. Describe the procedure to find the elevation of a given point?
2. Describe the component parts of the tachometer?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4
“EXPERIMENT USING TOTAL STATION”

Name of Equipment: Total Station, Prism, Tripod Stand.

Title of Experiment: Experiment using Total Station.
Aim of Experiment: To perform the experiments by using Total Station.
Experimental set up: Total Station
Theory:
1. What is a Total Station?
Total station is a surveying equipment combination of Electromagnetic Distance
Measuring Instrument and electronic theodolite. It is also integrated with microprocessor,
electronic data collector and storage system. The instrument can be used to measure horizontal
and vertical angles as well as sloping distance of object to the instrument.
2. Capability of a Total Station:
Microprocessor unit in total station processes the data collected to compute:
1. Average of multiple angles measured.
2. Average of multiple distance measured.
3. Horizontal distance.
4. Distance between any two points.
5. Elevation of objects and
6. All the three coordinates of the observed points.
Data collected and processed in a Total Station can be downloaded to computers for further
processing.
Total station is a compact instrument and weighs 50 to 55 N. A person can easily carry it to the
field. Total stations with different accuracy, in angle measurement and different range of
measurements are available in the market. Figure below shows one such instrument
manufactured by SOKKIA Co. Ltd. Tokyo, Japan.
3. Components of Total Station:

 Features of Total Stations

Telescope 45 mm aperture with 30x magnification and 1d 30’ field of view
Focusing Automatic as well as manual
Tilt Compensator Dual axis
Distance Measurement Reflectorless (laser) sheet Reflector (single
prism)
Range 1.5m-150m 1.5m-600m 1.5m-3km
Accuracy +/-5mm+10ppmXD +/-3mm+10ppmXD +/-3mm+10ppmXD
Measuring Time 0.4sec to 2.5sec (coarse to fine tracking)
Angle Measurement Absolute rotary encoder (min 1”)
Plummet Visible laser (+-8 mm accuracy)
Circular Bubble 8’ accuracy
Battery (Ni-Mh) Continuous approx. 5 hrs. (ETH+EDM),12 hrs.(ETH)
Rechargeable Charging time-full discharge 2.5 hrs. approx.
Internal Memory 7500 points (measured and input co-ordinate data)

 Application in Surveying
1. General purpose distance measurement
2. General purpose angle measurement
3. Leveling and contouring
4. Traversing and triangulation and trilateration survey
5. Land and plot demarcation
6. Setting out of building and plot layouts
7. Fixing alignment of roads, railway, dams, canals, bridges etc.
8. Other special function such as areas, perimeters, remote distance measurements,
remote elevation measurement etc.
4. Brief Description of Important Operations of Total Station:
i) Distance Measurement:
Electronic distance measuring (EDM) instrument is a major part of total station. Its range
varies from 2.8 km to 4.2 km. The accuracy of measurement varies from 5 mm to 10 mm per km
measurement. They are used with automatic target recognizer. The distance measured is always
sloping distance from instrument to the object. Angle Measurements: The electronic theodolite
part of total station is used for measuring vertical and horizontal angle. For measurement of
horizontal angles any convenient direction may be taken as reference direction. For vertical angle
measurement vertical upward (zenith) direction is taken as reference direction. The accuracy of
angle measurement varies from 2 to 6 seconds.
ii) Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Angle:
A horizontal angle is formed by the directions to two objects in a horizontal plane.
Let the horizontal angle AOB is to be measured
1. Setting up the instrument: Set up the tripod over station point such that station peg is
approximately in the centre. Fix the digital theodolite over the tripod head by tightening the
clamp screw. Then circular level is approximately centered and plate bubble is brought in the
centre by means of levelling screw. Look through the plummet the station peg O. If it is off the
centre loosen the centering screw and move the instrument sideway till the peg is exactly
bisected in the centre looking through optical plummet.
2. Switch on power switch. The object A is exactly bisected with horizontal fine motion screw
and is fixed by horizontal clamp screw.
3. Set the horizontal angle to zero degree.
4. Then unclamp the instrument and other object B is exactly bisected using horizontal fine
adjustment screw. The horizontal angle AOB will be directly displayed on the display panel.
iii) Data Processing:
This instrument is provided with an inbuilt microprocessor. The microprocessor averages
multiple observations. With the help of slope distance and vertical and horizontal angles
measured, when height of axis of instrument and targets are supplied, the microprocessor
computes the horizontal distance and X, Y, Z coordinates. The processor is capable of applying
temperature and pressure corrections to the measurements, if atmospheric temperature and
pressures are supplied.
iv) Display:
Electronic display unit is capable of displaying various values when respective keys are
pressed. The system is capable of displaying horizontal distance, vertical distance, horizontal and
vertical angles, difference in elevations of two observed points and all the three coordinates of
the observed points.
v) Electronic Book:
Each point data can be stored in an electronic note book (like compact disc). The capacity
of electronic note book varies from 2000 points to 4000 points data. Surveyor can unload the data
stored in note book to computer and reuse the note book.
5) Use of Total Station:
The total station instrument is mounted on a tripod and is levelled by operating levelling
screws. Within a small range instrument is capable of adjusting itself to the level position. Then
vertical and horizontal reference directions are indexed using onboard keys. It is possible to set
required units for distance, temperature and pressure (FPS or SI). Surveyor can select
measurement mode like fine, coarse, single or repeated.
 When target is sighted, horizontal and vertical angles as well as sloping distances are
measured and by pressing appropriate keys they are recorded along with point number. Heights
of instrument and targets can be keyed in after measuring them with tapes. Then processor
computes various information about the point and displays on screen.
This information is also stored in the electronic notebook. At the end of the day or
whenever electronic note book is full, the information stored is downloaded to computers.
The point data downloaded to the computer can be used for further processing. There are
software like auto civil and auto plotter clubbed with AutoCad which can be used for plotting
contours at any specified interval and for plotting cross-section along any specified line.
6) Advantages of Using Total Stations:
The following are some of the major advantages of using total station over the conventional
surveying instruments:
1. Field work is carried out very fast.
2. Accuracy of measurement is high.
3. Manual errors involved in reading and recording are eliminated.
4. Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate. Even corrections for temperature and
pressure are automatically made.
5. Computers can be employed for map making and plotting contour and cross-sections.
Contour intervals and scales can be changed in no time.
However, surveyor should check the working condition of the instruments before using. For this
standard points may be located near survey office and before taking out instrument for field
work, its working is checked by observing those standard points from the specified instrument
station.

Conclusion:

Question Bank for Viva:

1. What is mean by EDM?
2. Explain the component part of Total Station?
3. What are the appilications of Total Station?
4. What are the advantages of using Total Station?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
“SETTING OUT OF SIMPLE AND COMPOUND CURVE”
Name of Equipment: Prismatic Compass, Open Cross Staff, Measuring Tape, Lime Powder.
Title of Experiment: Setting Out of Simple and Compound Curve.
Aim of Experiment: Setting out of simple circular curve and Combined Curve by offsets from
chord produced method.

Figure No. 1: Simple Curve

A) Procedure for setting out of Simple Curve:
1) Locate the tangent points T1 and T2 on the straights AB and CB.
2) Cut T1D1 equal to the length of the first sub chord (C1) already calculated along the
tangentT1B.
3) With T1 as centre and T1D1 radius, swing the chain or tape such that the arc D1D = calculated
offset O1, thus fixing the first point D on the curve.
4) Keep the chain along T1D and pull it straight in the forward direction of T1D until the length
DE1 becomes equal to second C2 (i.e the length of normal chord).
5) With D as centre and DE1 as radius, swing the chain such that the arc E1E=calculated offset
O2, thus fixing the second point E on the curve.
6) Continue the process repeating the point (d) and (e) until that end the curve is reached. The
last point so fixed must coincide with the previously located points T2 (the last curve tangent
point ) if not, find out the closing error. If it is small (say within 2m) it should be distributed to all
the points by moving them sideways by an amount proportional to the square of their distances
from the point T1, otherwise the whole curve should be set out again.

Problem1: Two straight intersect at chainage (30+10), the deflection angle being 44º. Calculate
the necessary data for laying out a curve by the method of offsets from the chord produced. The
degree of the curve being 7º. The peg interval being equal to 20 meters.
Solution:-
A) Procedure for setting out of Compound Curve:

Figure No. 2: Compound Curve

1) From above figure, AB is the rear tangent. BC is forward tangent and DE is the common
tangent.
2) Tangent length BT1 and BT3 are calculated and so that they are the curve length between T1
& T2 and T2 & T3.
3) The chainage of T1, T2 and T3 are found out and set out on the ground.
4) Deflection angle for the short and long curves are calculated and the setting out table is
prepared.
5) The theodolite is centered over T1 and leveled properly. The deflection angle for the chord of
the short curve are set out serially and point P1,P2,P3……. are marked until the tangent point T2
is reached.
6) The theodolite is shifted and centered over T2. The deflection angle for the chord of the long
curve are set out serially and point P1,P2,P3……. are marked until the tangent point T3 is
reached.
7) All the points are joined to get the shape of the curve.
8) Angle T1T2T3 is measured; it should be equal to (180 - Ø/2).

Problem 2: Two tangent AB & BC intersect at B. Another line DE intersect AB & BC at D & E
such that angle ADE = 150° and angle DEC = 140°. The radius of first curve is 30m & second
curve is 40m. The chainage of B is 950m. Calculate all necessary data for setting out the
compound curve.
Solution:-

Question Bank for Viva:

1. What are the different forms of the Curve?
2. Define Degree of Curve?
3. What is relation between radius and Degree of Curve?
4. Sketch and give the properties Simple Circular Curve ?
5. What are the methods of horizontal curve settin
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6
“OBSERVATION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS”

Name of Equipment: Stereoscope and Aerial Photographs.

Title of Experiment: Observation of Aerial Photographs.
Aim of Experiment: Observation of aerial photographs under Stereoscope.
Experimental set up: Total Station.
Theory:
Stereoscope in an instrument used of viewing stereopairs. Stereoscopes are designed for two
purposes,
1. To assist in presenting to the eyes the images of a pair of photographs so that the relationship
between convergence and accommodation is the same as would be in natural vision.
2. To magnify the perception of depth.
There are two basic types of stereoscopic for stereoscopic viewing of photographs:
A) Mirror stereoscope
B) Lens stereoscope

Figure No. 1: Stereopair of nail

A) Mirror stereoscope:
The mirror stereoscope shown diagrammatically consist of a pair of small eye-piece
mirrors mirrors m’ and a pair of larger wing mirrors, M and M’ each of which is oriented at 45%
with the place of the photographs. Show a nail mounted on a block of timber, and is being
photographed by two camera position .The camera lens is placed first in the position of left eye
and then in the position of right eye, and separate photographs are taken in each position of left
eye and then in the position of right eye and separate photographs are taken in each position. It
will be noted that the head of the nail is to the left in the left film and to the right in the right film.
AB are the images of the nail AB in the two films. Contact prints from these negatives are placed
in the mirror stereoscope as show in where only images of the nail are drawn. The dour mirrors
transfer the light to the eyes exactly (exactly for accommodation) as if it had come from nail as
shown by dotted line. The convergence and retinal disparity are sufficient for the observer to see
the nail in three dimensions. The total distance b M m E or ‘M’ m’ E’ from the eye to the pane of
the photographs varice 30 cm to 45cm, in order that the unaided eye may comfortably view the
photographs. The angle jis determined by the separation of photographs that give the most eye
comfort, and is compatible with the distance bMme.’ If this distance is to be reduced, a pair of
magnifying lenses is placed at E and E’ each magnifier has a focal length slightly smaller than
the distance bMme. Some types of mirror stereoscope have a set of removable binoculars which
are place at the eye positions E and E’ It is used for spatial observation of stereo photographs
upon a maximum model size of approximately 18cm. The distance between the central point of
mirrors is 25cm for all interpupillary distances. The whole model area can be seen through the
two lenses provided for correction of the bundle of rays and for accommodating. A removable set
of eyepieces with 3x magnification can be swung in over these lenses for closer examination of
parts of the model and study of details. A pair of eyepieces particularly useful when selecting tie
points in aerial triangulation. The two inclined binocular eyepiece tubes are adjustable for
interpupillarly distance of 56 to 74mm and have eyepiece adjustments for focusing the separate
images. The greatest single advantage of the mirror stereoscope is the fact that photographs may
be completely separated of the mirror stereoscope is the fact that the photographs may be
completely separated for viewing, and the entire overlap area may be seen stereoscopically
without having to slip the photographs.
B) Lens stereoscope:
A lens stereoscope consists of a single magnifying lens for each eye, and no mirrors. The
two magnifying lenses are mounted with a separation equal to the average interpupillary
distances of the human eyes, but provision is made for changing this separation to suit the
individual user. The distance between the nodal point of the lens and the plane of the
photographs depends upon the focal length of the lens. The two photographs can be brought so
closet the eyes that proper convergence can be maintained without causing the photographs to
interfere with each other as show in since the photographs are very close to the eyes, the images
occupy larger angular dimensions and therefore appear enlarged show a lens stereoscope. The
lens stereoscope is apt to cause eye strain as accommodation is not in sympathy with
convergence and the axes of the eyes are forced out their normal conciliation and can be slipped
in one’s pocket this type being called a pocket stereoscope. Because of larger size, mirror
stereoscope is not as portable as is the pocket stereoscope.

Conclusion:

Question Bank for Viva:

1. Define Photogrammetry?
2. State application of Photogrammetry?
3. What are the types of Photogrammetry?
4. What are the types of Photo
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7
“USE OF GPS

Title of Experiment: Use of GPS.

Aim of Experiment: To study the use of GPS.
Experimental set up: Total Station
Theory:
1. GPS is a complex system that can be used in many ways for basic points positioning
using geodetic receivers with a computer and post processing software accuracy at the
centimeter level is achievable.
2. Although the accuracy is important, some surveyor’s feel that the main advantages of
GPS is that it can be used in any weather condition day or night.
3. This enables GPS surveying to be carried out over extended periods at any time of the
year without restriction such as rain, fog & poor visibility.

4. Intervisiblity between stations or points surveyed is not necessary.

5. This allows control stations to be placed conveniently however; the high cost of GPS
surveying has restricted the realization of the full potential of the GPS till date.
6. There are difficulties in defining heights above datum and with real time data processing
and control.
 7. Despits these drawbacks, GPS has been very successfully used in surveying & other
fields.
8. The initial conception of GPS was military positioning, weapons aiming and navigation
system.
9. It was to replace transit and other navigation systems and to provide worldwide weather-
independent guidance for military use.
USES AND APPLICATION:
a) Navigation:
1. Marine and air navigation are perhaps the two most obvious application of GPS. Both
military and civilians wish to know their spatial location ad preciously as possible.
2. GPS application includes exploration, transportation management, structural monitoring
and various types of automation. As a local application, GPS can aid in berthing and
docking of large vessels.
3. For approaches to airport and harbours, differential global positioning system (DGPS) has
been developed.
4. In order to achieve high accuracies in approach and landing, fixed receiver must
broadcast range correction to incoming aircraft so that they can compute more accurate
positions as they approach the railway.
5. GPS aided approach and landing will be an economical answer to airport control.
b) Surveying:
1. The combination of real time positioning, mobile data communication and anboard data
processing and applications software all contribute to a new era in surveying.
2. GPS software has capabilities in mission planning with graphic displays at each step
loop closures, network adjustments, and interface to data collectors and surveying
software.
3. GPS can be applied to programs of topography radial and linear stakeout, cut/fill and for
correction to sea level, curvature and refraction, data transformation and geoids.
4. It provides powerful geodetic tools. A key to understand long term geodynamical
phenomenon can be monitored with GPS.
5. It includes measuring crustal deformation, post glacial rebound, volcanic uplift, plate
tectonics and earth rotation.
6. It is used to predict earthquake by measuring certain precursor ground movements.
 7. GPS techniques permits the collection of data on specified profile, cross section and
boundary locations, contour may be readily plotted from the collected data.
8. The surveying data can be collected by a single surveyor and can be processed to the
required accuracy using inexpensive computing facilities.
9. It includes local property and site survey to perform topographic survey.
10. It is useful for layout work. It permits the instantaneous layout of boundaries, pipelines,
roads and building lacations.
11. GPS is also useful when beginning the survey in locality boundaries and control makesrs
that may be cover by snow or other ground covers.
12. GPS techniques are useful in open pit mining where original, progress and final surveys
can be easily performed for quantity and payment purpose.
13. In oil exploration activities, the risk of drilling dry wells will be the least. The
availability of GPS is a boon to these activities.
c) Mapping:
1. A major early implementation of GPS was in the provision of ground orientation of
aerial photogrammetry.
2. Aircraft are used to photograph large areas of the earth surface. Index marks are often
surveyed on ground to provide reference location on the photographs, which can be
used in determining their scale and orientation.
3. GPS can be used to survey these references, further the use of these reference can be
eliminated all together if the position of the camera can be known accurately enough at
the precise moment it took the picture.
4. The generation of road maps or any other kind of feature maps is now extremely easily
achieved simply by recording a series of positions as a receivers is moved over the area
to be mapped.
d) Military and Space:
1. GPS was conceived and constructed for the use of military.
2. The use of GPS in spacecraft has been widespread.
3. GPS has follow on several shuttle missions and has been useful in providing better
orbital positioning in much shorter time than had been previously possible.
Incorporation of GPS altitude determination in space station design in currently mandated
Question Bank for Viva:
1. Explain the Use of GPS