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Edexcel IGCSE Maths A Your notes

(Modular): Higher Unit 1
Graphs of Functions
Contents
Types of Graphs
Quadratic Graphs
Drawing Graphs from Tables
Solving Equations from Graphs
Trigonometric Graphs
Solving Trig Equations

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Types of Graphs
Your notes
Types of Graphs
What types of graphs do I need to know?
You need to be able to recognise, sketch, and interpret the following types of graph:

Linear (y = ± x )

y = mx + c or ax + by = c
Quadratic (y = ± x 2 )

y = ax 2 + bx + c
Cubic (y = ± x 3 )

y = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
1
Reciprocal (y = ± )
x
a
y=
x
a
y=
x2

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Your notes

You must also be able to recognise the three basic trigonometric graphs, covered in a separate
section

Where are the asymptotes on reciprocal graphs?

An asymptote is a line on a graph that a curve becomes closer to but never touches
These may be horizontal or vertical

a
The reciprocal graph, y = (where a is a constant)
x
does not have a y-intercept
and does not have any roots
This graph has two asymptotes

A horizontal asymptote at the x-axis: y =0

This is the limiting value when the value of x gets very large (or very negative)

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A vertical asymptote at the y-axis: x =0

This is the value that causes the denominator to be zero Your notes

a
The reciprocal graph, y = + b (where a and b are both constants)
x
a
is the same shape as y =
x
but is shifted upwards by b units

a a
y= − 3 would be y = shifted down by 3 units
x x
This means the horizontal asymptote also shifts up by b units

The vertical asymptote remains on the y-axis

1 1
The graph of y = is similar to y = but has two key differences
x2 x
1 1
y= is steeper than y =
x2 x

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1
y= is always positive, even when x is negative
x2 Your notes

What does the graph of a cubic look like?

A cubic is a function of the form ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d

a , b , c and d are constants

It is sometimes referred to as a polynomial of degree (order) 3
In general the graph of a cubic will take one of the four forms
All are smooth curves

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Your notes

The exact form of a particular cubic will depend on:

The number (and value) of roots (x -axis intercepts)

The y -axis intercept

The sign of the coefficient of the x 3 term (a )

If a > 0 the graph is a positive cubic ('starts' in the bottom left, 'ends' in the top right)

If a < 0 the graph is a negative cubic ('starts' in the top left, 'ends' in the bottom right)

The turning points

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Your notes

Cubics can have two turning points

a maximum point and a minimum point

However, note that the graphs of y = x 3 and y = − x 3 :

Do not have a maximum or minimum (turning points)

Only cross the x -axis once, at x = 0

Worked Example
Match the graphs to the equations.

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Your notes

4
(1) y = 0 . 6x + 2 , (2) y = 3x , (3) y = − 0 . 7x 3 , (4) y = , (5) y = − x 2 + 3x + 2
x
Starting with the equations,

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(1) is a linear equation (y = mx + c) so matches the only straight line, graph D

(3) is a cubic equation with a negative coefficient so matches graph E Your notes
(4) is a reciprocal equation with a positive coefficient so matches graph B
(5) is a quadratic equation with a negative coefficient so matches graph C
(2) is the only equation not yet used, so by elimination it is graph A
Graph A → Equation 2
Graph B → Equation 4
Graph C → Equation 5
Graph D → Equation 1
Graph E → Equation 3

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Quadratic Graphs
Your notes
Quadratic Graphs
What is a quadratic graph?
A quadratic graph has the form y = ax 2 + bx + c

where a is not zero

What does a quadratic graph look like?

A quadratic graph is a smooth curve with a vertical line of symmetry

A positive number in front of x 2 gives a u-shaped curve

A negative number in front of x 2 gives an n-shaped curve

The shape made by a quadratic graph is known as a parabola

A quadratic graph will always cross the y -axis

A quadratic graph crosses the x -axis twice, once, or not at all

The points where the graph crosses the x -axis are called the roots

If the graph is a u-shape, it has a minimum point

If the graph is an n-shape, it has a maximum point
Minimum and maximum points are both examples of turning points
A turning point can also be called a vertex

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Your notes

How do I sketch a quadratic graph?

It is important to know how to sketch a quadratic curve
A simple drawing showing the key features is often sufficient
(For a more accurate graph, create a table of values and plot the points)
To sketch a quadratic graph:

First sketch the x and y -axes

Identify the y -intercept and mark it on the y -axis

The y -intercept of y = ax 2 + bx + c will be (0, c )

It can also be found by substituting in x = 0

Find all root(s) (0, 1 or 2) of the equation and mark them on the x -axis

The roots will be the solutions to y = 0 ; ax 2 + bx + c = 0

You can find the solutions by factorising, completing the square or using the quadratic formula

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Identify if the number a in ax 2 + bx + c is positive or negative

A positive value will result in a u-shape Your notes

A negative value will result in an n-shape

Sketch a smooth curve through the x and y -intercepts

Mark on any axes intercepts

Mark on the coordinates of the maximum/minimum point if you know it
How do I find the coordinates of the turning point by
completing the square?
The coordinates of the turning point (vertex) of a quadratic graph can be found by completing the
square

For a quadratic graph written in the form y = a (x − p ) 2 + q

the minimum or maximum point has coordinates (p , q )

Beware: there is a sign change for the x -coordinate

A curve with equation y = (x − 3) 2 + 2 , has a minimum point at (3, 2)

A curve with equation y = (x + 3) 2 + 2 , has a minimum point at (−3, 2)

The value of a does not affect the coordinates of the turning point but it will change the shape of the
graph
If it is positive, the graph will be a u-shape

The curve y = 5(x − 3) 2 + 2 has a minimum point at (3, 2)

Of it is negative, the graph will be an n-shape

The curve y = − 8(x − 3) 2 + 2 has a maximum point at (3, 2)

How do I find the coordinates of the turning point using

differentiation?
The coordinates of the turning point (maximum/minimum) of a quadratic can be found through
differentiation
To find the coordinates of the turning point

Differentiate the quadratic equation y = ax 2 + bx + c

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dy
This will give you
dx Your notes
dy
Set = 0 and solve for x
dx
The solution will be the x -coordinate of the turning point

Substitute the x value into y = ax 2 + bx + c

This will give you the y -coordinate of the turning point

Worked Example
(a) Sketch the graph of y = x 2 − 5x + 6 showing the x and y intercepts clearly.

The +c at the end is the y -intercept

y -intercept: (0, 6)
Factorise the quadratic expression

y = (x − 2) (x − 3)
Solve y = 0

(x − 2) (x − 3) = 0, so x = 2 or x = 3
So the x-intercepts are given by the coordinates
(2, 0) and (3, 0)
It is a positive quadratic graph, so will be a u-shape

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Your notes

(b) Sketch the graph of y = x 2 − 6x + 13 showing the y -intercept and the coordinates of the
turning point.
It is a positive quadratic, so will be a u-shape
The turning point will therefore be a minimum

The +c at the end is the y -intercept

y -intercept: (0, 13)

Find the minimum point by completing the square (or through differentiation)

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For example, complete the square by writing the equation in the form a (x − p ) 2 + q (you may
need to look this method up)
Your notes
x 2 − 6x + 13 = (x − 3) 2 − 9 + 13
= (x − 3) 2 + 4

The turning point of y = a (x − p ) 2 + q has coordinates (p , q )

The minimum point is therefore
(3, 4)

As the minimum point is above the x -axis, and the curve is a u-shape, this means the graph will not
cross the x -axis (it has no roots)

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Your notes

(c) Sketch the graph of y = − x 2 − 4x − 4 showing the root(s), y -intercept, and the coordinates
of the turning point.
It is a negative quadratic, so will be an n-shape
The turning point will therefore be a maximum

The +c at the end is the y -intercept

y -intercept: (0, -4)

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Find the minimum point by completing the square or through differentiation

For example, differentiate the equation Your notes
dy
= − 2x − 4
dx
Set the derivative equal to zero and solve for x

0 = − 2x − 4
2x = − 4
x = −2
Substitute this value of x back into the original equation for y

y = − (−2) 2 − 4(−2) − 4
y = −4+8−4
y =0
This shows that the maximum point has coordinates
(-2, 0)

As the maximum is on the x -axis, there is only one root

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Your notes

How do I find the equation of a quadratic from its graph?

If the vertex and one other point are known

Use the form y = a (x − p ) 2 + q to fill in p and q

The vertex is at (p , q )

Then substitute in the other known point (x , y ) to find a

If the roots (x -intercepts) and one other point are known

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Use the form y = a (x − x ) (x − x ) to fill in x and x

1 2 1 2
Your notes
The roots are at (x , 0) and (x , 0)
1 2

Then substitute in the other known point (x , y ) to find a

If a = 1 then you only need either the vertex or the roots

Worked Example
(a) Find the equation of the graph below.

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The graph shows the roots and a point on the curve (in this case the y -intercept)

Use the form y = a (x − x ) (x − x ) to fill in x and x by inspection Your notes

1 2 1 2

The roots are at (x , 0) and (x , 0)

1 2

y = a (x − 2) (x − 3)
Substitute in the other known point (0, 24) to find a

24 = a (0 − 2) (0 − 3)
24 = a (−2) (−3)
24 = 6a
4=a
Write the full equation

y =4 x −2 x −3
( ) ( )

You could also write this in expanded form: y = 4x 2 − 20x + 24

(b) Find the equation of the graph below.

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Your notes

The graph shows the vertex and a point on the curve

Use the form y = a (x − p ) 2 + q to fill in p and q by inspection

The vertex is at (p , q )

y = a (x − 9) 2 − 16
Substitute in the other known point (2, 82) to find a

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82 = a (2 − 9) 2 − 16
82 = a (−7) 2 − 16 Your notes
82 = 49a − 16
98 = 49a
2=a
Write the full equation

y = 2 x − 9 2 − 16
( )

You could also write this in expanded form: y = 2x 2 − 36x + 146

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Drawing Graphs from Tables

Your notes
Drawing Graphs Using a Table
How do I draw a graph using a table of values?
To create a table of values
substitute different x-values into the equation
This gives the y-values
To plot the points
use the x and y-values to mark crosses on the grid at the coordinates (x , y )
Each point is expected to be plotted to an accuracy within half of the smallest square on the
grid
Draw a single smooth freehand curve
Go through all the plotted points
Make it the shape you would expect
For example, quadratic curves have a vertical line of symmetry
Do not use a ruler for curves!

Which numbers should I be careful with?

For quadratic graphs, be careful substituting in negative numbers
Always put brackets around negative values and use BIDMAS
For example, substitute x = -3 into y = -x2 + 8x
This becomes y = -(-3)2 + 8(-3)
which simplifies to -9 - 24
so y = - 33

1 1
For reciprocal graphs like y = , or y = 2 , do not include x = 0
x x
You cannot divide by zero
You get an error on your calculator
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There is no value at x = 0
The L-shaped branches can't cross the y-axis Your notes
There will be a vertical asymptote at x = 0

1
An example is given below with y =
x
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

y 1 1 −1 No value 1 1 1
− −
3 2 2 3

You should also be careful when there is a combination of different types of function

1
E.g. y = x 2 − + 4 has a quadratic term and a reciprocal term
x
This makes it harder to know the shape of the graph
But you can still use a table of values to plot them
Just be aware of points like x = 0 as described above, where there will be no value

How do I use the table function on my calculator?

Calculators can create tables of values for you
Find the table function
Type in the graph equation (called the function, f(x))
Use the alpha button then X or x
Press = when finished
If you are asked for another function, g(x), press = to ignore it
Enter the start value
The first x-value in the table
Press =
Enter the end value
The last x-value in the table

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Enter the step size

How big the steps (gaps) are from one x-value to the next Your notes
Press =
Then scroll up and down to see all the y-values

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If you find a point that doesn't seem to fit the shape of the curve, check your working!
If any y-values are given in the question, check that your calculations agrees with them

Worked Example
(a) Complete the table of values for the graph of y = 10 − 8x 2 .

x −1 . 5 −1 −0 . 5 0 0.5 1 1.5
y 2 −8

Use the table function on your calculator for f (x ) = 10 − 8x 2

Start at -1.5, end at 1.5 and use steps of 0.5
Alternatively, substitute the x-values into the equation, for example x = -1.5

y = 10 − 8(−1 . 5) 2
= 10 − 8 × 2 . 25
= 10 − 18
= −8

x −1 . 5 −1 −0 . 5 0 0.5 1 1.5
y -8 2 8 10 8 2 −8

(b) Plot the graph of y = 10 − 8x 2 on the axes below, for values of x from −1 . 5 to 1 . 5 .

Carefully plot the points from your table on to the grid

Note the different scales on the axes
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Join the points with a smooth curve (do not use a ruler)

Your notes

(c) Write down the equation of the line of symmetry of the curve.
There is a vertical line of symmetry about the y-axis
The equation of the y-axis is x = 0

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x=0
Your notes

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Solving Equations from Graphs

Your notes
Solving Equations Using Graphs
How do I find the coordinates of points of intersection?
Plot two graphs on the same set of axes
The points of intersection are where the two lines meet
For example, plot y = x2 + 3x + 1 and y = 2x + 1 on the same axes
They meet twice, as shown
The coordinates of intersection are (-1, -1) and (0, 1)

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How do I solve simultaneous equations graphically?

The x and y solutions to simultaneous equations are the x and y coordinates of the point of Your notes
intersection
For example, to solve 2x - y = 3 and 3x + y = 7 simultaneously
Rearrange them into the form y = mx + c
y = 2x - 3 and y = -3x + 7
Use a table of values to plot each line
Find the point of intersection, (2, 1)
The solutions are therefore x = 2 and y = 1

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How do I use graphs to solve equations?

This is easiest explained through an example Your notes

You can use the graph of y = x 2 − 4x − 2 to solve the following equations

x 2 − 4x − 2 = 0
The solutions are the two x-intercepts
This is where the curve cuts the x-axis (also called roots)

x 2 − 4x − 2 = 5
The solutions are the two x-coordinates where the curve intersects the horizontal line y = 5

x 2 − 4x − 2 = x + 1
The solutions are the two x-coordinates where the curve intersects the straight line
y =x +1
The straight line must be plotted on the same axes first

To solve a different equation like x 2 − 4x + 3 = 1 , if you are already given the graph of an equation,
e.g. y = x 2 − 4x − 2

add / subtract terms to both sides to get "given graph = ..."

For example, subtract 5 from both sides

x 2 − 4x − 2 = − 4
You can now draw on the horizontal line y = − 4 and find the x-coordinates of the points
of intersection

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When solving equations in x, only give x-coordinates as final answers
Include the y-coordinates if solving simultaneous equations

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Worked Example
Use the graph of y = 10 − 8x 2 shown to estimate the solutions of each equation given below. Your notes

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Your notes

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Your notes

(a) 10 − 8x 2 = 0

This equals zero, so the x-intercepts are the solutions

Read off the values where the curve cuts the x-axis
Use a suitable level of accuracy (no more than 2 decimal places from the scale of this graph)
-1.12 and 1.12
These are the two solutions to the equation
x = -1.12 and x = 1.12
A range of solutions are accepted, such as "between 1.1 and 1.2"
Solutions must be ± of each other (due to the symmetry of quadratics)

(b) 10 − 8x 2 = 8

This equals 8, so draw the horizontal line y = 8

Find the x-coordinates where this cuts the graph
-0.5 and 0.5
These are the two solutions to the original equation
x = -0.5 and x = 0.5
The solutions here are exact

Worked Example
The graph of y = x 3 + x 2 − 3x − 1 is shown below.

Use the graph to estimate the solutions of the equation x 3 + x 2 − 4x = 0 .

Give your answers to 1 decimal place.

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Your notes

We are given a different equation to the one plotted so we must rearrange it to graph = mx + c ,
in this case x 3 + x 2 − 3x − 1 = mx + c

x 3 + x 2 − 4x = 0
+x − 1 +x −1

x 3 + x 2 − 3x + 1 = x − 1
Now plot y = x − 1 on the same axes

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Your notes

The solutions are the x -coordinates of where the curve and the straight line intersect

x = − 2 . 6, x = 0, x = 1 . 6

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Trigonometric Graphs
Your notes
Drawing Trig Graphs
What are trig graphs?
Trigonometric (trig) graphs are the graphs of

y = sin x
y = cos x
y = tan x
The variable x is like an angle

but the angle can now go beyond acute to become obtuse and reflex

0° ≤ x ≤ 360°
Trig graphs have repeating (periodic) shapes and symmetries that you need to know

How do I draw the graph of y = sin x?

The graph of y = sin x is a wave that oscillates between heights of 1 and -1 and repeats every 360°
(its period is 360°)
It goes through the origin, (0, 0)
Then every 90° it cycles through the heights 1, 0, -1, 0, ...

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Your notes

How do I draw the graph of y = cos x?

The graph of y = cos x is a wave that oscillates between heights of 1 and -1 and repeats every 360°
(its period is 360°)
It has a y-intercept of 1, coordinates (0, 1)
Then every 90° it cycles through the heights 0, -1, 0, 1, ...

y = cos x is the same as translating y = sin x by 90 to the left

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Your notes

How do I draw the graph of y = tan x?

The graph of y = tan x is not a wave but consists of branches that repeat every 180° (its period is
180°)

This is half the period of sin x and cos x

There are dotted vertical lines that separate the branches called asymptotes

These are every 180° at x = 90°, x = 270 °, ...

The curve cannot touch these, but get closer and closer to them

A branch starts down at a height of − ∞ and goes up to a height of + ∞

y = tan x goes through the origin, (0, 0)

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Your notes

Worked Example
On the axes provided, sketch the graph of y = sin x ° for 0 ≤ x ≤ 360 .

Mark 1 and −1 on the y-axis

Mark 0, 90, 180, 270 and 360 on the x-axis (try to space them evenly apart)

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Your notes

y = sin x starts at (0, 0) then every 90° it cycles though heights of 1, 0 , −1, 0, ...
Mark these points on the axes
Join the points with a smooth line
Label the curve with its equation

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Your notes

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Solving Trig Equations

Your notes
Solving Trig Equations
What are trig equations?
Trig equations are equations involving sin x , cos x and tan x

They often have multiple solutions

A calculator gives the first solution
You need to use trig graphs to find the others

The solutions must lie in the interval (range) of x given in the question, e.g. 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 °

How do I solve sin x = ...?

Find the first solution of the equation by taking the inverse sin function on your calculator (or using an
exact trig value)

E.g. For the first solution of the equation sin x = 0 . 5 for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 °

This gives x = sin −1 (0 . 5) = 30°

Then sketch the sine graph for the given interval

Identify the first solution on the graph
Use the symmetry of the graph to find additional solutions

E.g. For the equation sin x = 0 . 5 for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 °

Sketch the graph y = sin x for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 °

Draw on sin( 30) = 0 . 5

By the symmetry, the new value of x is 180 °− 30°= 150 °

The solutions are 30° or 150 °

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Your notes

Check the solutions

E.g. For the equation sin x = 0 . 5 for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 °

Substitute x = 30° and x = 150 ° in to the calculator

sin( 30) and sin(150) both give a value of 0 . 5 , so are correct

In general, if x is an acute solution to sin x = . . .

Then 180 − x is an obtuse solution to the same equation

How do I solve cos x = ...?

Find the first solution of the equation by taking the inverse cos function (or using an exact trig value)

E.g. For the first solution of the equation cos x = 0 . 5 for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 °

This gives x = cos−1 (0 . 5) = 60°

Then sketch the cosine graph for the given interval

Identify the first solution on the graph
Use the symmetry of the graph to find additional solutions

E.g. For the equation cos x = 0 . 5 for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 °

Sketch the graph y = cos x for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 °

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By the symmetry, the new value of x is 360 °− 60°= 300 °

The solutions are 60° or 300 ° Your notes

Check the solutions

E.g. For the equation cos x = 0 . 5 for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 °

Substitute x = 60° and x = 300 ° in to the calculator

cos( 60) and cos(300) both give a value of 0 . 5 so are correct

In general, if x is a solution to cos x = . . .

Then 360 − x is another solution to the same equation

How do I solve tan x = ...?

Find the first solution of the equation by taking the inverse tan function (or using an exact trig value)

E.g. For the first solution of the equation tan x = 1 for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 °

This gives x = tan−1 (1) = 45°

Then sketch the tangent graph for the given interval

Identify the first solution on the graph
Use the periodic nature of the graph to find additional solutions

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E.g. For the equation tan x = 1 for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 °

Sketch the graph y = tan x for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 ° Your notes

By the periodic nature, the new value of x is 45°+ 180 °= 225 °

Check the solutions

E.g. For the equation tan x = 0 . 5 for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 °

Substitute x = 45° and x = 225 ° in to the calculator

tan( 45) and tan(225) both give a value of 1 so are correct

In general, if x is a solution to tan x = . . .

Then x + 180 is another solution to the same equation

How do I rearrange trig equations?

Trig equations may be given in a different form
Equations may require rearranging first

1
E.g. 2 sin x − 1 = 0 can be rearranged to sin x =
2
They can then be solved as usual

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What do I do if the first solution from my calculator is

negative? Your notes
Sometimes the first solution given by the calculator for x will be negative

Continue sketching the graph to the left of the x -axis to help

Then find solutions that lie in the interval given in the question

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Know how to use the inverse functions on your calculator
It may involve exact trig values which do not need a calculator
Check your solutions by substituting them back into the original equation

Worked Example
Use the graph of y = sin x to solve the equation sin x = 0 . 25 for 0 ° ≤ x ≤ 360 ° .

Give your answers correct to 1 decimal place.

Use a calculator to find the first solution
Take the inverse sin of both sides

x = sin−1 (0 . 25) = 14. 47751 . . .

Sketch the graph of y = sin x

Mark on (roughly) where x = 14. 48 and y = 0 . 25 would be

Draw a vertical line up to the curve

Draw another line horizontally across to the next point on the curve
Bring a line vertically back down to the x-axis

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Your notes

Find this value using the symmetry of the curve

Subtract 14.48 from 180

180 − 14. 48 = 165 . 52

Give both answers correct to 1 decimal place

x = 14 . 5° or x = 165 . 5°

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