CELLULAR ENERGETICS

Natural Sciences Department

Bukidnon State University

Eva Joie G. Amestoso

Faculty
• Name the three stages of cellular respiration.
• Give an overview of glycolysis.
• Explain why glycolysis probably evolved before the other stages of aerobic
respiration.
• Describe the structure of the mitochondrion and its role in aerobic respiration.
• List the steps of the Krebs cycle, and identify its products.
• Explain how electron transport results in many molecules of ATP.
• Describe how chemiosmotic gradients in mitochondria store energy to
produce ATP.
• State the possible number of ATP molecules that can result from aerobic
respiration.
• Define fermentation.
• Describe lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation.
• Compare the advantages of aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
• Compare cellular respiration to photosynthesis
Over 95 % of cell dry weight is made up of:

 Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous, potassium,

calcium, magnesium, and iron.

Electron movement (electron transport chains, oxidation-reduction

reactions) provide energy for use in work, and allow molecules’
reduction during biosynthesis
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
How plant cells make their own food?

“Green world’s gift”

Light energy  chemical energy

PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN OVERVIEW
 Process by which plants and other
autotrophs store the energy of sunlight into
sugars.
 Requires sunlight, water, and carbon
dioxide.
 Overall equation:

6 CO2 + 6 H20  C6H12O6 + 6 O2

 Occurs in the leaves of plants in organelles

called chloroplasts.
 LEAF STRUCTURE
 Most photosynthesis occurs in the palisade layer.
 Gas exchange of CO2 and O2 occurs at openings
called stomata surrounded by guard cells on the
lower leaf surface.

Palisade

Spongy
 CHLOROPLAST STRUCTURE
 Inner membrane
called the thylakoid
membrane.

 Thickened regions
called thylakoids. A
stack of thylakoids is
called a granum.
(Plural – grana)

 Stroma is a liquid
surrounding the
thylakoids.
PIGMENTS
 Chlorophyll A is the most important
photosynthetic pigment.
 Other pigments called antenna or
accessory pigments are also present in
the leaf.
 Chlorophyll B
 Carotenoids (orange / red)
 Xanthophylls (yellow / brown)

 These pigments are embedded in the

membranes of the chloroplast in groups
called photosystems.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: THE CHEMICAL PROCESS

 Occurs in two main phases.

 Light reactions
 Dark reactions (aka – the Calvin Cycle)

 Light reactions are the “photo” part of

photosynthesis. Light is absorbed by
pigments.

 Dark reactions are the “synthesis” part of

photosynthesis. Trapped energy from the sun
is converted to the chemical energy of sugars.
LIGHT REACTIONS

 Light-dependent reactions occur on the

thylakoid membranes.
 Light and water are required for this process.
 Energy storage molecules are formed. (ATP and NADPH)
 Oxygen gas is made as a waste product.
DARK REACTIONS
 Dark reactions (light-independent) occur
in the stroma.
 Carbon dioxide is “fixed” into the sugar glucose.
 ATP and NADPH molecules created during the light reactions
power the production of this glucose.
LIGHT PHASE
 Beyond ‘s eeing is believing’: the antenna s ize of the photos ys tems in vivo

(2020, Croce, R. Amsterdam University)

DARK PHASE
C3, C4, and CAM PATHWAYS
HOW CELLS OBTAIN
ENERGY FROM FOOD
Kf = rate constants of the forward reactions (upper arrow)
Kr = rate constants of the reverse reactions (lower arrow)
Keq = provides an informative measure of the relative amounts of products and
reactants that will be present at equilibrium.
Where does energy for bonding usually come from?

We come
with our own
energy!
You energy
remember energy
ATP!
Are there
other ways
energy
to get energy
nucleotides?
out
You of it?
bet!

And we
leave behind a
ATP
CTP
TTP
GTP nucleotide! CMP
TMP
GMP
AMP
ADP
modified nucleotide
METABOLOMICS –
study of the
metabolome
(interaction of
metabolic pathways)
 How do living things release
energy???
 Quick Review…
 Most energy used thru conversion of
ATP molecules into ADP molecules
 Thus cells must continually convert ADP
molecules back into ATP molecules
 This process is known as……….

CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
#1 – Energy can be transferred
and transformed, but not created
or destroyed. (Conservation of
energy)

#2 – Every energy transfer

/transformation increases the
entropy (disorder) of the
universe.
DO ALL LIVING SYSTEMS
OBEY THE LAWS OF
THERMODYNAMICS?
 Breathing

 Cellular respiration
 Analyzing a campfire can clarify your
understanding of cellular respiration.
☼ Food is the raw material that provides the
energy for your body to function
☼ Cells use food to synthesize new molecules
to carry out their life processes
 1st pathway  glycolysis: releases only a small amount
of energy (2 net ATP)

 If oxygen present, it will lead to two other pathways that release

a lot of energy: Krebs cycle & Electron Transport Chain
 If oxygen absent glycolysis is followed by a different pathway:
Alcoholic Fermentation or Lactic Acid Fermentation
 In presence of oxygen (aerobic) glycolysis is followed by: ______________
and ______________
Krebs Cycle
Electron Transport Chain
 All three combined make up Cellular Respiration:
 Glycolysis + Krebs Cycle + Electron Transport Chain
 Process that releases energy by breaking down food molecules in the presence of
oxygen

Equation for cellular respiration:

6O2 + C6H12O6 ------- 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP)
oxygen + glucose ----- carbon dioxide + water + energy

1 2 3

Each of these 3 stages captures some of the chemical

energy available in food molecules and uses it to produce
ATP
What is the process of
glycolysis????
 Process takes place in the cytosol of the cytoplasm outside of
mitochondria; coverts glucose with the help of 2 ATP molecules and
eventually releases 4 ATP molecules; for a net gain of 2 ATP molecules.
 2 ATP
used up
2 NADH
become
& 2 H+
Step 1: breaks 1 molecule of glucose in 2 ADP
produced
half, producing 2 molecules of pyruvic
acid (a 3-carbon compound)
4 ATP
Step 2: 2 NAD+ ;electron carrier accepts produced
4 high-energy electrons transfers them Net gain =
to 2 NADH molecules and 2 H+ thus 2 ATP
passing the energy stored in the glucose

Step 3: 4 ADP added producing 4 ATP

Step 4: 2 remaining pyruvic acids enter

Krebs Cycle in presence of oxygen; IF
no oxygen another pathway is followed

NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)

 Glycolysis is a fast process
 Cells produce thousands of ATP molecules in a few
milliseconds
 Glycolysis alone DOES NOT require oxygen
 It can supply chemical energy to cells when oxygen is NOT
available

However if a cell generates large amounts of ATP from

glycolysis it can run into problems
a. the cell’s available NAD+ molecules become filled
up with electrons
b. glycolysis shuts down, cannot proceed without
available NAD+ molecules
c. ATP production stops
 Glycolysis evolved before the other stages of cellular respiration;
other stages need oxygen
 No oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere when life first evolved about 3.5
to 4 b.y.a.
 Without oxygen  anaerobic respiration
 2 or 3 billion years ago, oxygen was gradually added to the
atmosphere by early photosynthetic bacteria; period the “oxygen
catastrophe” aerobic organisms
Let’s look at the
pathway that follows
gycolysis with the
presence of oxygen…..
aerobic respiration
 Mitochondrion has two separate membranes: inner and outer
membrane.
 Three compartments: intermembrane space, cristae space, and matrix
2 ATP supply energy.
2 NADH (coenzyme) are
produced as electrons are
released during the breakdown.
4 ATP are produced.
2 pyruvic acid molecules (3 C)
result.
Net gain of 2 ATP.
 End of glycolysis 90% of chemical energy from glucose still
unused, locked in high-energy electrons of pyruvic acid
 Extracted by world’s most powerful electron receptor
 Krebs and Electron Transport require oxygen thus they are aerobic
processes

OXYGEN
1. 2nd stage of cellular respiration
2. Named after Hans Krebs, British
biochemist in 1937
3. Here pyruvic acid is broken down
into carbon dioxide in a series of
energy-extracting reactions
4. Citric acid is the 1st compound
formed in this series of reactions,
so Krebs is sometimes called the
Citric or Citric Acid Cycle.
2 turns & 2 pyruvic acid (from
glycolysis)
yield:
10 NADH (2 from glycolysis)
2 FADH2
4 ATP (2 from glycolysis)

Cycle starts anew

 Carbon dioxide is exhaled (waste product)
 ATP can be used for cellular activities
 High-energy electrons (stored in NADH & FADH2) can be used to
make huge amounts of ATP in the presence of oxygen

Glucose ATP NADH FADH2

Molecule
Net gain 2 Kreb’s
10 total:
2 pyruvate of 4:
2
4-2=2 glycolysis

6 Carbon glycolysis 8 Kreb’s

dioxide 2 Kreb’s
1. Electrons from Krebs cycle are passed to electron transport chain by NADH &
FADH2
2. At end of the chain an enzyme combines electrons from the electron chain with
H+ ions and oxygen to form water
3. Each time 2 high-energy electrons transport down the electron chain,
their energy is used to transport H+ ions across the membrane
4. H+ ions build up in intermembrane space it is now positively charged,
other side of membrane negatively charged (DISPLAY)
5. Electrochemical gradient (chemiosmotic gradient) created for ATP
synthase to work (OFF)
6. ATP synthase converts ADP into ATP (DISPLAY)
Occurs in the cristae of
mitochondrion.
Electrons from NADH & FADH2
are passed (like a hot potato)
through a chain of cytochrome
molecules.
This regenerates NAD+ and FAD
so that they can be reused in
glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle.
Oxygen is needed to accept the
electrons, together with H+ ions,
at the end of the chain, forming
water.
More importantly, a lot of ATP is
generated through this process
called oxidative phosphorylation.
•Electrons carried by
NADH are transferred to
the first molecule in the
electron transport chain,
flavoprotein.
•The electrons carried
by FADH2 have lower
free energy and are
added to a later point in
the chain.
The maximum output from
ox-phos is 3 ATP/NADH and 2
ATP/FADH2
Calculate how many ATP can be
produced during this process
from the 1 molecule of glucose.

34
A major part of oxidative
phosphorylation, this basic
process also occurs in
chloroplasts.
The energy lost from electrons
passing through the ETS, is used
to phosphorylate
ADP to ATP. (coupling reactions)
Chemiosmosis involves coupled
reactions, where the products of
one reaction are used in another
reaction.
In this case, the initial products
are H+ ions, which are released
from NADH and FADH2.
These protons are pumped out
of the fluid matrix, across the
cristae, to the intermembrane
space of the mitochondrion.
A pH and electrical gradient is
formed as the protons
accumulate, forming a reservoir
of potential energy.
The protons flow back into the
matrix through channel proteins
called ATP synthases.
This flow generates the energy
to produce ATP.
At the end of the ETS, the
moving electrons, which first
served to provide the H+ ions
(protons) when the bonds of
NADH and FADH2 were broken,
are transferred to oxygen and
coupled with the pumped H+
ions (back in the matrix), form
water.
How efficient is respiration in
generating ATP?
Complete oxidation of glucose releases 686
kcal per mole.
Formation of each ATP requires at least 7.3
kcal/mole.
Efficiency of respiration is 7.3 kcal/mole x 38
ATP/glucose/686 kcal/mole glucose = 40%.
The other approximately 60% is lost as heat.
Cellular respiration is remarkably efficient in
energy conversion.
Now you can see why cell
respiration leads to some of the
top 40 ways you know you’ve
been traumatized by AP Biology.
In the end, if you remember
nothing else, remember what
results after each phase or
cycle.
It’s not quite over yet, remember we said that there is
an alternative path if no oxygen was present?
Well…….
 How much chemical energy comes from one molecule of glucose??
 Absence of oxygen:
 Only 2 ATP molecules from glycolysis
 Presence of oxygen:
 2 net ATP molecules from glycolysis
 36 more ATP molecules from Krebs Cycle and electron transport

These 38 ATP molecules represent 38% of the total energy of glucose, remaining 62% is
released as heat, thus your body feels warmer after vigorous exercise and does not
freeze in winter.
Let’s look at the
pathway that follows
gycolysis without the
presence of oxygen…..
anaerobic respiration
This occurs after glycolysis when oxygen absent, thus
anaerobic process
 Fermentation releases energy from food molecules in absence of oxygen
 In this process cells convert NADH to NAD+ by passing high-energy electrons
back to pyruvic acid
 Now glycolysis has NAD+ and can continue producing ATP
 There are 2 types of fermentation:
 Alcoholic fermentation
 Lactic acid fermentation
 Anaerobic and aerobic respiration share the glycolysis pathway. If oxygen
is absent, fermentation may take place, producing lactic acid or ethyl
alcohol and carbon dioxide. Products of fermentation still contain chemical
energy, and are used widely to make foods and fuels.
1. Yeast and a few other microorganisms use
alcoholic fermentation, forming ethyl alcohol
and carbon dioxide as wastes
2. Equation for alcoholic fermentation:
pyruvic acid + NADH  ethyl alcohol + CO2 +
NAD+
1. Many cells convert accumulated pyruvic acid from
gycolysis to lactic acid; lactic acid fermentation regenerates
NAD+ so glycolysis can continue
2. Equation for lactic acid fermentation:
pyruvic acid + NADH  lactic acid + NAD+
4. When your body cannot supply enough oxygen to muscle
tissues during exercise, this is produced
5. Without oxygen the body is unable to produce all the ATP it
requires, so lactic acid fermentation takes over
Running, swimming, or riding a bike as fast as you can = large
muscles in your legs and arms that quickly run out of
oxygen…muscles begin to rapidly produce ATP by lactic acid
fermentation.
The buildup of lactic acid fermentation causes a painful burning
sensation making your
muscles feel sore…
How do you stop it?????
NEED TO INTAKE OXYGEN
 Initially body uses ATP which is already available in
muscles
 Then new ATP made by Lactic Acid Fermentation and
Cellular Respiration
 Eventually energy supply runs out
A. Quick Energy
1. ATP in muscles only lasts a few seconds
2. ATP from lactic acid fermentation lasts
about 90 seconds
- this then creates a by-product (lactic acid)
which the body must get rid of, the body
releases it by panting heavily (intake of oxygen)
B. Long-Term Energy
- exercise lasting longer than 90 seconds utilizes
cellular respiration to generate a continuous supply
of ATP
- cellular respiration releases energy slower than
fermentation, thus athletes can pace themselves
- body stores energy in muscles and tissues in the
form of glycogen (carbohydrate)
-- stores of glycogen usually lasts for 15-20 minutes
of activity, then the body starts to break down
other molecules like fat for energy
HOW LONG DO YOU NEED TO ACTIVE BEFORE YOU
START TO BURN FAT?????
17-22 minutes
 Advantages of Aerobic Respiration
 Major advantage  more energy released
 Enough energy to produce up to 38 ATP

 Advantages of Anaerobic Respiration

 Lets organisms live in places where there is little or no oxygen
 Quickly produces ATP
Equation for Cellular Respiration:
6O2 + C6H12O6  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP)
Equation for Photosynthesis:
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (sunlight)  6O2 + C6H12O6
 3
 How many stages does cellular respiration have? ____________
 What are the stages of cellular respiration?
__________________________________________________________________
GLYCOLYSIS, KREBS CYCLE, AND
______ ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
 Where does glycolysis take place?
CYTOSOL OF THE CYTOPLASM OF MITOCHONDRIA
____________________________________
 Where does the Krebs cycle take place?
___________________________________
IN THE MATRIX OF MITOCHONDRIA
 Where is the Electron Transport Chain located?
INNER MEMBRANE OF MITOCHONDRIA
__________________________________
 What do high-energy electrons help the cells build?
MOLECULES LIKE GLUCOSE; ATP
_____________________________________________________________
 What are the stage(s) of aerobic respiration?
_____________________________________________________________
GLYCOLYSIS, KREBS CYCLE, AND ELECTRON
TRANSPORT CHAIN
 What are the stage(s) of anaerobic respiration?
_____________________________________________________________
_______
 What are the two types of fermentation?
GLYCOLYSIS, FOLLOWED BY FERMENTATION
_____________________________________________________________
_______
 Which fermentation process do humans use?
__________________________________
ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION AND
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION

LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION

In the two to three billion years since photosynthesis added
oxygen to
earth’s atmosphere, life has become mostly aerobic. Some
organisms
and types of cells retain the older, anaerobic pathways for making
ATP;
these pathways comprise anaerobic respiration or fermentation.
 Muscle cells can continue to produce ATP when O2 runs low
using lactic acid fermentation, but muscle fatigue and pain may
result.
 Both alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation pathways change
pyruvate in order to continue producing ATP by glycolysis.
 Aerobic respiration is far more energy-efficient than anaerobic
respiration.
 Aerobic processes produce up to 38 ATP per glucose. Anaerobic
processes yield only 2 ATP per glucose.