Rocks are made up of minerals, which are naturally occurring substances with distinctive chemical and

physical properties. Rocks can be homogeneous or heterogeneous, meaning the minerals are either uniform
throughout or distributed unevenly.
Most rocks are an aggregate of one or more minerals, and a few rocks are composed of non- mineral matter.
There are three major rock types:
1. Igneous –
• Formed when magma or lava cools and solidifies. Basalt is an example of an igneous rock
that is rich in iron and magnesium.
• Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten magma or lava near or below the Earth's
surface.
2. Sedimentary –
• Formed when particles settle out of water or air, or when minerals precipitate from
water. Sandstone is an example of a sedimentary rock.
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by the lithification of inorganic and organic sediments
deposited at or near the Earth's surface.
3. Metamorphic Rock-
• Formed when existing rocks are changed by heat, pressure, or reactive fluids. Metamorphic
rocks can change in appearance, mineralogy, and chemical composition from their original
rock.

The Rock Cycle

GEOLOGY NARADEV ROY-CE-2100034 1

Rocks are constantly being recycled and going through several changes of chemical and physical. There
are three main rock types:
1. Sedimentary
2. Metamorphic
3. Igneous
The diagram shows that rocks are altered or destroyed when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions.
This cycle of rock formation and wearing out is constantly recycling the earth’s minerals. The rock cycle
is nothing but a process by which rocks of one type with certain characteristics change into rocks
of another kind.
 Rock Cycle: Transition to Igneous
When rocks are pushed deep under the earth’s surface, they may melt into magma. If the conditions no
longer exist for the magma to stay in its liquid state, it will solidify into an igneous rock.
 Rock Cycle: Transition to Metamorphic
The rock exposed to high temperatures and pressures can be changed physically or chemically to form
a different rock, called metamorphic.
 Rock Cycle: Transition to Sedimentary
Rocks exposed to the atmosphere are very unstable and subject to the processes of weathering and
erosion. This process breaks the original rock down into smaller fragments and carries away dissolved
materials. Sedimentary rocks form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth’s surface.
Formation of Magma
 Instead of floating on a liquid asthenosphere, the tectonic plates are supported by a ductile solid
asthenosphere that melts only in specific locations.
 Most magma/lava is not 100% liquid.
• Magma/Lava is made of many compounds, all of which have different melting temps.
• Only a few percent of liquid is required to make a melt.
 Other than a rise in temperature, what causes melting of rock within the Earth?
 Melting happens because of:
• Decrease in pressure (decompression)
• Addition of volatiles (H₂O, CO2, etc...)
• Heat transfer from rising magma
Magma
 Molten rock composed of varying amounts of
• Liquid
• Silicate (Si, O)
• Ions of K, Na, Fe, Ca, Mg, Al
• Solid -Minerals
• Dissolved gas H2O, CO2, SO2
• Temperature: 600-1200°C

GEOLOGY NARADEV ROY-CE-2100034 2

 Difference between lava and magma
1. Magma is molten rock found beneath the Earth's surface. It exists in the mantle or lower crust and contains
gases, crystals, and other materials. Magma can rise to the surface through volcanic activity.
2. Lava is magma that has reached the Earth's surface. Once magma erupts from a volcano and is exposed
to the atmosphere, it is referred to as lava. Lava cools and solidifies quickly when it flows out, forming
solid rock.
So, simply put:
• Magma = molten rock below the Earth's surface.
• Lava = molten rock above the Earth's surface after an eruption.
Types of Magma – Composition
Like rocks, not all magma is made of the same stuff
• Magmas into groups by their composition-
1. Felsic (Silicic): 66-76% Silica (SiO2)
• Most viscous, Least dense (- 2.5 gm/cm3) melting point 650 - 800 deg0 C
2. Intermediate: 52-66% SiO2
3. Mafic: 45-52% SiO2, lots of MgO, FeO, and Fe2O3
4. Ultramafic: 38-45% SiO2, abundant MgO, FeO, and Fe2O3
• Least viscous, Most dense (- 3.5 gm/cm3) melting point up to 1300 deg0 C

Magma Movement
• If magma did not move, no extrusive/volcanic rocks would ever have formed
• Magma rises because:
➢ It rises buoyantly because it is hotter and less dense than the nearby rock.
➢ The magma is physically squeezed out by the weight of the rock above it, or lithostatic pressure.

• Viscosity affects a magma or lava's ability to flow

Controlled by:
➢ Temperature (high temp - low viscosity)
➢ Volatile content (more volatiles - less viscous)
➢ Silica content-silica tends to form silica-oxygen tetrahedrons that bond with each other to
make long chains that ultimately resist flow (more silica - more viscous)

GEOLOGY NARADEV ROY-CE-2100034 3

 Igneous Rock
Igneous rock is one of the three main rock types. Igneous rock is formed through the cooling(which
freezes at high temp – 1,100°C to 650°C) and solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rock may form
with or without crystallisation, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as
extrusive (volcanic) rocks.
This magma can be derived from partial melts of existing rocks in either a planet’s mantle or crust.
Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease
in pressure, or a change in composition.
Types of Igneous Rock
Following are the two types of igneous rock:
1. Intrusive igneous rock: When magma doesn’t reach the
Earth’s surface and cools below it, it forms intrusive
igneous rocks.
These rocks crystallise below the earth’s surface resulting
in large crystals as the cooling takes place slowly. Diorite,
granite, and pegmatite are examples of intrusive igneous
rocks.
2. Extrusive igneous rock: These rocks erupt onto the
surface resulting in small crystals as the cooling takes
place quickly. The cooling rate for a few rocks is so quick
that they form an amorphous glass. Basalt, tuff, and
pumice are examples of extrusive igneous rock.

GEOLOGY NARADEV ROY-CE-2100034 4

 Intrusive Igneous Rock Environments
• Magma rises by percolating (গলিয়া পড়া) between grains and by forcing open cracks in the subsurface
• The magma that doesn't reach the surface of the Earth cools into intrusive igneous rocks-
✓ The existing rock that magma pushes into is called the country rock or wall rock.
✓ The surface where the magma and wall rock meet is called the intrusive contact.
• Tabular intrusions: Dike, Sill, Laccolith (pseudo-tabular, or sheet-like)
• Non-tabular intrusions: Pluton, Batholith
Extrusive Igneous Rock Environments

Explosive eruptions generally occur when Effusive eruptions generally occur when source
source magma is: – magma is:
1. High in silica (felsic-intermediate) 1. Low in silica (mafic)
2. Low temperature 2. High temperature
3. High in volatiles 3. Low in volatiles
• These volcanoes form – • These volcanoes form –
1. Lava domes – 1. Fluid lava flows
2. Ash clouds and ash flows 2. Fire fountains (if volatiles), lava tubes

Tabular intrusions
 Dike: A vertical or steeply inclined intrusion that cuts across existing rock layers. Igneous intrusions
that cut across layering, i.e. discordant
 Sill: A horizontal intrusion that forms parallel to existing rock layers. Igneous intrusions that follow
layering, i.e. concordant.
 Laccolith: A mushroom-shaped intrusion that pushes overlying layers upward, creating a domed
appearance. A dome-like sill that bends the layers above it into a dome shape

Non-Tabular Intrusions:-
 Pluton: Plutons are masses of igneous rock that crystallize from
magma below the Earth's surface. Unlike tabular intrusions, plutons
do not have a sheet-like shape but are instead blob-like or irregular.
Range in size from 10’s of m, to 100’s of km.

GEOLOGY NARADEV ROY-CE-2100034 5

  Batholith: An immense, deep-seated intrusive rock body, often made up of multiple plutons, spanning
hundreds of square kilometers. A pluton that is 100 km2 in surface exposure.

Effects of Intrusions
Dikes form in regions of crustal stretching Sills may cause uplift at the surface of the Earth

Igneous Textures
 Glassy Texture:
• A glassy texture occurs when lava cools so quickly that crystals don’t have time to form. This
rapid cooling leads to a solid mass that is mostly glass, sometimes with tiny crystals embedded
within a glassy matrix.
• A solid mass of glass or tiny crystals surrounded by a glass matrix
• Matrix: the smaller stuff in a rock (relative term)
 Interlocking Texture (Phaneritic):
• Rocks with an interlocking texture, also known as phaneritic texture, are made of large, visible
crystals that have intergrown and fit together tightly. This texture is typical of igneous rocks that
cooled slowly beneath the Earth's surface.
• Rock made of interlocking crystals that grew as the melt solidified. Commonly called crystalline
igneous rocks.
 Fragmental Texture:
• Fragmental Texture refers to a texture found in volcanic rocks composed of a mixture of
different types of fragments that have been ejected and solidified during volcanic eruptions. This
texture is a hallmark of explosive volcanic activity, where the rapid release of gases and eruption
of molten material break apart and scatter fragments.
• Volcanic rocks that are made of various types of fragments that form from volcanic eruptions.
• Fragments can be: • Crystals • Xenoliths (from volcano walls) & Glass.

GEOLOGY NARADEV ROY-CE-2100034 6

 Glassy Igneous Rocks
• Obsidian: Obsidian is a solid mass of felsic volcanic glass, typically dark and smooth with a shiny
appearance; It has a conchoidal fracture, meaning it breaks along curved, shell-like surfaces,
producing sharp edges.
• Tachylite: Tachylite is a rare, bubble-free, mafic volcanic glass with a very high glass content (>80%).
Unlike felsic obsidian, tachylite is mafic (rich in iron and magnesium) and has a darker color, often
brown to black.
• Pumice: Glassy felsic volcanic rock that contains abundant open pores called vesicles (it grey to tan
in color). Occasionally less dense than water (it floats!)
✓ Vesicle: a open space left over from a gas bubble in a lava or magma
• Scoria: Glassy mafic volcanic rock with abundant vesicles (>30%). Grey, black, or red in color.
✓ Typically has larger and rounder vesicles than pumice

Fragmental Igneous Rocks

{ Rocks blasted out of volcanoes...commonly called pyroclastic rocks }
• Tuff: Fine-grained rock, composed of lithified volcanic ash and/or fragmented lava and pumice.
Formed from ash fall from the air, or from hot material that avalanches down the side of a volcano.
✓ If material is still very hot (gooey) it may get squished upon landing and weld with other
particles forming a welded tuff .
• Volcanic Breccia: Large angular chunks of material from either volcanic debris flows (blocky lava
flow) or air fall (bombs).
• Hyaloclasite: Hyaloclasite is a rock formed when lava erupts under ice or water and cools rapidly,
causing it to shatter into small fragments.

GEOLOGY NARADEV ROY-CE-2100034 7

 Where Does Igneous Activity Occur?
Most volcanoes occur at plate boundaries or Hot Spots

Most Igneous Rocks are Crystalline:

Coarse (Phaneritic) -
Phaneritic, or coarse-grained, textures in rocks indicate that the crystals within are large enough to be seen
with the naked eye, reflecting a slower cooling process. These rocks, typically formed from magma that
solidifies deep within the Earth's crust, cool gradually due to the insulating effect of the surrounding rock
layers. This slow cooling allows ample time for minerals to grow and develop into well-defined, larger
crystals, a hallmark of intrusive igneous rocks. Granite is a classic example of a phaneritic rock, showcasing
the visible crystal grains that hint at its slow formation beneath the surface.
Igneous Rock Textures
1. Phaneritic (Intrusive)
2. Aphanitic (Extrusive)
3. Porphyritic (Intrusive and Extrusive)
4. Glassy (Extrusive)
5. Pegmatitic (Intrusive)
6. Pyroclastic Materials (Extrusive)

 Phaneritic (Intrusive)
✓ Phaneritic rocks are coarse-grained rocks which form below the Earth's surface.
✓ The individual crystals are relatively even-sized and large enough for scientists to identify the
different mineral grains that compose the rock.
 Aphanitic (Extrusive)
✓ Aphanitic rocks are very fine-grained and contain crystals that are too small to distinguish without
the aid of a magnifying lens.

GEOLOGY NARADEV ROY-CE-2100034 8

 ✓ Aphanitic rocks are often described by how light or dark the rock appears. Lighter colored aphanitic
rocks contain mostly non- ferromagnesian silicate minerals. Darker colored aphanitic rocks contain
mostly ferromagnesian silicate minerals.
✓ Aphanitic rocks may also contain vesicles of remnant gas that give the rock a vesicular texture.
Vesicles form when the rock cools very quickly and preserves the openings formed by the expansion
of trapped gas bubbles.
 Porphyritic (Intrusive and Extrusive)
✓ Porphyritic rocks contain both coarse- and fine-grained textures indicating different environmental
conditions which formed the rock.
✓ The coarse grains in a porphyritic rock develop as the magma is cooling below the surface of the
earth.
✓ The fine-grained component of a porphyriic rocks forms when the magma or lava cools faster.
✓ The large coarse-grained crystals are referred to as phenocrysts
✓ The small fine-grained crystals are i referred to as groundmas
 Glassy (Extrusive)
✓ Glassy textured rocks are formed by very rapid cooling of magma.
✓ Glassy rocks often form from magmas with high silica content that arranges into long chainlike
structures before crystallization occurs. These silica chains increase the viscosity of the magma and
it once it eventually cools it forms a glassy textured rock.
✓ Glassy rocks can be considered amorphous because they have no crystalline structure.
✓ Glassy rocks are classified by the amount of glass contained by the rock: Glass-bearing: 0-20% glass
Glass-rich: 20-50% glass Glassy: 50-100% glass
✓ Obsidian is a common glassy rock.
 Pegmatitic (Intrusive)
✓ Pegmatitic rocks contain large interlocking crystalline grains > 1-2 centimeter in diameter.
✓ Pegmatites are commonly composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica minerals.
✓ Pegmatities form from a combination of hydrothermal and igneous processes; and is dependant on
the presence of fluids and volatiles such as water, chlorine, bromine, sulfur, and fluorine.
✓ Pegmatites form late in the crystallization process when there are a lot of fluids present in the molten
rock. The fluids enable individual ions to move around more freely, ultimately bonding to form very
large and sometimes exotic crystals.
✓ Pegmatitic dikes form around the margins of intrusive plutons, or occasionally as veins of rock which
extend into the pluton.

GEOLOGY NARADEV ROY-CE-2100034 9

GEOLOGY NARADEV ROY-CE-2100034 10