AMP 706-245 D3? 930F fo Peblre Roles RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIEL a AMMUNITION SERIES SECTION 2, DESIGN FOR TERMINAL EFFECTS (U) rity of DA 1575 Ha DARCOM, 3 Mar 76 Public Rilease 10 Mar 76 wee Date HEADQUARTERS, U, S. ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND JULY 1964 iar vagy | GROUP 3 | RPTvEreean. Downgraded at, 12 year] WE erat intervals; not aittomati lcally declassified. \.Dove ae HEADQUARTERS UNITED STATES ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND WASHINGTON, D. C, 20315 31 July 1964 AMGP 706-245(C), Section 2, Design for Terminal Effects (U), forming part of the Ammunition Series of the Army Materiel Com- mand Engineering Design Handbook Series, is published for the information and guidance of all concerned. (AMCRD) FOR THE COMMANDER: OFFICIAL: SELWYN D. SMITH, JR. Major General, USA Chief of Staff R. O. DAVIL Colonel, Gs} Chief, Admi DISTRIBUTION: Special U Neha ei, ip , ae @urpALA)PREFACE ‘This handbook is the second of six handbooks on artillery ammu- nition and forms a part of the Engineering Design Handbook Series of the Army Materiel Command. Information concerning the other hand- books on artillery ammunition, together with the Table of Contents, Glossary and Index, will be found in AMCP 706-244, Section lery Ammunition--General ‘The material for this series was prepared by the Technical Writ ing Service of the McGraw-Hill Book Co., based on the technical in- formation and data furnished principally by Picatinny Arsenal. Final preparation for publication was accomplished by the Engineering Hand- book Office of Duke University, Prime Contractor to the Army Research Office-Durham for the Engineering Design Handbook Series. ‘Agencies of the Department of Defense, having need for Handbooks, may submit requisitions or official requests directly to Publications and Reproduction Agency, Letterkenny Army Depot, Chambersburg, Pennsylvania 17201. Contractors should submit such requisitions or requests to their contracting officers. Comments and suggestions on this handbook are welcome and should be addressed to Army Research Office-Durham, Box CM, Duke Station, Durham, North Carolina 27706.TABLE OF CONTENTS Section 2 - Design for Terminal Effects Introduction Classification of Missiles Projectile Design Blast Effect ‘The Explosive Wave ‘Measurement of Blast Effect of Blast on Aircraft References and Bibliography Characteristics of High Explosives Introduction Description of Test Methods Quantitative Definition of Compatibility Description of Table of Compatibility ‘Shaped Charge Ammunition List of Symbols ‘Status of Theory Liner Performance ‘The Unfuzed Warhead Fuzes for Shaped Charge Missiles ‘The Effect of Rotation upon Shaped Charge Jets Spin Compensation ‘Terminal Ballistic Eifecti Charges Against Tanks ess of Shaped Fragmentation Introduction Determination of Fragmentation Characteristics Lethality Lethal Area Computation Controlled Fragmentation Aircraft Damage References and Bibliography 2AT to 2-24 2.25 to 2-40 2Al to 2-49 2.50 2-81 to 2-68 2.69 2.70 2.71 to 2-79 2-80 to 2-95 2.96 to 2-118 219 to 2420 2.121 to 2128 2.129 to 2-142 2143 to 2-153 254 to 24159 2-160 to 2-180 2481 to 2-185 2186 to 2-192 2-193 to 2-200 2.201 to 2-207 ieonPIDENTHR™ UNCLASSIFIED _ TABLE OF CONTENTS ‘Section 2- Design for Terminal Effects (continued) Page Paragraphs Kinetic Energy Ammunition for the Defeat of Armor 2-117 Description 2417 2.208 to 2-214 Armor Plate Failure 2419 2.215 to 2.226 Failure to Penetrate 2123 2.225 to 2-230 Predictions of Effect (Penetration Formulas) 2-124 2-231 to 2-244 Effect of Varying Armor Parameters 2.129 2.245 to 2-249 Effect of Varying Projectile Parameters 2437 2.250 to 2-265 References and Bibliography 2-148,-149 Canister Ammunition 2.150 2.266 to 2.278 References and Bibliography 2.155 ‘High Explosive Plastic (HEP) Shell 2.4156 2.299 to 2.291 ‘References and Bibliography 2.159 ‘Special Purpose Shell 2160 Introduction 2160 2.292 to 2.293 = Illuminating Shell 2.161 2.204 to 2.307 Colored Marker Shell 2176 2.308 to 2-318 WP Smoke Shell 2.179 2.319 to 2.328 Colored Smoke Shell 2.182 2-329 to 2.336 Propaganda Shell 2.183 2.337 to 2.343 Liquid-Filled Shell 2.185 2.344 to 2-349 ‘The Characteristics of Pyrotechnic Compositions 2-186 2-350 to 2-364 Pyrotechnic Parachute Design 2-193 2.365 to 2-371 References and Bibliography. 2.199 UNCLASSIFIEDseen DESIGN FOR TERMINAL EFFECTS INTRODUCTION ‘The ultimate purpose of any round of service ammunition is the production of a desired effect at the target. This section attempts to give a broad picture of the major engineering and tactical requirements that govern the design of missiles intended to produce these desired terminal effects. CLASSIFICATION OF MISSILES 2-1, Classification of Missiles by Type of Target. The purposes of terminal effects fall into two broad categories: the actual defeat of a target; and the production of an effect (sig- naling, illuminating, or screening) that will aid in the ultimate defeat of the target. Table 2-1 lists the terminal effects which may be produced and the purposes which each of these terminal effects may serve. In all, eleven effects are listed. Paragraph 2-2 gives a brief description of each of these effects. 2-2, Classification of Missiles by Effect. 1. Blast. The production of an explosion which will, propagate a high-velocity, high- pressure wave in the surrounding air. Since a metal body must be used as the carrier for the blast-producing high explosive, the pro- duction of blast is always accompanied by fragmentation. 2. Fragmentation. The disruption of ametal shell body by a high explosive filler in order to produce the optimum distribution of a maxi- mum number of high-vajocity lethal fragments. Due to the use of the high-explosive filler, fragmentation is always accompanied by blas| 3. Penetration of Armor by a Solid Pro- jectile (Kinetic Energy Shot), The projection ‘of a solid projectile of steel or some other hard, dense material (tungsten carbide) at a velocity sufficient to supply the necessary Kinetic energy to enable it to penetrate armor plate. Kinetic energy shot may contain a high~ explosive charge sufficient to disrupt it after penetration of the armor plate; current design, however, tends to eliminate this feature. 4. Penetration of Armor by a High-Velocit Jet (Shaped Charges). The use of the Munroe effect to oblain an extremely high-velocity jet of metal particles capable of penetrating armor plate. 5. Spalling of Armor (HEP). This effect is used to defeat armor without actually effecting fa penetration. By the use of a high-explosive plastic (HEP) filler in a deformable shell, an explosion on the outside of armor plate can produce sufficient shock to cause the formation of a spall o® the inside surface of the plate. ‘This spall, roughly circular in shape, may be separated from the surface of the plate and projected with sufficient velocity to cause serious damage inside the tank. 6. Perforation by Preformed Missiles Other ‘Than Armor-Piercing (Canister). The loading ‘of a non-explosive shell with a large number of small preformed missiles in order to obtain a short-range lethal effect on personnel. This type of shell is roughly analogous to a common shotgun shell 7. Incendiary. The use of a shell filler ‘which will produce high enough temperatures to ignite any flammable material in the target, or to ineapacitate personnel. 8, Release of Poison Gases. The use of a poison gas to cause injury to personnel or to contaminate an area and thereby deny its use to the enemy. 9. Froduction of Light. The production of light ‘for signaling, or for visual or photo- graphic observation. 10. Production of Smoke. The production of white or colored smokes for signaling or screening purposes. 11, Dissemination of Leaflets. The broad- cast of propaganda leaflets for the purpose of undermining enemy morale.é UNCLASSIFIED Table 2-1 21.8 |] .2 2 ae stelle gl] | aly |e | | 252/23" /3| Stee [el sais |s | a2 E| $52| $s2| 2) GFoe |3) 32/3 |e. | eg 3) z| g£2| 85/3| SEs | 2/42/28] 23 | 25 ale | aaa] 28/8) shee | 2) 22) £3) e8 | 25 tomar Sar : ae imo Ale x ee x] ox |x Demolion : Mininating ee coe . PROJECTILE DESIGN 2-3. General. The projectile designer is called upon to supply the best possible projectile for a given purpose (effect). A projectile is usually designed for a particular weapon and the char~ acteristics of the weapon limit the design. Other limitations may be placed on the designer by considerations of handling by the gun crew, which may limit overall size and weight of the Found, and by requirements for a large range of operating temperature. 2-4. Requirements for Gun Projectiles. Pres- ent-day projectiles must meet the following general requirements. 1, Safety in handling, in gun bore, and in light. 2. Safety when fired in gun, i.e., no prema- tures resulting from pressure or shock of discharge in gun or from hot propellant gases entering the base. CONPIDENTIAL— 1 3. Stability in flight throughout the trajec tory. 4, Ballistic efficiency, for maximum range or minimum time of flight with minimum dispersion. 5. Tactical effectiveness at target, including: a. Effective fragmentation, or b, Maximum blast effect, or c. Required armor-defeating ability. 6. Capable of being manufactured by pro- duction methods, mainly forging and ma- chining. 7. Capable of being loaded with explosive filler. 8. Minimum amount of wear on the gun bore. 2-5. Ordnance Committee Minutes, The speci- fications for the design of aprojectile are usually given by the Ordnance Committee Minutes (OcM). “They usually include the following information, 1, Rated maximum pressure of the gun. NCLASSIFIgDTrue maximum pressure on the base of the shell. . ‘Twist of rifling (for an existing gun only). Caliber of the gun. Required range. Approximate weight of the projectile. ‘Approximate weight of the propelling charge (if it is separate from the pro- Jectile). 8. Approximate weight of the shell-charge combination (for fixed ammunition). In addition, the following information may be included. 1. For HE, HEP, or chemical shell, the shape of the shell and the yield strength of the steel. 2. For armor-defeating ammunition, the thickness and obliquity of the armor to be defeated. 3. For antitank and antiaircraft ammunition, the first-round probability of hit and the confidence level of this probability. 2-6. Design Procedure, a. Rough Design. From the tactical re~ quirements, a projectile may be roughly out- ined to meet prescribed conditions. The weight of this first design must be calculated and adjustments made to bring the design to the proper weight. b, Stress Analysis. The next step in the design procedure is to determine the stresses acting at the critical elements of the shell. ‘The maximum combined stresses on the pro- jectile walls of any section should not, in ‘most cases, exceed the yield point of the metal from which the shell is made. Stress analysis procedures are given in Section’4. ¢. Determine Stability. The final step in the design of @ projectile is to calculate its stability and to estimate the retardation caused by air resistance. Section 3 describes the procedure to be followed. 4, Optimize Terminal Ballistic Effect. The first step of the design procedure, rough design, takes into account the effect which the shell is to produce; however, at this point it is difficult to determine whether or not the design 4s near optimum. The usual method for ob- taining optimum terminal ballistic effect is to design several projectiles which are satis~ factory and then, by means of analytical methods described in succeeding sections, or by means of actual firings of test shell, todetermine which of these designs is best. HNCLASS 2-1. High-Explosive Ammunition. High-explo- sive ammunition may be designed to perform any one of several functions and in most cases may be expected to perform more than one of them, These functions are: Defeat of personnel Defeat of aircralt Defeat of fortifications. Considerations pertinent to each of these func- tions are discussedin the succeeding paragraphs. 2-8, Defeat of Personnel. Defeat of personnel by high-explosive ammunition requires that the projectile be designed to produce the maximum lethal area. Recent wound ballistic studies indicate that for fragments traveling at the velocities commonly obtained from high-explo~ sive shell, extremely small tragments are required to optimize the lethal area. Since the size of fragments is a function of the thickness of the shell wall, calculations reveal that design for optimum fragmentation results in a shell which is not strong enough to resist the setback forces. Accordingly, the practice in designing shell of this type is to design them with the thinnest walls capable of sus~ taining the stresses in the gun. Where econo- mie manufacturing methods may be used, con~ sideration should be given to obtaining controlled fragmentation by the use of multiple wall If setback forces are not excessive, consider: tion may be given to fragmentation control by means of grooved rings or notched wire. 2-9. Defeat of Aircraft. For antiaircraft pro~ jectiles, consideration must be given to (1) the vulnerability of the target, (2) speed of the target, (8) accuracy, (4) time of fight, (5) rate of fire, and (6) lethality of the pro- jectile. Depending upon the size and point of burst of the projectile, it may be desirable to maximize either (1) blast damage or (2) frag- ‘mentation damage. For smaller projectiles, the decision must also be made as to whether the projectile is to (1) detonate outside the aircraft, (2) in contact with the aircraft, or (@) inside the aircraft. If detonation internally is desired, it is necessary that the projectile be sufficiently strong to penetrate without de~ forming to a point where its effectiveness 1s impaired. Here, as with antitank ammunition, the lethality criterion should be first-round probability of kill. However, the design problem js rarely presented in these terms. Considera~ tion should be given to multiple wall and liner 2-3CONFIDENT Ad; techniques of fragmentation control; however, it should be borne in mind that use of the liner ‘method will result ina loss inblasteffectiveness of the round. Occasionally the designer is called upon to Produce a shell that, in addition to, being effective against aircraft, may also be expected to be effective against ‘personnel. Here the compromise must be between optimum frag- ment size for antipersonnel effect and optimura fragment size for defeat of aircraft. Optimum size for antiaircraft use is considerably in excess of that for antipersonnel. 2-10. Defeat of Fortifications. HE projectiles, which have as their primary purpose the defeat of personnel, may also be required to defeat concrete or log-and-earth fortifications. Hence it may be necessary to arrive at some com- promise between maximum fragmentation ef- fectiveness and the ability to penetrate without undue breakup of the shell. The fuze designer has cooperated in this direction by providing concrete piercing fuzes, which will help to attain this objective. The use of a special fuze, with conventional shell, still leaves much to be desired. 2-11. KineticeEnergy Ammunition. ‘ a. General, Kinetic energy ammunition is intended primarily for the purpose of defeating armor, although it may also be called upon to defeat’ concrete fortifications. There are three types of KE ammunition in current use, ‘They are (1) steel armor-piercing shot (AP), (2) capped: steel armor-piercing shell with an explosive filled cavity, (9) carbide-cored, hyper- velocity, discarding sabot shot (HVAPDS). In addition’ to these, subcaliber composite-rigid shot, and skirted’ or squeeze-bore projectiles have been made; however these are not cur- rently being designed, the former because of its too high ballistic coefficient, and the latter because of the difficulty of interchanging am- munition in a tapered-bore gun. Still another type of kinetic energy shot, the hypervelocity, discarding sabot, fin-stabilized (HVAPDSFS) currently being investigated. If this type lives up to its promise, it may become an important member of the family of kinetic energy ammunition. b. Design for Defeat of Armor. For kinetic energy antitank projectiles, accuracy, along with the ability to penetrate the specified target, is the prime consideration. First consideration should be given to AP or APC shot. The advisability of the use of an armor-piercing cap depends upon the type (face-hardened or homogeneous), obliquity, and thickness of the armor. If the target cannot be defeated by this type of ammunition, consideration should be given to the more expensive types such as, the ‘carbide-cored discarding sabot types and perhaps the HVAPDSFS. Consideration is first given to determining the optimum subprojectile for maximum penetration at the specified range. Calculations should also be checked at shorter ranges to ensure against the presence of a “shatter gap." In design of subcaliber projec- tiles for existing guns, great attention must be Paid to the stability of the projectile. This consideration quite often governs its dimensions. c. The Sabot. In the design of discarding sabot projectiles, in addition to the primary Problems of imparting spin and discarding Promptly, it is important that it be recognized that the sabot itself forms a secondary missile. This projectile must be discarded in such a manner that it will not endanger friendly troops. 4. Lethality. ‘The actual criterion governing the Iethality of these rounds is first-round probability of kill, which takes into account armor penetration, size of target, accuracy of the projectile, and time of flight; however, the design problem is usually presented in terms of first-round probability of hit and ballistic limit. 2-12. High-Explosive Antitank (HEAT) Ammu- nition.” The following problems are peculiar to the design of HEAT ammunition: a. Time of Flight Versus Standoff. In order to obtain @ high first round probability of hit, time of flight should be as short as possible. However, the requirement of standoff demands that the charge initiation take place before excessive crush-up of the nose has taken place, The resolution of this problem lies in the Province of the fuze designer who is required to provide extremely quick-acting fuzes for high-velocity HEAT rounds. b. Stability Versus Standoff, The require- ment of long standoff distances, particularly on the slow-speed fin-stabilized ‘rounds, results in an extremely light nose section. This type of configuration is extremely hard to stabilize. One approach to the problem has been the use of the drag-stabilized spike-nosed design. c. Spin Versus Optimum Penetration, One of the major difficulties in design of HEAT rounds a4 +. CONFIDENT HEGONEIDENELAL UCL ASS the interpretation of results are simple, and no elaborate machine workis involved. Its greatest imitation is that the precision of results is ‘usually not high, and the limits within which the pressure can be bracketed with a reasonable number of holes are rather wide. 2-80, Shock Velocity Method. The shock-wave velocity is uniquely determined by the charac~ teristics of the medium and the excess pressure in the shock wave. That is, under specified conditions, the pressure may be expressed ex- plicitly in terms of the shock-wave velocity. Advantage is taken of this relation to make very accurate determinations of peak pressures. 2-31. ‘The Blast Cube is used to measure the blast from 20-mm to 40-mm AA shell. The blast cube consists ci an angle iron frame, with aluminum sheets of different thicknesses bolted fon the frame. The sheets have diagonal slits. ‘The exploding of the projectiles generally marks some plates, bends others, and rips some off. The blast is measured by a previously es- tablished system for evaluating relative damage to the aluminum sheets. This method of blast evaluation is qualitative, but scores can be given from the established system. Also, this method is good for comparative purposes. 2-32. Empty Varnish Cans. Another method of blast evaluation similar to the blast cube is the use of old varnish cans. In this method, varnish cans, with their covers on, are exposed to the blast.’ The relative decrease in volume of the cans at various distances from the center of blast is used for qualitative comparative Purposes. 2-83. The Blast Tube. The blast tube is a useful apparatus for the study of shock waves in air and for the calibration of air-blast gages. It consists of a long tube divided into two sec tions, a compression chamber and an expan- sion chamber, by an airtight diaphragm. Com- pressed air is admitted to the compression chamber to build up the required pressure. ‘When the diaphragm is punctured by a knife, the diaphragm shatters, and a shock wave is formed which is propagated along the expansion chamber. Gages can be mounted in the expan sion chamber, and their characteristics, under conditions similar to those under which they are to be used, can be studied. - CONFIDENTIAL EE 2-34, Experimental Methods for Determination of Relative Air-Blast Intensities. The methods of comparing explosives on the basis of their air-blast intensities are essentially the sameat all establishments where such work is done. The charges, consisting of identical containers {filled with the explosives to be compared, are detonated while being supported in a fixed posi- tion on the testing field. Air-blast gages, usually piezoelectric, are set up at several distances from the charge, and blast pressure-time re- cords obtained. From these records, the peak pressures and positive impulses are computed. ‘The conditions of the test are held the same for each trial so that direct comparisons among the different explosives can be obtained. The re- sults are usually reported as relative peak pres- sures and relative positive impulses, referring all results to those from one type of filling chosen arbitrarily as a standard. Several iden- tical charges of each type of explosive are usu- ally fired in each series of tests in order to establish the statistical validity of the results. It is found that with bare charges and pressures below 50 psi the relative pressures and impulses are essentially independent of the charge-to- gage distance, so that results obtained ata num~ ber of such distances can be considered as averages. Moreover, onthe average, the results from various groups of experimenters are in agreement. The average relative peak pres- ‘sures and positive impulses for all explosives considered are summarized in table 2~ ‘These averages include results from trials in the United States by the Underwater Explosives Research Laboratory and Stanolind Oil and Gas Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma, both of Division 2, National Defense Research Council, and by Bal- listic Research Laboratories, Aberdeen Proving Ground, as well as in Great Britain, by Road Research Laboratory and Armament Research Department. All results are reduced to the basis of the average loading densities listed in table 2-2. The adjustment to relative peak pressures and relative positive impulses for differences in weights was made according to the empirical formulas Py (mys Pa \Wa, hom, ye and We,UNCLASSIFIED sername ar, where Py, and Py are peak pressures from EXPLOSIVES FOR BLAST weights Wy, Wg respectively, and Ip, I are the corresponding positive impulses. For thousual 2-35. Comparison _of Explosives for Bl: variations in loading density, such corrections Table 2-2 is based upon the Fesulls of éxper as a rule are on the order of Lor 2 percent. ments performed before 1946 at the Underwater Table 2-2 Average densities and compositions of explosives Composition,* percent by welght of g 5 average | Zo] e./ Ze] » 5 Sate, |ERIEIEE| 2] El] el el el . Explosive | (grams/emy® | 22/22/42] 2) 2/8) 2/2) 2 “Forper 0% A i a a ‘Torpex-2' 172 a we os ee ee ot Minos un 2 alo |. px Let are lee | | een |e |e next 1.63 we | owe on : 7 40 | 38 jou 8S ‘Tritonal 75/25 ae | ae 7 | 75 | 25 7 Minol-2 165 wo fa fa fa fo pao foo |. “ritonal 80/20 10 ae er ie wo | 20 ‘Trlaten et ee eee |e Baronal aa wn 50 foo fon | on wf |. Comp B 1.61, oe ae ae 60 40 a Pentoite 160 wm fo fa foo a foo fa |. Banatat 159 we st | af fa wr 1.86 Ole le eo |e |e Pleratot 187 we foe | 2 “ Amatex ss fon fan fon [ow | or] so Amatol 60/40 1,55 60 oe 40 pmavoiso/so | ass 0 : wn [50 | on "Under actual loading conditions, compositions vary by a few percent from the average values given here, When 0.5% ealeium chloride is added to torpex-2, it is called torpex-2, HBX contains 0.6% calcium chloride in addition to its other ingredients. Not taken into account in percentages of other ingredients, 5D-2; dosensitizing wax of the following composition: 6.9 parte Victory wax; 1.0 part nitrocellulose; 0.2 part lecithin, A180 may include 2% carbon black, “+ Varies between 5% and 9%, at the expense of ammonium nitrate, ae CONTIDENTEAL. UNCLASSIFIEDGeNEIDENTIAL is the minimization of the degradation in per- formance caused by spin of the projectile. Several methods by.which this problem may be attacked are: 1. HEAT projectiles fired from low-velo- city recoilless rifles are given a very slow rate of spin, 2. Spin has been eliminated insomecases by reverting to fins to stabilize tha projectile. This method is limited to low-velocity guns. 3. For high-velocity rounds, the approach to the problem of spin degradation has been the design of specially shaped liners which compensate directly for the spin of the projectile. 2-13, High-Explosive Plastic (HEP) Ammuni- tion, HEP ammunition is intended for the defeat of armor; however, because of the use of extremely thin walls, it also has a very valuable secondary fragmentation effect. In design, the following peculiarities of HEP am- munition should be given careful consideration. a. Crush-up of Nose. The effect of HEP ammunition is obtained by having the explosive charge explode in intimate contact with a large area of the armor plate. The nose of the projectile must be soft enough and thin enough to perform this function effectively. At the same time, the projectile must with- stand successfully the strains of firing. b. Velocity. The velocity of impact of HEP shell has been found to be directly related to the performance of the projectile. There exists a rather small range of velocities at which performance is satisfactory. Velocities either above or below this range Tesult in ineffective rounds. It is thought that a partial solution to this problem may be found in the fuzing of the projeetile, and work on new fuzes is now under way. c. Banding. Because of the very thin walls of HEP shell, pressed-on rotating bands are not satisfactory; the high pressures used to apply them distort the shell wall. This prob- lem has been overcome by the use of welded overlay rotating bands. At present, this type of band is used only for pre-engraved rotating, bands used on recoilless rifle ammunition. 4. Stability. Because of the low rotational moment of inertia of the thin shell walls, it is difficult to stabilize the flight of HEP shell. This problem has been solved by the use of fa blunt-nosed ogive, which drag-stabilizes the projectile. 2-14 Canister Ammunition. Jems of canister design are: 1. Opening of the canister 2. Minimization of damage to the gun tube 3. Securing lethality at great enough ranges 4. Securing adequate dispersion. ‘The major prob- 2-15, Base Ejection Ammunition. Base ejection shell may be used for any of the following purposes: 1. Mlumination 2, Dissemination of smoke 3. Dissemination of propaganda leaflets 4. Dissemination of poison gases. ‘The particular problems associated with design of this type of shell are: ‘a. Expelling Charge, The black powder ex- pelling charge should, ideally, eject the con tents of the shell with a rearward velocity just equal to the forward velocity of the shell. If this were done the contents would have zero forward velocity and would just drop straight down. Because of limitations imposedby charge size and strength of the shell, this ideal cannot be attained in practice and the black powder charge must be considerably smaller than this ideal charge. ’b. Shear Pins or Threads. Inorder toassure proper burning of the black powder charge, the shear pins or threads must be designed to permit some minimum pressure to be built up before shearing takes place. This problem is analogous to that of obtaining proper bullet pull for @ cartridge. c. Setback, The contents of a base ejection shell must be designed so that they will not be damaged by the setback forces created when the gun is fired and those that result when the con- tents are expelled from the shell. These two forces act in opposite directions. In the case of propaganda disseminating shell, this problem. may be solved by packing the leaflets into split steel tubes, which are strong enough to resist these forces and which will discard completely after ejection. 2-16, Ammunition With Burster Charges. ‘a. General. This type of ammunition is usu- ally similar in appearance to the high-explo- sive round with the exception of the replace- ment of the explosive filler by either a burster charge or a filler. The burster charge may be contained in a metal tube located axially in the shell oF cast in position and separated from its - CONTIDENTINL aseenmmaaans, UNCLASSIFIED surrounding medium by acid-proof black paint. A filler may be used to produce: 1, Heat sufficient to damage materiel and produce casualties among personnel. White phosphorous (WP) is usually used for this purpose. 2. Smoke intended for signaling or screening. 3. Poison gases, either persistent or nonpersistent. b. Design, There are several factors, pe- culiar to the design of this type of ammunition, which may have to be considered: 1. The burster charge should be suffi- cient to completely break up the shell body without causing excessive dispersion of the contents. No portion of the fragmented shell body should form a cup that might retain some of the filler. 2, When a liquid filler is used it is extremely important that the shell be per- fectly sealed to prevent leakage of the contents. Further information on sealing is contained in Section 2, "Special Purpose Shell." 3. When a liquid filler is used the rota- tional inertia of the shell is greatly reduced, due to the tendency of the filler to remain stationary relative to the rotation of the shell body. At present, this problem is dealt with by empirical method. Work now in progress should, however, yield a theore- tically sound method of approach in the near future. 4. The use of a heavy steel burster tube causes the exterior ballistics of the shell to differ significantly from those of the HE shell designed for the same weapon. In order to secure ballistic matching it is desirable that, where it is compatible with the filler, an aluminum burster tube be used. UNCLASSIFIED 2-6 CONTFIDENTALMeth cA gM: Explosives Research Laboratory of the Otfice of Scientific Research and Development. Later Fesults, including those for HBK-1, HBX-8, and HBX-6'are given in paragraph 2-36. Table 2-8 gives comparisons on the basis of equiva- Tent Volumes of composition B. Table 2-3 Comparison of peak pressure and impulse, with Comp B as base (bare charges) Peak Positive Explosive Pressure | Impulse ‘Torpex-2 13 1s Hx 1.08 aa ‘Tritonal 80/20 1.04 1.08 Nr 0.92 0.9 comp B 1.00 1.00 2-36. Explosives of the RDX/TNT/Aluminum System. A comparison ot twenty-seven different mixtures indicated that optimum aluminum con~ tent is approximately 22 percent for best peak pressure or 26 percent for best positive impulse. Table 2-4 compares the optimum castable mixture, HBX-6, with several other military explosives. Comparisons are on a TNT basis. 2-37. Damage Test Ranking.* ‘The following ranking has been assigned by the Ballistic Re~ search Laboratories to explosives for internal blast against aireraft structures. The results were arrived at by firings of light-cased 40-mm shell against B-26 aircraft and by evaluation of damage to clamped circular aluminum plates. 1. Torpex-2 2. HBX-6 3. Tritonal 4. Comp B 5. Pentolite 6 TNT It should be noted that MOX-2B, for this series of tests, was shown to be of the same order of effectiveness as Torpex-2 and HBX-6 on an equal volume basis. CONSE AL Table 2-4 Comparison of peak pressure and positive impulse, with TNT as base Gare charges) Peak Positive pressure impulse Explosive | Ewe | EV* | EWs | Ev | tr | 100 | 100 | 100 | 1.00 comp | ras | rar | 206 | 1.13 Bx rar | ase | 121 | 1a6 uDx-3 ras | ase | 12s | 149 reitonat | nor | rar | sas | 1.25 ‘HBX-6 aat | Lat 1.38 187 MOX-25 “EW ~ Equivalent weight basis EV - Equivalent volume basis A recent series of extensive tests carried out by the Ballistic Research Laboratories using cased charges against B-29 aircraft as targets resulted in the following quantitative comparison of efficiency (table 2-5). The numbers repre~ sent the relative weight or volume of a test ex- plosive needed to cause the same blast damage as a given weight or volume of Pentolite. 2-38, Comparison of Explosives of the Am: monium Perchlorate/RDX/Aluminum System, Table 2-6, the result of tests performed at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory, lists the compara~ tive effect of several mixtures on an HBX-3 basis. The best mixture (40/40/20) was found to be equivalent to HBX-6. 2-39. Medina/TNT/ Aluminum _ Bxplosives.5 Comparison of the explosive mixtures in table 2-1 are on the basis of equivalent weights of HBX-6. Although the results are somewhat superior to HBX-6, the use of Medina is not yet practical due to poor stability and difficulty in obtaining high loading density. Table 2-5 as 3 Comp B | H-6 | MOX-2B Weight basis | 0.84 oss | 0.89 Volume basis | 0.79 065 | 0.70 2-13GCONPIDENTERE UNCLASSIFIED Table 2-6 Peak pressure Positive impulse ap nox a pw |e Ewe Eve o o 7% rr ie re 108 « * 20 os 100 un a * 2 is 00 oe « * 5h wax Lo 10 10s wk 00 00 00 ‘EW ~ Equivalent weight basis EV - Equivalent volume basis 2-40. Effect of Loading Density. The most ‘common military high explosives that have been used or considered for use as fillings for aerial bombs are listed in Table 2-3. Chemical com- positions and densities are shown in Table 2-2, ‘The compositions of actual fillings vary by a few percent from those given. Similarly, the loading density given for each explosive is an average over a number of actual filling densi- ties in various batches. The importance of loading density is twofold. Explosives are usually compared on the basis of equal vol- umes, so that the greater the density, the more favorable the comparative blast effectiveness. Second, the loading density is a measure of the quality of the particular filling; a poor pour will have air cavities and the components of the mixture will segregate. Both of these faults lead to low overall densities. EFFECT OF BLAST ON AIRCRAFT 2-41. Aircraft Damage by Internal Blast. Test firings to determine the vulnerability of specific aircraft to internal blast have been performed at the Ballistic Research Laboratories, 16, 18 Such information provides the weapons designer with data which enables him to decide on an optimum warhead size, 2-42. Effect of Case on Internal Blast. Firings of bare and cased charges have indicated that when the detonation takes place in a well en- closed space, such as the inside of a wing, the internal blast effect of a cased charge is well in excess of the predicted effect. The blast effect of the projectile charge is approximately the same as that for an uncased charge of the same weight. In less enclosed spaces, such as the interior of the fuselage, the effect \s con- siderably less. It is thought that this effect may bbe explained by two factors: 1. In the enclosed space, the massed effect of the fragments is sufficient to help pro- duce structural damage. 2. Expansion of the explosive gases adds to the effect of the shock wave. 2-43. Surface Charges Versus Internal Charges.® Firings of surface charges (in dir~ ect contact with the external surface of the skin of the aircraft) have indicated that the Table 2-7 Medina 98 PA? TNT AL Peak pressure Positive impulse 60.65 " 22.35 1a 0.99 50 6 35 1.08, 0.99 CONPIDENTIAL— UNCLASSIFIED‘As the incident wave expands to some greater size Ig, the reflected wave Ro also expands, but the reflected wave is not spherical and cannot be constructed by the device used in figure 2-1. ‘The angles at which Iz and Ry meet the surface § are not equal, in general, and the angle of the reflected shock Rp depends upon the strength ‘and angle of incidence of the incident shock. ‘At some distance from the charge C, determined by the distance of C from 8, and by the strength of the incident shock, a new phenomenonoccurs. ‘The intersection of R and I no longer Ifes on 8, but lies above it and follows some path, 1. A new shock M, the Mach stem, connects the inter- section of R and I to the surface. The intersec- tion of R, I, and M is called the triple point. As the shock ‘system expands further, the Mach stem grows rapidly, tending to swallow up the two-shock system above it. If C is very close to the surface, but not on it, the Mach stem is. formed almost directly under C and, in a short time, has grown so that most of the shock sys~ tem is a Mach stem, and only in a small region directly over the charge are R and I distinct, If the charge C is on the surface 8, no separate reflection R is formed, and it can be considered that the entire shock wave is a Mach wave. A very practical property of the reflection of shocks is that the pressure (and positive im- pulse} in the neighborhood of the triple point and in the Mach stem are considerably greater than those in Ig, or in the shock emitted when C is in contact with 8. That is, if C is a bomb bursting above the ground represented by S, the intensity of the blast in the region M and just above it is greater, at a given horizontal dis tance from the bomb, than is the case if the bomb is burst in contact with the ground. 2-22, Effect of Shock Wave. When ashock wave strikes a nonrigid obstacle, such as d building, the wave is reflected y the surfaces of the built ing in the various ways described above. The reflection from a nonrigid surface will not, how- ever, conform quantitatively to that fromarigid surface such as that discussed above. At the instant the wave strikes the wall, the wall is accelerated, and continues to accelerate as long. as there is an excess of pressure on its outer surface. At first, the deformation of the wallis elastic, so that for insufficient excess pressure or insufficient positive duration there may be no permanent displacement of the wall. If the blast intensity is sufficient, the wall eventually wert if SF UNCLASS! deforms inelastically and suffers permanent displacement. If, for the wall in question, the displacement is’ greater than some critical amount, the wall will collapse. A simplified picture of the processes of damage consists of a wall of indefinite extent which has ‘a certain natural period of vibration. If ashock wave of very long duration strikes it, the wall can be considered to be subjected suddenly to a last of constant pressure equal to the pressure in the shock wave enhanced by reflection. For sufficiently small pressures, the wall will de~ form elastically (the amount of the displacement being about twice that from a static pressure equal to the pressure in the reflected blast) and will not rupture. Some pressure must exist, however, such that the wall will collapse. For shock waves of finite duration, the wall may not collapse even though the pressure is equal tothe critical pressure. Instead, the wall will acquire momentum from the shock wave and will vi- brate, without reaching the amplitude corres- ponding to collapse. If the duration of the wave is very short compared with the time required for collapse, the momentum imparted to the wall must be sufficient to deform it beyond the critical limit. On the basis of reasoning such as this, the peak pressure is usually con- sidered’ to be the determining factor in the damage produced in the blast from very large bombs, such as atomic bombs. For small bombs it is generally assumed that the positive im- pulse is the important quantity, since the dura~ tion of the blast is quite short. Unfortunately, neither operational experience nor experiment is adequate to test these criteria properly. 2-23, Theories on the Dependence of Blast on Ambient Pressure and Temperature. To infer from the information obtained on the ground information concerning the blast at high alti- tudes, it is necessary to determine the effect of the change in pressure and temperature on the blast. There are two theories which formulate the sealing laws. These are Sachs' Theory and Kirkwood-Brinkley's Theory. These theories differ in their initial assumptions and in their choice of parameters. A complete discussion of these theories can be obtained from refer- ences 3, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 29. 2-24, Blast Information To Be Obtained from Later Experimentation, General design infor- ‘mation is lacking at present onthe effect on blast -GOMRRENEEAL 9UNCLASSIFIED COMPBDEN Ting, of length of column, and of diameter of explo- sive column, for a given weight of explosive. Also, little information of a general nature con= cerning the minimum booster requirements for various sizes and configurations of explosive charges is available. Since very little expe mentation has been done with cased charges, it is not known how applicable the information ob- tained from bare charges would be to cased charges. The great need at the moment is for Positive information on cased charges. MEASUREMENT OF BLAST! 2-25, Piezoelectric Gages. The most common method of measuring air blast pressures em- ploys piezoelectric gages. Piezoelectrically active crystalline substances that have been used in gages are tourmaline, barium titanate, quartz, Rochelle salt, and ammonium dihydro~ gen phosphate (ADP), 2-26, Condenser Microphone Gage. A con- denser microphone consists of two parallel ‘metal plates mounted so as to be insulated from each other, and separated by a dielectric (air, mica, etc.) The two plates, which are the plates of a condenser, are connected to the associated electronic apparatus by means of an electric cable. Under the application of pres- sure, the dielectric between the condenser plates is reduced, and the capacity of the con- denser therefore increases. 2-27. Resistance Gages. A third device for measuring transient pressures depends on the change of electric resistance of an element under stress. In one form, the gage consists of a resistance element that is hydrostatically compressed. In another, a resistance wire is formed in a spiral and'cemented to the back of a diaphragm constrained at its periphery. When pressure is applied, the diaphragm is de- formed, the wire is stretched, and the resistance of the wire changes. Associated with the gage is a simple potentiometer circuit by means of which changes in resistance give rise to pro- Portional changes in voltage. These voltage changes are amplified and recorded. 2-28, Mechanical Gages. A gage for measuring peak pressure has been designed that operates by recording the maximum extension of a spring acted upon by a moving piston which is accel~ erated by the action of a pressure pulse. If the 2-10 natural period of the piston-and-spring is short, compared with the duration of a transient pres” sure pulse, the maximum extension of the spring is proportional to the peak pressure of the pulse. For the measurement of positive impulse, gages that employ a freely sliding piston have been used. 2-29, Peak-Pressure Gages have been devised to operate on the principle that a thin diaphragm, stretched over a hole ina rigid plate, will rup” ture at a certain pressure when the diaphragm 1s subjected to a blast wave. If several such diaphragms are provided, covering holes of various sizes, the pressure required to rupture the diaphragm over a given hole will depend on the hole size. Hence, given a calibration of the device, the peak pressure of a blast wave is established as less than that required to break the diaphragm of the largest hole unbroken, and Greater than, or equal to, the pressure required to break the diaphragm ‘over the smallest hole broken, The pressure is thus bracketed as closely as is desired, simply by having a suffi- cient number of holes of graduated size. One such device, the paper blast meter, has been used for many years in the approximate measurement of blast pressures. It consists of two boards clamped together, with a sheet of Paper held tightly between them. Holes of about ten different sizes are bored through both boards, in register. The gage is mounted with the plane of the diaphragm perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave, that is, head-on to the wave. By virtue of the multiplication of pressure on reflection, the pressure exerted on the diaphragm is greater than that of the inei- dent wave; proper account of this mustbe taken. A more recent modification of this gage is the foilmeter, which consists of a wooden or metal box with one open end, over which is clamped an assembly similar to the paper blast meter, but with aluminum foil instead of paper. Foil 45 used because it is much less sensitive than Paper to changes in atmospheric conditions Such as temperature and humidity. The box gage can be oriented either face-on or side-on to the direction of propagation of the blast, since the box prevents the blast from acting on the reverse side of the diaphragm. ‘The great advantage of this type of peak-pres- sure gage is its simplicity. The operation and GONFIDENTIa UNCLASSIFIEDBLAST EFFECT ‘THE EXPLOSIVE WAVE 2-17. Explosive Wave Propagation ~ History.” ‘The rapid expansion of the mass of hot gases resulting {rom detonation of anexplosive charge gives rise to a wave of compression called a shock wave whieh is propagated through the air. The front of the shock wave can be considered infinitely steep, for all practical purpose: That is, the time required for compression of the undisturbed air ahead of the wave, to the full pressure just behind the wave, is practi cally zero. If the explosive source is spherical, the re- ‘sulting shock wave will be spherical, and, since its surface is continually increasing, the energy per unit area continually decreases. AS a result, as the shock wave travels outward from the charge, the pressure in the front of the wave, called the peak pressure, steadily decreases. At great distances from the charge, the peak pressure is infinitesimal, and the wave, therefore, may be treated as a sound wave, Behind the shock-wave front, the pressure inthe wave decreases {romits initial peak value. Near the charge, the pressure in the tail of the wave is greater thanthat of the atmosphere. However, as the wave propagates outwardfrom the charge, a rarefaction wave is formed which follows the shock wave. At some distance from the charge, the pressure behind the shock-wave front falls to a value below that of the atmosphere, and then rises again to a steady value equal tothat of the atmosphere. The part of the shock wave in which the pressure is greater than that of the atmos~ phere is called the positive phase, and, imme- diately following it, the part in which the pres~ sure is less than’ that of the atmosphere is called the negative or suction phase. ‘The velocity at which the shock wave is propa~ gated is uniquely determined by the pressure in the shock-wave front and the pressure, tempera~ ture, and composition of the undisturbed medium. The greater the excess of peak pressure over that of the atmosphere, the greater the shock velocity. Since the pressure at the shock front is greater than that at any point behind it, the see . zs \ Aaya) wave tends to lengthen as it travels away from the charge; that is, the distance between the shock front and the part at which the pressure in the wave has decreased to atmospheric con- tinually increases. 2-18, Positive Impulse.!_ A gage thatis capable of indicating the pressure instantaneously ‘applied, and that is fixed with respect to the charge, will record the pressure in the wave as a function of time. The resulting pressure-time curve bears a close resemblance to the pressure-distance curve described above: there is an initial abrupt rise in pressure followed by a relatively slow decrease in pressure to a value below that of the atmosphere. The time elapsing between the arrival of the shock front and the arrival of the part inwhich the pressure is exactly atmospheric is called the positive duration, and this, like the length of the wave, increases as the wave travels away from the charge. A quantity of interest in the application of blast measurements is the positive impulse, which is the average pressure during the positive phase multiplied by the positive duration, 5 P a, where 2 1s the positive duration For most shock waves, the trace of the positive phase of the pressure-time curve is roughly triangular. Hence the positive impulse may be approximated by one-half the peak pressure mul= tiplied by the positive duration. 2-19. Conditions Associated With Shock Front. Associated with the propagation of the shocl front is a forward motion of the matter behind the shock front, and the conditions that deter~ mine the shock velocity also determine the particle velocity. In gases, such as air, the particle velocity for high-shock pressures is Very high. For example, at about 3 atmos- pheres excess pressure in the shock front, the particle velocity immediately behind it is about 1,000 mph, ‘The temperature behind the shock front is also greater than that ahead of it because of the com~ pression of the medium. Since this compression is irreversible, the temperature of the air through which the shock wave has passed, and SORTIDENTIAD, a1CONFIDENE, UNCLASSIFIED which has returned to atmospheric pressure, is somewhat greater than that of the undisturbed air prior to the arrival of the shock wave. The smaller the excess pressure in the shock wave, the less the irreversible heating of the air. At a very great distance from the charge, the wave becomes acoustic, that is, the pressure rise, temperature rise, and particle velocity are all infinitesimal, and the velocity of the wave is that of sound, 2-20. Reflection of Weak Shock Waves.! Very weak shock waves, that is, those of nearly Acoustic strength, are reflected from plane surfaces in such a way that a geometrical con- struction of the wave system can be made ina very simple way. Consider a point source of the shock C (fig. 2-1) and, at some distance from it, a plane reflecting surface S. The incident wave I, striking the surface, will be reflected from it in such a way that the reflected wave R. may be considered to arise from a second image source C', on the opposite side of the reflecting ‘surface, perpendicularly below the true source and equally distant from the surface. Figure 2-1 shows two successive stages of this reflection process. In the first, 11, the incident wave, is just tangent to the surface. The excess Pressure over that of the atmosphere at the Teflecting surface is just double (for very weak shock waves) that of the incident wave where it is not in contact with the surface. At a later stage, the incident wave is represented at Ip, and the reflected wave at Ry imagined to arise from the image source C', Again the pressure at the line of contact of Ig, Rg, and the surface 8 is just double that of Ig. ‘The angles at which the shocks Ig, Ra meet the surface $ are equal. 2-21, Reflection of Strong Shock Waves — Mach Waves.! When the pressure in the shock wave is appreciably above that of the atmosphere, the phenomena are different. One reason for thisis that the pressure, density, and velocity of the air into which the reflected shock advances are not those of the undisturbed atmosphere. In figure 2-2 there are represented three succes sive stages in the reflection of strong shocks. In the terminology used above, the incident wave 1; Is first shown just as ittouches the reflecting surface S. The excess pressure above that of the atmosphere at this point is more than twice that of 1 elsewhere, and the magnitude of the 2-8 CONFIDENGEAL Figure 2-1. Reflection of weak shock waves increase of pressure over that of 1; is deter mined by the strength of 11. For example, if the peak (excess) pressure of I; is 100 psi, the re- flected shock pressure is aout 500 psi, a five- fold increase of pressure. Figure 2-2. Reflection of strong ‘shock waves UNCLASSIFIEDBengt weight of surface charge necessary to produce damage equivalent to that of an internal charge is about three times that of the internal charge. Although it is true that shell designed for ex- plosion on contact may be of thinner wall con- struction, particularly at the nose, than those which must have sufficient strength to penetrate the skin, it is doubtful that the lighter con- struction can enable sufficient additional explo- sive to be added to offset the loss in effectiveness. due to the lack of penetration. 2-44. The Bifect of Altitude on Internal Bla: ‘The detonations of high-explosive charges within World War U-type aircraft under sea level and under high-altitude atmospheric conditions show that compared to the amount of explosive needed to cause a given amount of damage at sea level, approximately 5 to 10 percent more is needed at an altitude of 30,000 feet, and 60 to 70 percent more at an altitude of 85,000 feet. + CONFIDENTIAL 2-45. Aircraft Damage by External Blast. Fir- ings have been conducted at the Ballistics Re- search Laboratory to determine the effect of external blast on aircraft of various types.13, 14 Bare charges of various weights have been ex- ploded in a sufficient number of orientations, with respect to the aircraft, to enable damage contours to be plotted. These contours, obtained for several vertical and horizontal planes through the aircraft, depict the maximum dis- tance from the aircraft at which 100A struc- tural damage could be expected to be inflicted by the given weight of charge. Although the firings have been conducted against aircraft of American manufacture, it 1s expected that the information obtained can be extended to foreign craft having similar sizes and structures. Fig- ure 2-9 illustrates a typical set of damage con~ tours for the B-17 bomber. It must be emphasized that the damage con- CONTOUR IN PLANE OF FUSELAGE AXIS N. contour In pLane S THRU WING TIP.conmppnaua, UNCL tours are the results of static tests, in which both aircraft and explosive charge are at rest at time of detonation. Experiments against aircraft structures with moving internal-blast type weapons indicate that there is a consider able directional modification of the peak pres~ sure and impulse about a charge detonated while moving rapidly, as compared to the same charge statically detonated. ‘The Ballistic Re~ search Laboratories are conducting air blast tests to determine this modification. In addi- tion to the effect of the moving charge, it should be noted that the tests were performed on air- craft which were static. It is to be expected that the dynamic loads imposed on aircraft in flight may add considerably to the effect of the explosive. Hence they may tend to expand the radii of effectiveness for the various explosive charges. It must be stressed that this infor~ mation is for bare charges, and it is not known how applicable it might be’ for cased charges. 2-46. External Blast Damage Criteria.13 One would expect that a plot of the peak pressure versus impulse just necessary to cause 100A damage by external blast to a given aircraft for a given orientation of the charge, with respect to the aircraft, would be of the form shown in figure 2-4. The form of this curve is based on the belief that there is some low value of impulse below which it is impossible to achieve 100A damage regardless of how high the peak pressure and, conversely, there is some low value of peak REGION T- MeULse Is soLe DAMAGE GRiTERION REGION TI- NEITHER PEAK PRESSURE. NOR Meutse ig S6ve bawase CRITERION REGION T- PEAK PRESSURE 1S SOLE DAMAGE CRITERION. STATIC PEAK PRESSURE BATE WPOLSE Figure 2-4, Static peak pressure versus static impulse Agsoiriby pressure below which it is impossible to achleve 100A damage regardless of how high the im= Pulse. Thus, in Region 1, the impulse is the sole criterion of damage; in Region Il, neither the peak pressure nor the impulse can be con- sidered the sole damage criterion; in Region Mi, the peak pressurc in itself is sufficient to define the damage. The general form of this curve has been borne out by limited results of the firings against A-25 aircraft by a wide Tange of charge weights. From these curves it should be possible to predict external blast vulnerability of an aircraft to weights of explo- sive charge other than those for which blast tests have been conducted and, also, it should be possible to modify external blast damage contours for high altitude conditions. Curves of this type (peak pressure vs. im~ pulse necessary to cause crippling damage) have been computed for A-25 aircraft.!4 These curves are illustrated in figures 2-5 and 2-6, The pressures used are side-on peak pressures. Impulse was obtained by assuming a triangular form for the positive phase of the pressure~ time curve. The total positive impulse (f P at is therefore equal to the area of the triangle, that is, peak pressure x 1/2 positive duration. Using these curves, it is possible to plot damage contours for any size charge at any altitude, provided that curves of peak pressure versus scaled distance, and scaled impulse versus sealed distance, are available for the explosive used and the required altitudes. If only sea level curves are available, those for greater altitudes may be computed by means of the dimensional scaling laws. Typical contours obtained by this semfempirical method are shown in figure 2-7. As before these curves are for bare charges, and their utility for cased charges is not completely known, 2-47. Modification of Blast Contours for Effect of Altitude. Since experimentally determined blast contours have been obtained only under sea evel conditions, estimates of the effect of alti- tude on the contours must be made to apply the data to warhead design. A method for making such estimates has been presented in Ballistic Research Laboratories Memorandum Report No. 575. This method assumes that "damage thresh- old" curves of side-on peak pressure versus side-on impulse required to produce 100A damage to the aircraft remain invariant with CONFIDENTIAL UNCLASSIFIEDVg eAal * wn JEXPLOSIVE: 50/50 PENTOLITE IPOSITION: CHARGES DETONATED IN [PLANE OF “WING 600| Tees WEIGHTS: 8-, 90-, 450-, 5000-LBS. 0 t { 200 109 90) 80) 70 60 FORWARD OF NOSE FORWARD OF WING LEADING EDGE-} ~~ PRESSURE, P, IN PSI FE_OUTBOARO OF WING TIP] i | “re wonowa sau.2ER 2 oo 100d ' 0102030 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 110 120 130 IMPULSE, I, IN LB.- MILLISECOND / IN Figure 2-5. Crippling-damage air blast to A-25 aircraft, detonation at fuselage axis CONE ENILAL aaaCOMABEND RT, UNCLASSIFIED BELOW Nose. PRES apove on se.ow f ‘CENTER OF GRAVITY, © 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 "PULSE, T, IN LB- MILLISECOND iN Figure 2-6. Crippling -damage air blast to ‘A-25 aircraft, detonation in plane of wing altitude. Application of altitude scaling to the blast parameters then yields estimates of new contours for given altitude conditions. It is believed that this technique yields a very con- servative estimate of contours of altitude. Another estimate of the altitude effect can be made by establishing damage threshold curves based on face-on blast parameters and applying altitude scaling to these curves. Since these parameters are degraded less than the side-on Parameters with increase inaltitude, the result- ing contours are not reduced as much as when side-on parameters are used. It is believed that these two techniques yield both anupper and lower limit to the true contours at altitude. 2-48. Effect_of Motion of Charge on Blast Damage to Aircraft, Firings of rockets and high e soooopurmae OAH Figure 2-7. Blast contours around A-25 aircraft explosive shell against aircraft targets by the ‘Naval Ordnance Test Station, Ballistic Research Laboratories, and other agencies have indicated that the terminal velocity of antiaircraft mis- siles can greatly affect the damage they inflict on the targets. Damage is generally enhanced ahead of the missile and is reduced behind it. If the component being struck has relatively small internal volume, such as a wing panel, the overall damage is usually increased with increase in terminal velocity. If the component has large internal volume, such as the fuselage, ‘the damage may not increase as much with increase in terminal velocity. Some measurements of the free airblastaround moving charges have been done by Ballistic Research Laboratories (Memorandum Report No. 761) but the data are as yet insufficient for correlation with damage studies. 2-49, Effect of Shape of Explosive Char; When nonspherical explosive charges are de- tonated, separate blast waves are propagated from each of the faces. If the orientation of the faces with respect to each other is such URCLASSIFIES GONFIDENTIARthat the blast waves intersect at an angle of 80° or greater, the waves will interact to form Mach waves or bridge waves. Bridge waves are defined as Mach waves caused by the inter action of two shock waves, resulting in the formation of a third shock wave, which bridges the volume between the two original waves. Double shocks may be produced at the inter- section of the bridge wave and the original It has been determined experimentally22 that UNCLAS the peak pressures and positive impulses arising from the detonation of fifty-pound spherical, cubical, cylindrical, conical, and laminar char- ges of RDX Composition C-3 plastic explosive do not differ significantly at large distances when averaged over all directions. However, the individual peak pressures and impulses in some directions from some of the nonspherical charges have been found to be as much as 50 percent higher than those in some other directions from the same charges at the same distances. 2-19UNCLASSIFIED ~conripentan, UNC REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY NDRC, OSRD, Effects of Impact and Explosion, Summary Technical Report of Diviston 2, vol. 1, ch. 2, 1946, 2. Department of Ordnance, Terminal Ballistics, ch. 3, October 1951. 3. Goldstein and Hoffman, Preliminary Face-On Air Blast Measurements, BRLN 788, April 1953. 4, Baker and Johnson, Relative Air Blast Damage Effectiveness of Various Explosives, BRLM 689, Sune 1953, 5. Fisher, Air Blast Performance of Two Mixtures of Medina TNT and Aluminum, NAVORD 2959, November 1953. 6. Filler, Air Blast Small Charge Evaluations of Mixtures of Ammonium Perchlorate RDX or TNT and Aluminum, NAVORD 2738, May 1953. 7. Fisher, The Determination of the Optimum Air Blast Mixture of Explosives in the RDX/TNT/ Aluminum System, NAVORD 2348, March 1952. 8, Sarmousakis, Report on Tests of the Effect of Blast From Bare and Cased Charges, BRLM 436, Tuly 1946. 9. Sachs, The Dependence of Blast on Ambient Pressure and Temperature, BRLR 466, May 1944, 10. Makino, Ray, The Kirkwood-Brinkley Theory of the Propagation of Spherical Shock Waves, and 's Comparison with Experiment, BRLR 750, April 1951. 11, Dewey and Sperrazza, The Effect of Atmospheric Temperature and Pressure on Air Shock, BRLR 721, May 1950. 12, Hoffman, The Effect of Altitude on the Peak Pressure in Normally Reflected Blast Waves, BRLN 787, March 1953. 18, Baker and Johnson, Damage to B-17 and B-29 Aircraft by External Blast, BRLM 561, September 1951. 14, Sperrazza, Dependence of External Blast Damage to A-25 Aircraft on Peak Pressure and Impulse, BRLM 575, September 1951. 15. Smith, Effectiveness of Warheads for Guided Missiles Used Against Aircraft, BRLM 507, March 1950. 16. Cooney, Vulnerability of Aircraft to Internal Blast, BRLM 542, May 1951, 17. Sperrazza, Internal Blast Damage to Aircraft at High Altitude, BRLM 605, April 1952. 18. Sperrazza, Vulnerability of B-29 Aircraft to Internal Blast, BRLM 490, June 1949. 19, Hill, The Bifects of Blast on Aircraft Fuel Tanks, BRLM 509, April 1950. 20. Fisher and Bengston, A New Air Blast Peak Pressure Nomograph Accounting for the Effects of the Steel Case and Height of Burst, NAVORD 2858, May 1953. 2-00 CONFIDENTAES UNCLASSIFIEDa1. 4, 25. 21. 28. 29. 30. 31. 33. m4. 35. 36. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY (cont) Johnson and Baker, Internal Blast Damage to Aircraft Caused by Slender Cylindrical Charges Simulating Loki Warheads as Compared to Spherical Explosive Charges, BRLM 673, April 1953. ‘Adams, Sarmousakis, and Sperrazza, Comparison of the Blast from Explosive Charges of Different Shapes, BRLR 681, January 1949. Fisher, E. M., The Effect of the Steel Case on the Air Blast from High Explosives, U. 8. Naval Ordnance Laboratory, NAVORD Report 2753. Kirkwood, J. G., and §. R. Brinkley, ANew Theory of Shock-Wave Propagation with an Applica~ tion to the Shock Wave Produced in Air by the Explosion of Cast Pentolite, NDRC, AES-3, Monthly Report, October 1944. Kirkwood, J. G., and S. R, Brinkley, The Time Constant and the Positive Impulse According to the Theory of Shock-Wave Propagation of Blast Waves: Results for Cast Pentolite, NDRC, AES-4, Monthly Report, November 1944. . Kirkwood, J. G., and §, R. Brinkley, The Calculation of the Time Constant and the Positive Impulse from the Peak Pressure-Distance Curves of Blast Waves in Air with an Application to Cast TNT, NDRC, AES-4, Monthly Report, November 1944. Kirkwood, J. G., and S. R. Brinkley, The Effect of Altitude on the Peak Pressure and Positive Impulse from Blast Waves in Air, NDRC, AES-11, Monthly Report, June 1945. Kirkwood, J. G., and S, R. Brinkley, The Theory of the Propagation of Shock Waves from Explosive Sources in Air and Water, NDRC, A~318, March 1945. Kirkwood, J. G., and §. R. Brinkley, Tables and Graphs of the Theoretical Peak Pressures, Energies, and Positive Impulses of Blast Waves in Air, NDRC, A~327, May 1945. Kirkwood, J. G., and 8. R. Brinkley, Theoretical Blast Wave Curves for Cast TNT, NDRC, A-341, August 1945. Kirkwood, J. G., and H. A. Bethe, The Pressure Wave Produced by an Underwater Explosion I, OSRD, No. 588, May 1942, Courant, R., and K. 0. Friedricks,"Supersonic Flow and Shock Waves," Interscience Publishers, New York, 1948. Lamb, H., "Hydrodynamics," Dover Publications, New York, 1945. Hartmann, G. K., and P. Z. Kalawski, "The Optimum Height of Burst for High Explosives,” NAVORD Report 2451, July 1952 (CONFIDENTIAL). Fisher, E. M., Experimental Shock Wave Reflection Studies with Several Different Reflecting Surfaces, NAVORD Report 2123, September 1951 (CONFIDENTIAL). Kirkwood, J. G., and 8. R. Brinkley, Theoretical Blast Wave Curves for Cast TNT, OSRD Re~ port 5481.UNCLASSIFIED CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH EXPLOSIVES 2-50, Introduction, The moré useful chemfcal and physical characteristics of high explosives are presented in tables 2-8 and 2-9, Table 2-8 is essentially a digest of Picatinny Arsenal Technical Report No. 1740 (CONFIDENTIAL), and is a tabulation of the results of the tests described below. Table 2-9 shows the com- ibility of given explosives with such other ‘materials as metals, metal coatings, and plas- tics. ‘The data for’this table was abstracted from Picatinny Arsenal Technical Report No. 1783 (CONFIDENTIAL). 2-51. Description of Test Methods. Paragraphs 2-52 through 2-68 give brief descriptions of the test methods used in compiling Table 2- They are included to give the reader an appre- ciation of the test conditions and to permit hhim to compare and evaluate the tabulated data. 2-82. 15°C International Heat Test. A 10-gram sample is heated for 48 hours at 75°C, and is then observed for signs of decomposition or volatility, other than moisture, 2-53. 100°C Heat Test. A 0.8-gram sample of the explosive is heated for two 48-hour periods at 100°C, At the end of each period the sample is observed for volatiles other than moigture. It Is also noted whether exposure at 100°C for 100 hours results in explosion. 2-54. Vacuum Stability Test. A 5.0-gram sample (1.0 gram in the case of initiators), after having been carefully dried, is heated in vacyo for 40 hours at either 100°C or at 120°C. The evolution of gas at each tempera- ture is recorded, Note The capacity of the apparatus is 11 ml, therefore, any gas evolution in excess of 11 ml is reported as 11+, 2-55. Hygroscoplcity. A 5~ to 10-gramsample is exposed to an atmosphere of 30°C and 90 per- Cent relative humidity (unless otherwise stated) until equilibrium is attained. In cases where 2-28 either the absorption rate is extremely low, or very large amounts of water are absorbed, a specific time is stated. If the sample 1s solid, {tis prepared by sieving it through a 50-on-100 mesh, U. 8. Standard screen. 2-56. Impact Sensitivity Test. In both the Picatinny test and the Bureau of Mines test, ‘a sample (approximately 0.02 gram) of explosive is subjected to the action of a falling weight of 2 kg. The impact test value is the minimum height at which at least one of 10 trials results in explosion. For the Bureauof Mines apparatus, the unit of height is the centimeter. In this test the explosive sample is held between two flat, allel, hardened (Rockwell C63:2) steel sur- faces, and the impact impulse is transmitted to the sample by the upper flat surface. Since the height of this apparatus is 100 cm, if, at 100 em, no explosions result among ten trials, the value would have to be recorded as 100+. In the Picatinny apparatus the unit of height is the inch. In this test the sample is placed within a depression ina small steel die-cup, cappedby a thin brass cover. A slotted-and-vented cylin- drical steel plug is placed, slotted side down, in the center of this cover. The principal differences between the two tests are that the Picatinny test involves (1) greater confinement, (2) a frictional component against the inclined sides, and (3) distributes the translational im- pulse over a smaller area, because of the inclined sides. ‘The test value obtained with the Picatinny apparatus depends to a marked degree on the sample's density. This value indicates the hazard to be expected when subjecting the par ticular sample to an impact blow; it is of value in assessing a material's inherent sensitivity only if the apparent "bulk" density is recorded along with the impact test value, The values tabulated were obtained on material sereened between 50-on-100 mesh, U.S. Standard screens, where single component explosives were in= volved, and through 50-mesh in the case of mixtures. GONPIBENTAL. /NCLASSIFIEDMGA 2-81, Friction Sensitivity. ‘The friction sensi- tivity of an explosive is determined by subject ing a 7.0-gram sample of the explosive (through 50-on-100 mesh) to the "sweeping" action of a shoe" (of ‘steel or fiber) attached to the end of a pendulum. ‘The degree of sensitivity is re- ported qualitatively as (in decreasing order of sensitivity): explosion, snaps, crackles, or unaffected; indicated respectively by E, 8, C, or U. 2-58. Rifle Bullet Impact Sensitivity. The sen- Rawigy of ar explosive to rile bull impact Is determined by loading 1/2-pound samples of the explosive (in the same manner as they are loaded for actual use, or as indicated) in a S-inch (2-inch 1, D., 1/16-inch wall) pipe nipple, closed at each end by a cap. The loaded nipple may contain a small air space, which can be filled, if desired, by a wax plug. ‘The loaded nipple is subjected to the impact of .80-caliber bullet (standard ball ammunition) fired from a distance of 90 feet perpendicular to the nipple's long axis 2-59, Explosion Temperature Test. A 0.02- gram sample (0.01 gram in the case of initiator materials) of explosive, loose-loaded in a No. 8 blasting cap, is immersed for 4 short period in a Wood's metal bath. The temperature deter- mined by this test is the temperature that produces explosion, ignition, or decomposition of the sample within 5 seconds. The behavior of the sample is indicated by an e, i, ord placed after the numerical value. 2-60. Booster Sensitivity Test. This test pro- cedure is a version of the Bruceton "staircase" method for an unconfined charge. ‘The source of shock consists of about 100 grams of tetryl, in two pellets, each 1.57 inches in diameter by 1.60 inches high. The initial shock is degraded through wax spacers of cast Acrowax B, 15/8 inches in diameter. The test charges are 1 5/8 inches in diameter by 5 inches long. The value reported is the thickness (in inches) of wax at ‘the 50 percent detonation point. 2-61. Initiator Test, This test is run, using in- creasing quantities of initiator in each trial, until the amount of sand crushed no longer in creases with an increase in the amount of initiator used, that is, until the rising curve (showing amount of sand crushed versus quantity of initiator used) levels off. The actual value reported is the difference between the total amount of sand crushed by the whole sample and the amount of sand crushed by the initiator alone. 2-62, Sand Test for Solids. A0.4-gram sample of explosive pressed (at 3,000 psi) into a No. 6 cap is initiated by mercury fulminate or lead azide or, if necessary, by lead azide and tetryl, in a sand test bomb containing 200 grams of “on 30-mesh" Ottawa sand. The amount of ful- minate or azide, or of azide and tetryl, that must be used to ensure that the sample crushes the ‘maximum net weight of sand is designated as its sensitivity to initiation; and the net weight of sand crushed to finer than 30-mesh is termed. the sand test value. The net weight of sand crushed is determined by subtracting from the total amount crushed the weight of sand crushed by the initiator material when fired alone. 2-63. Sand Test for Liquids. The sand test for Liquids is made Inaccordance with the procedure given for solids, except that the special procedure described in "Methods of Inspection, ‘Sampling, and Testing," MIL-P-11960 (24 April 1952) should be followed. 2-64, Fragmentation Test. The standard shell used in this test is either a 3~inch HE (M42A1, lot KC-5) or a 90-mm HE (M71, lot WC-91) shell. ‘The values reported in this table are for the 3-inch shell. Either shell size is initiated ‘by M20 booster pellets of height range 0.480 to 0.485 inch and weight range 22.50 +0.10 grams. ‘The shell is assembled with a fuze, actuated by a Blasting Cap (Special, Type U, Specification PA-PD-571) placed directly on a lead of com- parable diameter. Itis thenplaced inabox made of 1/2-inch pine. The box for the 3-inch shell is 15x 9x 9 inches inoutside dimensions. This box containing the shell is placed on bout feet of sand in a steel fragmentation tub, the blasting cap wires are connected, and the box is covered by another 4 feet of sand. The shell is fired, then the surrounding sand is run onto agyrating 4-mesh screen on which the fragments are re- covered. The tabulated values represent the atio of the number of fragments producedby the subject explosive to the number of fragments produced by an equal amount of TNT. 2-65, Ballistic Mortar Test. The amountof the sample explosive necessary toraise theballistic mortar to the same height as it would be raised 2-23ConP YNCLASSIFIEU by 10 grams of TNT is determined by this test. The sample is then rated, on a proportional basis, as having a certain TNT value, that is, as being a certain percents effective as TNT in this respect. The formula gives the TNT value of the sample. A ballistic mortar is a heavy, short-nosed mortar supported at the end of a long compound rod. The mortar contains a chamber about 6 inches in diameter by 1 foot long. About 7 inches of the chamber is occupied by a projectile, and the sample to be tested fills a small portion of the remainder. Upon detonation, the projectile is driven into a sand bank, while the mortar swings through an arc which is automatically recorded by a pencil attached to the mortar. ‘The angle indicates the height to which the pen- dulum is raised by the explosion, and represents the energy measured by this test. 2-66, Trauzl Test. This test isused principally to obtain a qualitative concept of the power of a new explosive compared to an explosive (usually TINT) whose effects are known. It may be run either to determine the relative expansionot the test block, compared with the expansion produced by an equivalent weight of TNT, or todetermine the weight of explosive required to produce the same order of expansion as a TNT reference standard. The results reported in table 2-8 are for the former method. In the Traual test 10 grams of explosive are placed in a borehole, 25 mm in diameter by 125 mm deep, centrally tocated in the upper face of a lead block 200 mm in diameter by 200 mm in height. ‘The block, cast in a mold, is made of desilverized lead of the best quality. ‘The rela- tive strength of the explosive is expressed as the ratio of the volume of the cavity after explosion to the initial volume; itis reportedas the percent of expansion caused by an equivalent weight of Twr. 2-67. Detonation Propagation, The purpose of this test is to determine the minimum diameter below which a detonation wave will not propagate through a column of explosive. Columns of un- confined explosive 38 inches long by 3/4~, 1-, 1 1/4-, or 1 1/2-inch diameter were initiated at one end by a tetryl pellet. An impression made in a mild-steel plate at the other end of the column was accepted as evidence of complete detonation. The figure reported inthe table is the minimum diameter for complete detonation, 2-68. Detonation Rate. Detonation rate varies with density; the values reported in the table, therefore, are only for representative densities, that is, 1.6 and "normal" (most common), The rates Teported were determined by use of a rotating drum camera. The charges were 1 inch {in diameter by 20 inches long, and were wrapped {n cellulose acetate sheet. They were initiated by a system designed to produce a stable high- order detonation at maximum rate for the given conditions. A typical system consisted of four tetryl pellets 0.995 inch in diameter by 0.75 inch long, pressed to 1.50 grams per ce, witha Corps of Engineer's spectal blasting cap placed ina central hole in the end pellet ‘The remaining columns of table 2-8 give the normal and crystal (maximum) densities, and show the variation of loading density with pressure (for pressed explosives only). The usual, or recommended loading, method is also indicated. 2-69. Quantitative Definition of Compatibility. ‘A compatibility problem may exist when foreign materials are in contact with, or in close proxim- ity to, explosives or propellants. Inthis special sense, compatibility includes both the effect of the material on the explosive andthe effect of the explosive on the material. The effect of the material on the explosive is determined by the 100°C vacuum stability test, This is anacceler~ ated test to determine whether the reactivity of the explosive is increased by contact with the material. In the standardtest, if the net increase in gas evolution is 5 cc or greater, the re~ activity fs considered excessive and the material is deemed to be incompatible. The net increase in gas evolution is measured by comparing the volatility of 2.5 grams of the explosive and that of 2.5 grams of the material tothe volume of gas released by the sum of 2.5 grams of each (5 grams total) mixed together. 2-10. Description of Table 2-9. The high explosives compatibility table shows the relative reactivity of military explosives with the metals they are most likely to be in contact with in service use. The compatibility of explosives CONFIDENTIAD UNCLASSIFIEDwith metals, unless otherwise noted, repre- sents the effect of the explosive in contact with metal (in a wet or dry state, designated W or D) at ambient temperature for two years. The effect of explosives on metal is designated F, VS, S, H, VH, or C and the effects of explosive in contact with materials other than metal is designated F, N, M, U,orP. These designations are explained in the’ table. To indicate the direction of reactivity, a subscript m is used to indicate the effect of the explosive on the metal, and subscript x to show the effect of metal on explosive. The table was compiled from data available in Picatinny Arsenal Technical Report No. 1783 (November 1950, CONFIDENTIAL). Extensive data on the compatibility of explosives and plastics are given in Picatinny Arsenal Technical Report No. 1838, "Completion of Data on the Compatibility of’ Explosives and Polymers, (1 October 1951, CONFIDENTIAL). Additional data on the compatibility of plastics may be obtained from the Ordnance Corps Plastic Laboratory at Picatinny. GONFIDENTEAL 2.25cordey CPT i 7 7 A Hi Why Hua f | mae ar VT TREAT a Wt ai [ER PRRs HaCONPEDBNPIAL UNCLASSIFIED Table 2-9 Compatibility of high explosives with metals and miscellaneous materials beponve Be Fale a cyetat 6/40 | Mercury | ‘cin * = ralralr ee [ee rele Fe Datroieerne dateotarch etal O/85 rental 75 aes 007 aratat 1/33 Black powder compettin A yet 15/28, aE ete 19/90 ‘eto 80/20 q LL mins fret ©. eantdeae carn, D = érymanole YS = vey slot crate, ‘ai iin ‘reed gt ae We wet eanole ming + saerminyeg, conta senna ing > seine reaction ‘Subscript x = metal reaction treat Hepner a UNCLASSIFIED CONFIDENTIAL 2-29SHAPED CHARGE AMMUNITION LIST OF SYMBOLS a = flute depth © = charge mass (cross section) d= charge diameter E = heat of explosion 1, = impulse delivered to liner in normal impact 1, = impulse delivered to unit area of a liner whose surface normal forms the angle 6 with the direction of propagation of the detonation wave collapse (stagnation) point jet length liner mass (cross section) jet mass slug mass calibers per turn of rifling. Also the num~ ber of flutes on a fluted liner penetration collapse (stagnation) pressure explosion pressure “pitch radius of fluted liner element standoff T = wall thickness of blank before fluting 1 = explosion temperature STATUS OF THEORY 2-11. Detonation Wave, The detonation process is most easily pictured in terms of the passage of a "detonation front" (see figure 2-8) through the explosive, with the velocity Vp in the range DETONATION FRONT casing my DeETONATED EXPLOSIVE noe TonaTED EXPLOSIVE unr Figure 2-8. Detonation wave in an explosive 2-30 velocity of jet impacting target velocity of detonation impact velocity velocity of the jet velocity of liner collapse velocity of slug angle between liner axis and liner angle between liner axis and collapsing Liner 5 = angle of indexing (when matching fluted tools are used) © = angle between normal toliner surface and direction of propagation of detonation wave A =7R = the constant a/R » = spin frequency v9 = optimum frequency of rotation p= target density pj = jet density 4’ = angle between flute offset and radius through its root = angular velocity 5 to 9 mm pery sec (km/sec). Behind this det- onation front, pressures py of the order of 250,000 atmospheres and temperatures T} inthe range of 2,500° to 4,000°C are commonly ob- served. ‘The total chemical energies feeding the detonation are of the order of B= 1,000 cal. per gram. The detonation front is regarded as a shock surface followed by a “reaction zone" in which chemical reaction takes place; the thick- ness of the zone is estimated to be on the order of 1 mm for most solid explosives, correspond- Ing to 0.1 usee reaction time. From Vp, E, and an assumed equation of state, one can estimate p4, Ty, and the particle velocity behind the detonation front by the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy. The so-called ‘Chapman-Jouguet condition gives a fourth equa~ tion, from which Vp itself can be predicted. However, the equations of state of solids under high temperatures and shock pressures are not accurately known, and so the preceding method is of limited practical value.UNCLASSIFIED Co oman If one assumes that Vp is a constant for a given explosive, so that the detonation front propagates by Huygens’ principle (just as in geometrical optics), one has a rational basis for "shaping" explosive waves by peripheral initiation, or by using composite charges having different detona~ tion velocities in different regions (for example, having inert cores). Actually, Vp may be affected by the curvature of the detonation front, and composite charges are especially Hable to imperfections. In lined cavity charges, the primary effect of the explosive is through thé collapse velocity (V), which it transmits to the liner, in the high- pressure zone behind the detonation front. This velocity is transmitted, by a complicated process of multiple shock reflection, in 5 to 50 secs. ‘The net effect of these multiple reflections has ‘been shown to be nearly the same asif the liner were rigid. The effect of finite charge dimen- sions and confinement is not easy to determine. 2-72. Jet Formation: "Zero Order" Theory. In the case of conical liners with cone angle 20, the simplest picture is to assume that the liner collapses with a constant velocity Vo, and in a constant direction. Applying Bernoulli's equa- tion to a moving reference frame, this direction bisects the angle 20 between the normal to the uncollapsed liner, and the normal to the col- Iapsing liner (see figure 2-9a). If shear stresses and shocks (increase of entropy) are neglected, the steady state hydrodynamical theory of jet formation is obtained. According tothis theory, the collapsing cone divides into a high speed jet and a slower slug, whose mass-ratio is (in terms of the angle & between the collapsing liner and the axis) cot my trees se — 7 a) ms 1- cos & and whose velocities are respectively 0s 2/2 sin a/2 Vi = Vo sin g72 amd Vs Voraga ‘The details of this theory have been published, and will not be repeated here. ‘The assumptions needed to derive equations (1) and (2) are the following. a. Steady state flow, in a moving reference DETONATION WAVE. Figure 2-94, frame. Strictly speaking, this requires a plane detonation wave, and a liner whose thickness 1s inversely proportional to the distance from the cone apex. . Shear forces are negligible, since the yield stress of mild steel is only 8,000 atmospheres. cc. Isentropic, shock-free flow. @. Constant pressure on the liner near the stagnation point J, the same inside and outside the liner. e. Asymptotically uniform flow in the liner, jet, and slug, away from the stagnation point (J). det formation forces From the preceding assumptions, it follows that, relative toaxes moving with the collapse (stagna~ tion) point (3), we have the Bernoulli equation (by ato e), and hence (by d ande) the same relative velocity in the jet, slug, and collapsing liner (see figure 2-9). Figure 2-9. Jet formation forces UNCLASSIFIED ‘CONFIDENTIAL 2-31Equations (1) and (2) have been confirmed exper- mentally near the apex of the cone. Especially is this true of the predictions that the jet length should equal the slug length, and ofthe initial Vy. However, near the base of the cone the collapse angle increases rapidly, thecbserved "is con- siderably larger than that predicted by equation (1), and the jet becomes several times longer than the slug. We shall now attempt to ration- alize these facts, following ideas first explic- itly formulated by Pugh. 2-73, Jet Formation: "First Order" Theory. In HEAT shell ‘with conical Timers (igure ?-6), it is obvious that C/M (the ratio of mass of charge to mass of liner in a cross section) de- creases, from infinity to a small quantity, as fone moves along the liner axis (X-axis) from apex to base. Hence (see paragraph 2-71) the collapse velocity, Vo(x), may be expected to decrease correspondingly, in a way which can be predicted roughly. It would be desirable to have accurate direct experimental measure- ments of Vo(x). However, this is difficult to obtain, If one assumes, in addition to assumptions a through e of paragraph 2-72, that there is negli- gible momentum transfer after the initial phases of the collapse process, one concludes that each liner element from the ring-shaped zone with initial position x moves with constant velocity Vo(x) in a straight line until it reaches the liner atis. Since the collapse direction bisects the initial angle between the initial normal to the collapsing liner and the normal to the original cone, one can predict at all times, from Vo(x) and the initial collapse angle, the shape of the collapsing liner. The predicted collapse profile agrees with observation, at least qualitatively. ‘As emphasized by Pugh, Bichelberger, and Rostoier, who originated the preceding “first order" theory, the inferred local collapse angle, A(x), and local relative velocity, V4(x), on the axis will increase and decrease markedly as we move from apex to base. By (2), the increase in A(X) accentuates the jet velocity gradient, 50 that Vy(x) decreases to a fraction of its initial value. With thin cones, the relative change in (x) and V(x) per liner thickness is small; hence it seems reasonable to assume that the theory of para- graph 2-72 is locally applicable to these quanti- ties. At least, this assumption gives a simple aac. asst TE} basis for caleulating, as functions of x, the Yelocity Vj(2) of et formation and mass-Fatio myx) ce 2-14. Jot Breakup. Because of the jet velocity gradient already mentioned, the jet may be expected to lengthen continuously, while mov- ing ahead in a straight line. In the case of well-formed, unrotated charges and liners, a straight, steadily lengthening jet is in fact observed. However, real jets always break up into streams of particles sooner oF later (see figure 2-10). ‘The time of breakup has an im- portant effect on penetration (see paragraph 2-16). With steel liners, breakup ordinarily occurs within a few cone diameters of travel, while for copper liners, as first predicted by Pugh and later confirmed experimentally, consider- able ductile drawing occurs, and breakup oc- curs much later. 2-15. Similarity. If the diameter is taken as the unit of Tength, the "Law of Cranz” asserts that geometrically similar shaped charge rounds of widely varying diameter d behave approxi- mately similarly. The best theoretical basis for this fact consists in the principle that the inertial and explosive stresses involved depend mainly on the strain and much less on the time rate of strain. Although this principle is not exact, and is presumably not applicable to the reaction zone, to viscous effects, or to jet breakup, it has sufficient validity to be very useful in analyzing existing data. Applied to rotting shaped charges t predicts that the relative deterioration shaped charge periormance duo to spin, with similar rounds Oi oierent diameter @ spinning at ro, should So determinod by the opin petamatr'd mans Busine the peripheral seloeky rather than by a ise. Tig peripheral velo is eleasiy 4, where Vj ithe imyact velocity, and nthe twist of rifling (in calibers per turn). 2-76, Penetration: "Zero Order" Theory. A continuous, perfectly formed fluid jet of density j, moving with constant velocity V;, should penetrate a target of density o with a’constant velocity U, which can be predicted roughly from CONPEDENTIADYNCLASSIFIED CONFIDENTIAL he continuity of pressure at the "stagnation point” (figure 2-11), where the tip of the jet is boring into the target. In a reference frame moving with velocity U, neglecting target strength and compressibility, Bernoulli's Theorem assumes the simple form ag : —_ Figure 2-10. Radiographs of stages in jet formation UNCLASSIFIED aye eS ye 0) 1 2 $e) (W, - UF Hence, the rate of penetration U satisfies the equation a w-0 v @” where V,-U is the rate at which the jet is being uséd up. Solving, we get the Hill-Mott- Pack equation e;\1/2 Pe @) L “ connecting the total depth of penetration P with the total jet length L, for uniform, incompressi- ble fluid jets. varoet CENTERLINE. OF ver STAGNATION PONT igure 2-11, Target penetration Because of the aseumytion Vjsconatnt, whlch Corresponds. to the model of paragraph 2-72, this may. be called 2 "zero order” theory, Combining with paragraph. 2-12, we see tht 7 - ~~~ Kehuntty, "total penetrations soveral Ue this dein are obtained at large standatt, for rensons explained in paragraph 2°77. However, equation (3) can be used to infor the useful equations 2-33(5) {rom which the instantaneous penetration veloc~ ity (U) and stagnation pressure (p.) can be in- ferred approximately. Thus, copper jets penetrating water at 4 mm. Per i:sec have been observed by Kerr cell photography. Again, a 10 mm per usec steel set wil penetrate a steltargetat Us Ye 5 mm per usec; according to (5), giving « stagnation Pressure ps = 500,000 atmospheres, roughly. This greatly exceeds the yield strength of steel, justifying the hydrodynamical model. 2-17. Penetration: "First Order" Theory. The considerations of paragraph 2-73 lead to anim- Portant modification of formula (4), by Pugh and Fireman, which explains the observed variation in penetration with standoff. In this modifica~ tion, one assumes a gradual variation in the jet velocity and density along its length, so that Bernoullj's Theorem is locally applicable. This gives 1a Vo yoy where 9,(x) is the “effective” density of the Jet when it Feaches the target. Looking only at the first factor in (6), we see that, for different target materials, Px 3! . Thus, weight for weight, low-density materials provide the best defense against shaped charges, 80 long as Vj(x) is so large that the target yield-strength is negligible. For mild steel, with a yield strength of 8,000 atmospheres, this corresponds to Vj>450 meters per sec, which is not verified near the tail end of the jet. This explains qualitatively why penetrations into mild steel are 10 to 15 percent deeper than into armor, which has greater yield strength. However, the proportionality P= 7h has been confirmed approximately for many’ materials, ©) 2-34 €COMPIDENTEAL UNCLASSIFIED CONTFIDENEEAL ma ‘The most notable exceptions to this are quartz like materials. Looking directly at (4), or at its refinement (6), it is clear that the improvement in penetration P with standoff § may be explained qualitatively by the tendency of the jet to lengthen as it pro- gresses, and hence, indirectly, by the velocity gradient along the jet. This factor, rather than any overall increase in velocity, is considered responsible for the improvement in penetration with peripheral initiation. ‘The quantitative application of (6) requires a erent fener eee Frese ot akan rable sea ae eee eq enceiyanats cea ieatiaas ernieamenis iseameeee Beguiarseverl ca Siiuccsey are ta balizval Gal Satie saree aan Spates oma cece emia ane Pat oadh Other adios ane lee nactie fae alae ies ora teeraete: Star fiers Tr athe cazo of pertety lind parila fit i secre clintees eo wil Sal Miorauls oe owe Pere tee ister iu te cage of watied jets, wetter Goo to tnperfectons op rations decTensr lng in proportion to S2 due to "spreading," so that Seas Po Vivos P 1s inferred. Curves of the preceding type can be roughly fitted to observed data; the large experimental scatter prevents drawing more exact conclu- sions. Ideally, especially in the case a above, it might be possible to infer an optimum Vo(x) from theoretical considerations. But a large amount of empirical work at Bruceton, during World War Ii, failed to improve substantially on conical liners. 2-78. Etfect_of Rotation. It was observed as ‘early as 1943 that rotation caused a large de crease in penetration (P), and that this effect was especially noticeable at large standoif. Typical records of F as a function of wd (refer to paragraph 2-75) are plotted in figure 2-12. ‘The reduction in penetration by spin may beattributed to lateral dispersion of the jet, which decreases its effective mean density. This lateral dispersion is also evident in X-radio- graphs. Thus, the jet velocity and momentum are about the same as for unrotated liners. Assuming that jet particles move in straight lines, we may correlate with the penetration theory of paragraph 2-77, since the mean den- sity (p) ill be proportional to the inverse square Figure 2-13. Liner fluting 2-36 CONTIDENTAL UNCLASSIFIED but also its magnitude for the shapes discussed in detail in paragraphs 2-129 through 2-139, LINER PERFORMANCE, 2-80. Measures of Liner Performance. Liner performance is measured in terms of penetra- tion into some homogeneous reproducible ma- terial, usually mild steel. Both mild steel and homogeneous armor are used, but the two are not equivalent. Different grades or types of mild steel all give aboutthe same average penetration for a given shaped charge design, but this is not true for homogeneous armor. ‘It is reported that the penetration of a given jet into steel at a fixed standoff varies essentially linearly with the Brinell hardness of the steel. Recent work at Ballistic Research Laboratories and Firestone indicate that the relative penetration into mild steel and homogeneous armor is alsoaffectedby standoff. The data show that the homogeneous armor is more effective at the longer standoffs. For convenience in measuring depth of pene~ tration, targets are often made of stacks of Plates '1/2 to 3 inches thick. There does not seem to be any objection to this practice if the plates lie flat on each other. For some purposes, a better measure of liner performance is givenby the volume of the hole or its smallest diameter. For most purposes, Particularly as a measure of lethality, the best ‘measure would probably be some factor which indicates the amount of damage done behind a given target plate by the residual jet and spalled material from the back face of the plate. It has 80 far been difficult to define such a measure, and even more difficult to determine it from the test. In this discussion otal depth of penetration into mild steel will be used as the measure of liner performance, except where stated other- wise. 2-81. Factors Affecting Liner Performance. Shaped charge liners have been made ina variety of shapes, including hemispheres, spherical caps, cones, trumpets, and combinations. Cones have become almost standard, with hemispheres and trumpets occasionally used for special Purposes. The results given in paragraphs 2-80 through 2-95 will be confined to simple cones, except for some brief remarks in para- graph 2-90 on double-angle cones and other unusual shapes. The gross factors affecting liner performance are the explosive charge (discussed in paragraphs 2-112 through 2-118), TOL A SSIFIED Fr a ky