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REVISION SHEET – FP1 (MEI)

ALGEBRA
The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:

• Identities • If an expression is an identity then it is true for all

values of the variable it contains.

• The relationships between If A and B are constants and

A(x – 1) + B(x + 1) = 4x + 2 is an identity, then by
roots and coefficients in substituting x = 1, 2B = 6 and by substituting x = –1,
polynomial equations –2A = –2. So B = 3 and A = 1.
• The method of substitution for finding a polynomial
• Finding a polynomial equation with roots related to a given one.
equation with roots E.g., if 3x 3 + 2 x 2 − 7 x + 4 = 0 has roots α , β , γ then
related to that of a given 3( y − 3)3 + 2( y − 3) 2 − 7( y − 3) + 4 = 0 will have
one roots α + 3, β + 3, γ + 3 .

Identities
In mathematics, an identity is a statement which is true for all values of the variables it contains.

For example 3( x + 2) ≡ 3 x + 6 is an identity because no matter what value of x you substitute in, the left hand
side is always the same as the right hand side.

3( x + 2) = 3 is not an identity, because the left hand side only equals the right hand side when x = −2 .

If you know that a statement is an identity then you can substitute any values for the variables in it and know
that the resultant expression is true. The following question is typical.
Example
You are given that A( x − 1)( x − 2) + Bx( x − 1) + Cx( x − 2) ≡ x 2 + x + 1 is an identity. Find the values of A, B
and C.
Solution
Since the statement is an identity, it is true for any value of x.

Substituting x = 1 gives: A(1 − 1) × (1 − 2) + B × 1× (1 − 1) + C × 1× (1 − 2) ≡ 12 + 1 + 1

⇒ −C = 3 ⇒ C = − 3 .
Substituting x = 2 gives: A(2 − 1) × (2 − 2) + B × 2 × (2 − 1) + C × 2 × (2 − 2) ≡ 22 + 2 + 1
7
⇒ 2B = 7 ⇒ B =
2
Substituting x = 0 gives: A(0 − 1) × (0 − 2) + B × 0 × (2 − 1) + C × 0 × (2 − 2) ≡ 02 + 0 + 1
1
⇒ 2A = 1 ⇒ A =
2

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Roots and coefficients in polynomial equations

Quadratic: If ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has roots α and β then

b c
α +β =− and αβ = .
a a

Cubic: If ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 has roots α , β and γ then

b c d
α + β + γ = − , αβ + βγ + αγ = and αβγ = − .
a a a

Example
The cubic equation 2 x 3 + 4 x 2 + 3 x + 1 = 0 has roots α , β and γ .
i) Write down the values of α + β + γ , αβ + βγ + γα and αβγ .
ii) Find a cubic equation with integer coefficients with roots 2α − 1, 2 β − 1, 2γ − 1 .

Solution
3 1
i) α + β + γ = −2 , αβ + βγ + γα = and αβγ = − .
2 2

ii) ( 2α − 1) + ( 2β − 1) + ( 2γ − 1) = 2 (α + β + γ ) − 3 = −4 − 3 = −7
( 2α − 1)( 2 β − 1) + ( 2 β − 1)( 2γ − 1) + ( 2α − 1)( 2γ − 1) = 4 (αβ + βγ + αγ ) − 4(α + β + γ ) + 3 = 6 + 8 + 3 = 17
( 2α − 1)( 2β − 1)( 2γ − 1) = 8αβγ − 4(αβ + βγ + αγ ) + 2(α + β + γ ) − 1 = −4 − 6 − 4 − 1 = −15

Therefore a cubic with integer coefficient with roots 2α − 1, 2 β − 1, 2γ − 1 is x 3 + 7 x 2 + 17 x + 15 = 0

Example (Substitution Method)

The cubic equation 2 x 3 + 4 x 2 + 3 x + 1 = 0 has roots α , β and γ . Find a cubic equation with integer
coefficients with roots 2α + 1, 2 β + 1, 2γ + 1 .

Solution
w −1
Let w = 2 z +1 so that z = .
2

Since α , β and γ are the roots of 2 x 3 + 4 x 2 + 3 x + 1 = 0 , 2α + 1, 2 β + 1, 2γ + 1 are the roots of

⎛ w −1 ⎞ ⎛ w −1 ⎞ ⎛ w −1 ⎞
3 2

2⎜ ⎟ + 4⎜ ⎟ + 3⎜ ⎟ +1 = 0 .
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Multiplying this out and multiplying both sides by 4 gives

( w − 1)3 + 4( w − 1) 2 + 6( w − 1) + 4 = 0
w3 − 3w2 + 3w − 1 + 4 w2 − 8w + 4 + 6w − 6 + 4 = 0
w3 + w2 + w + 1 = 0

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REVISION SHEET – FP1 (MEI)

COMPLEX NUMBERS

The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:
• How to multiply two complex numbers quickly and
• Manipulating complex in one step as this will save a lot of time in the exam.
numbers • How to geometrically interpret z1 − z2 as the
• Complex conjugates and roots distance between the complex numbers z1 and z2 in
of equations the Argand diagram.
• The Argand diagram • The fact that z1 + z2 = z1 − ( − z2 ) which equals

• Polar Form the distance between z1 and − z2 in the Argand

diagram.
• The exact values of the sine and cosine angles which
π π
are multiplies of and , e.g. cos π = 2 .
Manipulating Complex Numbers. 6 4 4 2

Multiplying, dividing, adding and subtracting

• Multiplying, adding and subtracting are all fairly straightforward.

• Dividing is slightly more complicated. Whenever you see a complex number on the denominator of a fraction
you can “get rid of it” by multiplying both top and bottom of the fraction by its complex conjugate.
3 + 2 j ⎛ 3 + 2 j ⎞⎛ 1 + j ⎞ 1 + 5j
= =
1 − j ⎜⎝ 1 − j ⎟⎜ j ⎟⎠
e.g.
⎠⎝ 1 + 2

Complex Conjugates and Roots of Equations

The complex conjugate of z = a + bj is z∗ = a − bj .

• Remember zz ∗ is a real number and it equals the square of the modulus of z.

• Complex roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients occur in conjugate pairs. This means that if you
are told one complex root of a polynomial equation with real coefficients you are in fact being told two roots.
This is key to answering some typical exam questions.

An example of an algebraic trick that it is very useful to know is:

( z − (3 + 2 j))( z − (3 − 2 j)) = (( z − 3) − 2 j)(( z − 3) + 2 j)

= ( z − 3) 2 − 4 j2
= z 2 − 6 z + 13

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The Argand Diagram Imaginary

axis

2 + 2 j
(2, 2)

Real axis
( −1, −3) −4 j
−1 − 3j
(0,−4)

• In the Argand diagram the point (x, y) corresponds to the complex number x + yj.
• You should be aware that the set of complex numbers z with for example z − 5 + j = 6 is a circle of radius 6
centred at 5 − j (or (5, −1)) in the Argand plane. (Note: Points on the diagram above do not correspond to this example)
• The argument of a complex number z, denoted arg( z ) is the angle it makes with the positive real axis in the
Argand diagram, measured anticlockwise and such that −π < arg( z ) ≤ π .
• When answering exam questions about points in the Argand diagram be prepared to used geometrical
arguments based around equilateral triangles, similar triangles, isosceles triangles and parallel lines to calculate
lengths and angles.
Other sets of points in the complex plane.
Where a and b are complex numbers, the set of complex numbers z such that
1. arg( z − a ) = θ , is a half line starting from a in the direction θ.
2. arg( z − a ) = arg( z − b) , is the line through a and b with the section between a and
b (inclusive) removed.
3. arg( z − a ) = arg( z − b) + π , is the line from a to b (not including a and b
themselves).

Polar Form
If z = x + yj has z = r and arg( z ) = θ then z = r (cosθ + jsin θ ) . This is called the polar or modulus-argument
form.
Example Write z = 3 − 3j in polar form.

Solution
3π ⎛ ⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞⎞
z = 32 + (−3) 2 =3 2 and arg( z ) = . Therefore in polar form z is z = 3 2 ⎜ cos ⎜ ⎟ + jsin ⎜ ⎟⎟
4 ⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎠
⎛ ⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎞
Example If z = 6 ⎜ cos ⎜ ⎟ + jsin ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ , what are z and arg( z ) ?
⎝ ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠⎠
3π
Solution Since z is given in polar form we can just read off that z =6 and arg( z ) =
7

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REVISION SHEET – FP1 (MEI)

GRAPHS AND INEQUALITIES
The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:
• There are three main cases of horizontal asymptotes.
• One is a curve which is a linear polynomial divided by a linear
• Sketching Graphs of 4x + 1
polynomial, for example y = . This has a horizontal
Rational Functions 3x − 2
• Solving Inequalities asymptote at y =
coefficient of x on the top
. Here this would
coefficient of x on the bottom
4
be y = .
3
Graph Sketching. • The second is a curve given by a quadratic polynomial divided by
Rational functions. 5x2 + x + 5
a quadratic polynomial, for example, y = as
N ( x) 2 x2 − 2 x + 1
To sketch the graph of y = : x → ±∞ , This has a horizontal asymptote at
D( x) coefficient of x 2 on the top 5
• Find the intercepts – that is where y= 2
. Here this would be y =
coefficient of x on the bottom 2
the graph cuts the axes. .
• Find any asymptotes – the vertical • Thirdly, when the curve is given by a linear polynomial divided by
asymptotes occur at values of x a quadratic polynomial, it will generally have the x-axis (y = 0) as
which make the denominator zero. a horizontal asymptote.
• Examine the behaviour of the • When you solve an inequality, try substituting a few of the values for
graph near to the vertical which you are claiming it is true back into the original inequality as a
asymptotes; a good way to do this check.
is to find out what the value of y is
for values of x very close to the vertical asymptote
• Examine the behaviour around any non-vertical asymptotes, i.e. as x tends to ±∞ .

x2 − 2
Example Sketch the curve y =
4 − x2
Solution (Sketch)
x2 − 2
The curve can be written as y = .
( x + 2)( x − 2)
If x = 0 then y = -0.5. So the y intercept is (0, -0.5)
Setting y = 0 gives, x = -2 and x = 2. So the x
intercepts are (- 2 , 0) and ( 2 , 0).

The denominator is zero when x = –2 and when x =

2 so these are the vertical asymptotes
x 2 − 2 −1(− x 2 + 4) + 2 2
Also y = = = −1 +
4− x 2
4− x 2
4 − x2
so y = -1 is a horizontal asymptote.

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Solving Inequalities
Broadly speaking inequalities can be solved in one of three ways, or sometimes in a combination of more
than one of these ways.

Method 1 Method 2

Draw a “sketch” of the Use algebra to find an equivalent inequality which is easier to
inequality. For example, if you solve. When dealing with inequalities remember there are certain
are asked to solve an inequality rules which need to be obeyed when performing algebraic
of the form g( x ) ≤ f ( x ) then manipulations. The main one is “DON’T MULTIPLY BY A
sketch both f and g, and identify NUMBER UNLESS YOU KNOW IT’S SIGN, IF IT’S
points where the graph of f is NEGATIVE YOU MUST REVERSE THE INEQUALITY SIGN,
lower than the graph of g. These IF IT’S POSITIVE THEN LEAVE THE INEQUALITY SIGN
points will lie between points x1 AS IT IS.” For example, don’t multiply by (x – 2) because that’s
for which g(x1) = f(x1) and so positive when x > 2 and negative when x < 2. On the other hand
these usually need to be (x – 2)2 is always positive so you can safely multiply by this (with
calculated. no need to reverse the inequality sign).

Method 3

Sometimes is easier to rearrange an inequality of the from g( x ) ≤ f ( x ) to g( x ) − f ( x ) ≤ 0 (you don’t

have to worry about reversing the inequality for such a rearrangement). Identify points where g(x) –
f(x) = 0 or where g(x) – f(x) has a vertical asymptote. Finally test whether the inequality is true in the
various regions between these points.

x+2
Example Solve the inequality 3 x − 2 ≤
x −1

Solution (using Method 3)

x+2 x+2
3x − 2 ≤ ⇔ 3x − 2 −
≤0
x −1 x −1
(3x − 2)( x − 1) − ( x + 2)
⇔ ≤0
x −1
3x 2 − 6 x
⇔ ≤0
x −1
3x ( x − 2)
⇔ ≤0
x −1
Looking at the expression, 3x = 0 if x = 0, x – 2 = 0 if x = 2 and x – 1 = 0 if x = 1.
This means that the truth of the inequality should be tested in each of the following regions

x<0 0 0 < x <1 1 1< x < 2 2 x>2

It can be seen that the inequality is TRUE if x < 0, false if 0 < x < 1, TRUE if 1 < x < 2 and FALSE if x > 2.
The solution is therefore x ≤ 0, 1 < x ≤ 2. Can you see why x = 0 and x = 2 are included as values for which
the inequality is true, but x = 1 is not?

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REVISION SHEET – FP1 (MEI)

MATRICES
The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:
• How to add, subtract and multiply matrices.
• Manipulating matrices • How to calculate the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix.
• How to find the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix.
• Using matrices to represent • That matrix multiplication is associative, so A (BC) = (AB)C
transformations but not commutative, so AB ≠ BA .
• Matrices and simultaneous • The standard matrices for rotation, reflection and enlargement and
understand how matrices can be combined to represent composite
equations transformations.
•
• Invariant Points A linear transformation maps a straight line onto another straight
line.
• The origin is invariant under a linear transformation.
• The determinant of a transformation matrix gives the area factor
of the transformation.
Manipulating matrices. • How matrices can be used to represent simultaneous equations.
• The invariant points of a transformation are not moved by the
• Adding and subtracting matrices are transformation.
straightforward. • And are able to identify the invariant points of transformations
represented by matrices.
• Multiplying matrices is slightly more difficult.
Matrices may only be multiplied if they are conformable, that is if the number of columns in the multiplying matrix (the
left-hand one) is the same as the number of rows in the matrix being multiplied (the right-hand one). Matrix
multiplication is not commutative. This means that for two matrices, A and B, it is not generally true that AB = BA (it is
vital that you remember this).
⎛ 2 4 −1 ⎞
⎛ 1 3 4⎞ ⎜ ⎟
If A = ⎜ ⎟ and B = ⎜ 2 3 −2 ⎟ then
⎝ 2 7 8⎠ ⎜1 2 1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1× 2 + 3 × 2 + 4 ×1 1× 4 + 3 × 3 + 4 × 2 1× −1 + 3 × −2 + 4 × 1 ⎞ ⎛ 12 21 −3 ⎞
AB = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 × 2 + 7 × 2 + 8 ×1 2 × 4 + 7 × 3 + 8 × 2 2 × −1 + 7 × −2 + 8 × 1⎠ ⎝ 26 45 −8 ⎠
Notice that BA is not possible as, this way round, the matrices are not conformable.

⎛a c ⎞
• The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix ⎜ ⎟ is ad − bc . If the matrix is representing a 2 dimensional
⎝b d ⎠
transformation, the determinant gives the area factor of the transformation.

• The inverse of matrix A is denoted A −1 . It has the property that AA −1 = A −1A = I , where I is the identity
matrix. Only square matrices have inverses. Identity matrices are always square. The 2 × 2 identity matrix is
⎛ 1 0⎞
⎜ ⎟ . All identity matrices have 1’s on the left to right downwards diagonal and 0’s everywhere else. The
⎝ 0 1⎠
inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix is given by swapping the entries on the left to right downwards diagonal, changing the
sign of the entries on the other diagonal and dividing the whole thing by the determinant of the original matrix
⎛a c ⎞ 1 ⎛ d −c ⎞
so, if A = ⎜ ⎟, A =
-1
(note, you can only do this when the determinant isn’t zero!).
⎝b d ⎠ ad − bc ⎜⎝ −b a ⎟⎠

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Using matrices to represent transformations

These are some of the standard transformation matrices, and are worth remembering. Remember that the first
column of a matrix is where (1, 0) moves to and the second column is where (0, 1) moves to. This can be useful in
exams because using this idea it is possible to derive the matrix of a transformation described in words.
⎛ cos θ − sin θ ⎞
• Rotation through angle θ , anticlockwise about the origin: ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ sin θ cos θ ⎠
⎛ k 0⎞
• Enlargement, scale factor k, centre the origin: ⎜ ⎟.
⎝0 k⎠
⎛ a 0⎞
• Stretch, factor a horizontally, factor b vertically: ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 0 b⎠

A composite transformation is made up of two or more standard transformations, for example a rotation through
angle π , followed by a reflection in y = x . The matrix representing a composite transformation is obtained by
multiplying the component transformation matrices together. The order is important. The matrix for the composite
of the transformation with matrix M, followed by the transformation with matrix N is NM. The order is right to
left.

Matrices and simultaneous equations

Matrices can be used to represent systems of simultaneous equations. Matrix techniques can be used to solve them.
x + 2y = 7 ⎫ ⎛ 1 2 ⎞⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞
E.g. ⎬ is equivalent to ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ . Using the inverse matrix we have
3x + 7 y = 24⎭ ⎝ 3 7 ⎠⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ 24 ⎠
⎛ x ⎞ 1 ⎛ 7 −2 ⎞⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ x = 1 and y = 3 . This can be extended to systems of 3 equations in 3 unknowns.
⎝ y ⎠ 1 ⎝ −3 1 ⎠⎝ 24 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

Invariant Points
The invariant points of a transformation are not affected by the transformation. (0, 0) is an invariant point of any
matrix transformation, but there could be others too:
⎛ 2 3⎞
Example Find the invariant points of the matrix ⎜ ⎟.
⎝2 7⎠
Solution
1
y=− x
⎛ 2 3 ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ 2x + 3y = x x + 3y = 0 3 1
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ ⇒ ⇒ So any point on y = − x is an invariant point
⎝ 2 7 ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠ 2x + 7 y = y 2x + 6 y = 0 y=− x
1 3
3
Matrices with zero determinant
⎛2 8⎞ 1
Example Show that the matrix ⎜ ⎟ has determinant zero and that it maps all points onto the line y = x .
⎝1 4⎠ 2
Solution

The determinant of the matrix is ( 2 × 4) − (1× 8) = 0 . Taking a general point (x, y)

⎛ 2 8 ⎞⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ 2 x + 8 y ⎞ 1 1
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ . Since ( x + 4 y ) = ( 2 x + 8 y ) the point (2x + 8y, x + 4y) is on y = x .
⎝ 1 4 ⎠⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ x + 4 y ⎠ 2 2

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REVISION SHEET – FP1 (MEI)

SERIES AND INDUCTION
The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:
• The standard formula:
• Summing Series using n n n
standard formulae
• Telescoping (or method
∑r ∑r ∑r
r =1
,
r =1
2
,
r =1
3

of differences) • And be able to spot that a series like

(1× 2) + (2 × 3) + ... + n(n + 1)
• Proof by Induction can be written in sigma notation as:
n

∑ r (r + 1)
r =1
Summing Series • How to do proof by induction

Using standard formulae

Fluency is required in manipulating and simplify standard formulae sums like:

n 2 ( n + 1) n ( n + 1)
2

( ) ∑ ∑
n n n

∑
r =1
r r +
2
1 =
r =1
r + 3

r =1
r =
4
+
2
1
= n ( n + 1) ⎡⎣ n ( n + 1) + 2 ⎤⎦
4
= n ( n + 1) ( n 2 + n + 2 ) .
1
4

The Method of Differences (Telescoping)

r+4 2 3 1
Since = − + (frequently in exam questions you are told to show that this is
r (r + 1)(r + 2) r r + 1 r + 2
true first) it is possible to demonstrate that:
n
r+4 ⎛ 3 1⎞ ⎛ 2 3 1⎞ ⎛2 3 1⎞
∑ r (r + 1)(r + 2) = ⎜⎝ 2 − 2 + 3 ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 2 − 3 + 4 ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 3 − 4 + 5 ⎟⎠ + ...
r =1

⎛ 2 3 1⎞ ⎛ 2 3 1 ⎞ ⎛2 3 1 ⎞
+⎜ − + ⎟+⎜ − + ⎟+⎜ − + ⎟
⎝ n − 2 n −1 n ⎠ ⎝ n −1 n n +1⎠ ⎝ n n +1 n + 2 ⎠

In this kind of expression many terms cancel with each other. For example, the (+) 1 in the first bracket
3
cancels with the (–) 3 in the second bracket and the (+) 2 in the third bracket. (subsequent fractions that are
3 3
cancelling are doing so with terms in the “…” part of the sum.)

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n
r+4 3 2 1
This leaves ∑ r (r + 1)(r + 2) = 2 − n + 1 + n + 2 .
r =1

Proof by Induction
1. Using proof by induction to prove a formula for the summation of a series,
n
E.g., Prove that ∑ (2r − 1) = n 2 .
r =1

2. Other miscellaneous questions. These are usually very easy, in fact easier than the questions which fall
into the categories above, so long as you don’t panic, keep a clear head and apply what you know.
⎛ 5 8⎞ ⎛ 1 + 4n 8n ⎞
E.g., show that if M = ⎜ ⎟ then M = ⎜
n
⎟ for all natural numbers n.
⎝ −2 − 3 ⎠ ⎝ −2n 1 − 4n ⎠

Example

n
1
Prove by induction that, for all positive integers n, ∑ 3r + 1 = 2 n(3n + 5) .
r =1

Solution

1
When n = 1 the left hand side equals ( 3 ×1) + 1 = 4 . The right hand side is × 1× ((3 × 1) + 5) = 4 . So the
2
statement is true when n = 1.

k
1
Assume the statement is true when n = k. In other words ∑ 3r + 1 = 2 k (3k + 5) .
r =1
k +1
1
We must show the statement would then be true when n = k + 1, i.e. that ∑ 3r + 1 = 2 (k + 1)(3k + 8) .
r =1

Now,
k +1 k

∑ ( 3r + 1) = ∑ ( 3r + 1) + (3(k + 1) + 1)
r =1 r =1

1
= k (3k + 5) + (3k + 4)
2
1
= ⎡⎣3k 2 + 5k + 6k + 8⎤⎦
2
1
= ⎡⎣3k 2 + 11k + 8⎤⎦
2
1
= (k + 1)(3k + 8)
2

So the statement is true when n = 1 and if it’s true when n = k, then it’s also true when n = k +1.

Hence, by induction the statement is true for all positive integers, n.

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