W1: Determination of line frequency by Lissajous figures using an oscilloscope and a

function generator and verification of the ‘calibration’ of the TIME/DIV Knob at a

particular position for different frequencies.

Theory:
A. Consider two simple harmonic motions of the same frequency () but of different
amplitudes, a and b, acting on a particle mutually perpendicular to one another (i. e., one
vibrates along the X-axis, the other vibrates along the Y-axis). Also, consider the phase
difference of these two waves is 900. Then,

x = a sin wt ......................................... (1)

and
y = b cos wt ......................................... (2)

From equations (1) and (2)

x
= sin wt ............................................ (3)
a

y
= cos wt ............................................ (4)
b

From equations (3) and (4)

x2 y2
+ =1 ......................................... (5)
a2 b2

This is the equation of an ellipse.

If a = b, i.e., the amplitudes of the two vibrations are equal, then equation (5) reduces to

x 2 + y 2 = a 2 ........................................... (6)

Which is the equation of a circle of radius a.

Y-axis

Y-axis

X-axis X-axis
Fig-1: An ellipse Fig-2: A circle
From equation (5) and (6), we obtain one loop such as an ellipse or a circle, which touches X
and Y-axes at one point (Fig-1 and Fig-2).

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If we consider frequencies of two waves along X and Y-axes as fx and fy, then the frequency
ratio is:

fx 
= = 1 ............................................ (7)
fy 
If the frequencies fx & fy are respectively 2 and  then the combination of equation (1) and
(2) will lead to:

x2 4y2  y2 
+  2 − 1 = 0 ............................. (8)
a2 b2 b 

The above equation represents a two-loop pattern (Fig-3), which touches on Y-axis and one-
point on X-axis at one point and Y-axis more than one point.

In these cases, the frequency ratio:

f x 2
= = 2 .......................................... (9)
fy 

Y-axis
If we increase the frequency ratio successively, then
we can, in general, write:

fx
= n .............................................. (10)
fy
X-axis

where n= 1, 2, 3, etc. (n= number of loops touches on Y-axis)

Fig-3
B. Time base TB of an oscilloscope is the time taken for the cathode ray to sweep unit
division of the screen.

Time taken to show a complete cycle

TB =
No. of division on the screen showing complete cycle

time period 1 1
TB = = = ..... (11)
d frequency  d fd

If the time/div knob is kept at a particular position then for different frequencies from the
function generator, we can measure the number of divisions d between two consecutive peaks,
i.e. for a full sine wave displayed on the screen. If we plot frequency versus 1/d, a straight line
will be obtained. The value of the slope will give TB at the particular position of the time/div
knob.

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Procedure-A
1. Connect the output of the signal generator to CH-1 of the oscilloscope (By a cable having
two crocodile clips at the end).
2. Connect the output of the transformers to CH-2 of the oscilloscope (by a similar cable).
3. Switch ON the power of the oscilloscope, signal generator and transformer.
4. Press sine wave (⁓) button of the signal generator. Set the frequency 50 Hz from the signal
generator (you will see two sine waves on the display of the oscilloscope).

Additional instructions: If the sine wave does not appear after step 4, follow the procedure
mentioned below:
i. Disconnect the output of the transformer from oscilloscope.
ii. Press Main button of the oscilloscope.
iii. Press Autoset button of the oscilloscope.
iv. Adjust the TIM/DIV knob and VOLTS/DIV knob on the oscilloscope at a suitable
position so that you can measure the peak-to-peak distance of the sine wave
displayed on the oscilloscope screen.

5. Superimpose two waves by shifting vertical adjusting knobs of the oscilloscope (at the
middle position)
6. Press XY-button of the oscilloscope (don’t touch on the screen. See the “button” just right
to the …of the display).
7. Note the reading of the frequency (𝑓𝑥 ) from the function generator and 𝑛 from the
oscilloscope and then calculate the line frequency (𝑓𝑦 ) from equation (10).
8. Repeat procedure (7) for at least six different frequencies of the function generator so that
you will see an increasing of loops (say 1, 2, 3, etc.) on the display with increasing frequency.
9. Draw a graph with frequency (𝑓𝑥 ) along the X-axis and the number of loops (𝑛) along the Y-
axis. The resulting graph should be a straight line passing through the origin.
10. The inverse of the slope from this graph will give you the average line frequency.
Procedure-B
1. Disconnect the output of the transformer from oscilloscope.
2. Press Main button of the oscilloscope.
3. Press Autoset button of the oscilloscope.
4. Adjust the TIM/DIV knob and VOLTS/DIV knob on the oscilloscope at a suitable position
so that you can measure the peak-to-peak distance of the sine wave displayed on the
oscilloscope screen.
5. Set a minimum frequency in the function generator for which you can see a sine wave with
two peaks on the display. Now measure the scale divisions between the two consecutive peaks
“d”.
6. Repeat the operation-5 for different frequencies (at least 5 different frequencies).
7. Draw a graph with frequency along the X-axis and 1/d along Y-axis. The slope of the graph
will give you the time base value.

Remarks: Signal Generator takes time to give a stable reading. Keep waiting until it gives a
stable value.

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 Table-1: Data for the line: frequency
No. of Frequency in function No. of loops touches in Line frequency fy (Hz) Average line
obs. generator fx (Hz) Y axis (n) frequency (Hz)
(from graph)

No. of loops
(n)

Frequency (fx) in Hz

Table-2: Data for verification of the calibration of TIME/DIV knob

No. of Frequency in function Peak to peak distanced 1 1

obs. generator fx (Hz) (div/volt) TB= in ms
d fd
(from graph)

I/d

Frequency (fx) in Hz
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E3: Verification of Biot-Savart law and Tangent law

Theory:
The magnetic field at a point due to a current flowing through a wire is found to vary

i) directly with the strength of the current

ii) inversely as the perpendicular distance of the point from the wire
→
The relationship between the magnetic field B and the current i is given by

→ →

 B . dl =  io (1)

where o is the magnetic permeability in vacuum and is equal to 4  10-7 WbA-1m-1 and dl is
the smallest element of the wire. This is known as Ampere’s law. This law can be used to
calculate magnetic field only for the symmetry distribution of the current. However, to
→ →
compute B at any point due to arbitrary current distribution, the relation between B and i
becomes

 o i dl sin 
dB = (2)
4 r2 

where dB is the field due to the current element idl . This is called Biot-Savart law, where r
→ →
is the displacement vector from the element dl to a point and  is the angle between r and
→
dl .

→
Applying Biot-Savart law we can calculate B at a distance x from the center of the circular
loop of radius R carrying a current i as shown in Fig. 1.

R 


x P

Fig. 1: A circular loop of current. The current element idl

of the loop sets up a field dB at a point P on the.
axis of the loop
 →
The field dB can be resolved into two components: (i) dB ⊥ along the axis of the loop and (ii)
→ → →
dB11 at right angle to the axis. Only the dB11 contributes to the total induction B at the
→
observation point P (Fig. 1). This is because the component dB11 due to all the current
→
elements id l point in different directions perpendicular to the axis, and their resultant for the
complete loop is zero.

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Thus
→
B =  dB ll (3)
→
From Fig. 1 we have dB ll = dB cos
Putting the value of dB from equation (2), we have
→  i dl sin 
dB ll = o cos  (4)
4 r 2
Since  = /2
→  i cos 
dB ll = o dl (5)
4 r 2
From Fig. 1, we have
R R
r = R 2 + x 2 and cos =
r R2 + x2
Putting these values in equation (5), we obtain
→ i R
dB11 = o dl (6)
(
4 R 2 + x 2 3 / 2 )
From equation (3)
→ oi R
B =  dB ll =
4 (R 2 + x 2 )3 / 2 
dl   dl = 2R

or
oi R2
B=
2 (R 2
+ x2 )
3/ 2 (7)

If N is the number of loops in the coil then equation (7) becomes

 iN R2
B= o (8)
(
2 R2 + x2 3/ 2 )
at x = 0,
 N
B = o  i (9)
 2R 
 N
If K =  o  , then
 2R 
B=Ki (10)

If a magnetic compass needle is placed freely, it will align itself with the horizontal
→
component of the earth’s magnetic field, B e . If there are other magnetic fields around the
compass, its alignment will represent the result of multiple fields. When a compass needle is
→
placed in the magnetic field B , the needle will be deflected from the magnetic meridian to an
angle δ as shown in Fig. 2.

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At equilibrium, the deflecting and controlling couples are equal. Thus
→ →
mB NP = mBe  SP
→
where, m is pole strength and B e is the horizontal component of Earth magnetic field.

→
B SP
→
= = tan 
Be NP
→ →
B  tan  [ B || is constant at a particular place] (11)

B = M tan δ (12)
where, M is the proportional constant.

Using equation (10), the value of B can be evaluated for any particular current i, and the
corresponding deflection δ can be obtained from the compass. Thus, the tangent law can be
verified from the plot (i.e. straight line) of B versus tanδ.

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 Magnetic Field, B
Slope, M= B/tan

tan

Fig. 3: Magnetic field vs tanδ graph.

1 1
On the other hand, according to equation (8) B  . To prove B  , the magnetic needle will
x x
have to be placed at different distances x from the centre of the coil. For a particular position (x) of
the needle and for a particular current (i), the value of δ can be observed from the deflection of the
needle. But to obtain the value of B at different x, equation (12) can be used. For this, the only value
of M is required, as δ is known. From the plot of B vs tanδ graph, the slope M can be obtained. Hence
a different x values, the different B values can be obtained from equation (12). The plot of B vs x will
1
verify B  and hence the Biot-Savart law. The increase of B with the increase of current element
x
can be demonstrated by the increase of coil turns N.

Apparatus:
1. Multimeter
2. D.C. power supply
3. A current carrying coil attached in a table
4. Compass needle
5. Resistor

Procedure:

1. Arrange your apparatus as shown in Fig. 1.

2. Before connecting the power supply, place the compass on the table at the center of
the coil.
3. Rotate the compass until 0 and 180 align with 50 cm of the meter scale.
4. Rotate table until the compass needle points to North (0) on the scale (see Fig. 2).

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5. Before connecting the power supply, be sure the output regulator knobs in the power
supply are at extreme left. Do not change current knob during the experiment
time.
6. Set the multimeter at 10 amp range.
7. Switch on the power supply and adjust the current i, by using voltage knob (keep the
current knob at extreme left), at 0.02 amp (approx) and record the deflection δ of the
compass needle.
8. Measure δ for at least ten different currents in the circuit (multimeter) within the
range from 0 to 2 amp and voltage range from 0 to 15 volt. Do not exceed current
above 2 amp and voltage above 15 volts.
9. Using voltage knob, adjust the current i in the circuit (multimeter) for which the
deflection δ of the compass needle is to be about 70. Record δ at the center of the
coil.
10. Keeping current i and voltage V constant, move the compass from the center of the
coil along the line OB without rotating it, and measure δ for different distances x (say
at 10 different positions using 3 cm interval).
11. Repeat procedure 9 along the line OA.
12. Draw a graph, B along vertical axis and tanδ along horizontal axis where value of B is
calculated using equation (9) and tanδ from table 1. Find the slope M from this graph
(see Fig.3).
13. Draw a graph, B along vertical axis and x along horizontal axis for the data taken in
steps 9 and 10 (see Fig.4). Calculate B using equation (12) where value of M is
measured in step 12.

Variable D.C.
power supply

Data Collection:

Radius of the coil, R = (in meter)

Number of turns, N =

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 Table-1 Data for B and tanδ at center of the coil

No. Current i (A) Deflection, δ tanδ Magnetic field, B

Observations (degree) (Wbm-2)
1
2
3
..
..
9
10

Table-2 Data for B at various distances

No. Observations x (m) δ (degree) tanδ B=M tanδ

(Wbm-2)
Along OA
1
2
3
... ...
... ...
9
10
Along OB
1
2
3
... ...
... ...
9
10

Results:
1. Plot of B versus tanδ verifies the Tangent law.
2. Plot of B versus x verifies the Biot-Savart law.

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 12
B vs x

10

Magnetic Field, B (Wbm-1)

8

0
30 24 18 12 6 0 6 12 18 24 30
Distance along OB (cm) Distance along OA(cm)

Fig. 4: Magnetic field B vs distance x graph

Discussion:

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 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

VL-W1: DETERMINATION OF THE SPRING CONSTANT AND THE EFFECTIVE

MASS OF A SPIRAL SPRING

Objectives:

➢ To explore how the time of vertical oscillation depends on the load and how mass of the
spring effect on the oscillation.
➢ To determine the spring constant and the effective mass of a spiral spring.

System requirements:

Computer (Desktop/Laptop), Operating system: Windows, masses-and-springs_en.html file, latest

version of web browser (Example: Google Chrome).

Advise:

Students are advised to follow the procedures written in this manual very strictly while
performing the experiment. Do not try to explore anything else during the experiment.

Theory:

If a spring be clamped vertically at the end P as shown in Fig. 1 and is loaded with a mass 𝑚𝑜 at
the other end A is set into vibration, then the period of vibration of the spring along a vertical line
is given by
𝑚𝑜 +𝑚′ 𝑀
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√ 𝑘 (1)
𝑘

Where 𝑚′ = a constant, called the effective mass of the spring and 𝑘 = the spring constant, the
ratio between the added force and the corresponding extension of the spring.

Fig. 1 Determination of the spring constant and effective mass of a given spiral spring.
Consider the kinetic energy of a loaded spring undergoing simple harmonic motion. At the instant
under consideration let the load 𝑚𝑜 be moving with velocity 𝑣𝑜 as shown in Fig. 1. At this same
instant a mass element ‘𝑑𝑚’ of the spring will also be moving up with a velocity 𝑣 (where 𝑣 <
𝑣𝑜 ). It is evident that the ratio between 𝑣 and 𝑣𝑜 is just the ratio between the displacements of the
masses 𝑚𝑜 and 𝑑𝑚 indicated by 𝑦 and 𝑦𝑜 , respectively.
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
= 𝑦𝑜  𝑣 = 𝑦𝑜 𝑦 (2)
𝑦 𝑜 𝑜

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If the mass of the spring is 𝑚 along with length 𝑦𝑜 and it can be written as from Fig. 1.
𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑦
= (3)
𝑚 𝑦𝑜

The kinetic energy of the spring will be given by

𝑦 1
𝐾𝑠 = ∫0 𝑜 2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑚 (4)

Using equations (2) and (3) and equation (4) becomes,

1 𝑦 𝑣 𝑑𝑦
𝐾𝑠 = 2 ∫0 0(𝑦𝑜 𝑦)2 𝑚 𝑦
𝑜 𝑜

1 𝑣𝑜2 𝑦𝑜3
⟹ 𝐾𝑠 = 𝑚
2 𝑦3 𝑜 3

1 𝑚
⟹ 𝐾𝑠 = ( 3 ) 𝑣𝑜2 (5)
2

The total kinetic energy of the system will then be

𝐾𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝑚𝑜 + 𝐾𝑠
1 𝑚
Thus 𝐾𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 2 (𝑚𝑜 + 3 ) 𝑣𝑜2 (6)
𝑚
The effective mass of the spring, 𝑚′ = and 𝑚 = the true mass of the spring
3

In order to find the spring constant (𝑘), consider the applied force 𝑚𝑜 𝑔 is proportional to the
extension ∆𝑙 within the elastic limit. Therefore 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘∆𝑙 , the spring constant will be given by
𝑚𝑔 ∆𝑙
= . The ∆𝑙 vs m graph helps finding the slope = . The spring constant could be written as
∆𝑙 𝑚

𝑔
𝑘= (7)
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

Procedures:

1. Unzip “masses-and-springs_en” file. Now open the “masses-and-springs_en.html” file with

your web browser say using “Google Chrome”. Choose the option “Lab” from the home page
of the experiment (Fig 2).

Fig. 2
2. Click on “movable line” and “Displacement/Natural length” in the list on the right side of
the spring (Fig. 2). The “movable line” is to be used as a pointer while measuring the extension
of the loaded spring.
3. In this experiment only the mass, mo (orange color) indicated in Fig. 2 should be used.

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 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

4. Drag the ruler and stop watch from the list on the right side of the spring (Fig. 2) and set the
scale on the position as shown in the image (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3

5. Drag the mass mo to the free end of the spring and click on stop button to stop vibration of
the spring (Fig. 3).
6. Measure extension (Δl) of the spring for the applied mass (Say, mo = 50 g) using the scale and
movable line.
7. Move the cursor at “Damping” to “None” (Fig. 3).
8. Stretch the mass downward to about 10 cm from the equilibrium position and allow the spring
to vibrate. Measure time for 50 vibrations of the spring for the applied “mo” using the
stopwatch.
9. Change the “mo” value with the cursor on the left (up) of the spring (Fig. 3).
10. Choose any 10 “mo” values between 70 and 300 g (increase the mass by 25 g) and measure
“Δl” of the spring. Record the data in Table.
11. Measure time for 50 vibrations for each “mo” value. Record the data in Table.
12. Calculate time period for each “mo” and record those in Table.
13. Draw a graph plotting “mo” along X-axis and “Δl” along Y-axis. The plotted graph will be a
straight line passing through the origin (Fig.1.4).
14. Calculate the slope of the mo versus Δl graph. Use the slope in the equation (7) for
determination of spring constant (k). Express “k” in C.G.S. unit.
15. Draw a graph plotting “mo” along X-axis and square of the time period (T2) along Y-axis. The
graph will be a straight line intersecting the negative X-axis at a point (Fig. 5). Record the
negative X intercept of the graph which will be the effective mass (m´) of the spring.

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 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

Data collections:

Table: Data for measurements of extension and time period of a loaded spring.
Sl. No. Mass on the Extension, Time for 50 Time Square of time
spring, mo (g) Δl (cm) vibrations, t (s) period, T (s) period, T2 (s2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Fig. 4 A plot of mass versus extension of the Fig. 5 A plot of mass versus T2 of the loaded
loaded spring. spring during vibration.

Calculations:

Slope of the mo vs Δl graph =…………………………………………….

𝑔
𝑘= =………………………………………………………………
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

X-intercept of the mo vs T2 graph =………………………………………

Results:

The spring constant of the chosen spring is k = …………………………

The effective mass of the vibrating spring is m´ =………………………

Error analysis (if necessary):

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Discussion:

Based on your understanding from this experiment, answer the following questions:

1) Which graph in this experiment represents Hooke’s law? Mention how? Why the graph of T2
as a function of mo does not pass through the origin?
2) What will be the effect on the spring vibration if spring is changed, keeping applied load the
same? How will be the effect on the experiment if it is done on the moon?
3) How does spring constant depend on the material and the length of the spring?
4) When does the mass-spring system attain (i) the maximum kinetic energy and (ii) the
maximum potential energy during vibration? How does the total energy of the mass-spring
system vary during free vibration?
5) What will be the nature of vibration if damping is included in the mass-spring experiment? If
the mass-spring system is allowed to vibrate in a highly viscous fluid medium, what will be
the nature of vibration of the system?
6) What will be the nature of vibration if the loaded spring is stretched not exactly along a vertical
straight line path?

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 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

VL-O2: DETERMINATION OF THE RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF A LENS BY

NEWTON’S RINGS EXPERIMENT

Objectives:
➢ To study the interference of light by observing the formation of Newton’s rings.
➢ To determine the radius of curvature of a plano-convex lens for a particular monochromatic
light.

System requirements:
Computer (Desktop/Laptop), Operating systems: Windows, Newton’s rings_vle (zipped) File.
Advise:
Students are advised to follow the procedures written in this manual very strictly, while
performing the experiment. Do not try to explore anything else in the experiment.

Theory:
A parallel beam of monochromatic light AB is incident at point B on a curved surface of a plano-
convex lens placed on a plane mirror, as shown in Fig. 1(a). One portion of the incident light is
reflected from the glass-air boundary, say from point B and goes along BC direction. The other
part is transmitted through the air film along BD. It is again reflected from the glass-air
boundary, say from point D along DF direction. These two reflected rays BC and DF from the
top and bottom of the air film are produced through division of amplitude from the same incident
ray AB and are, therefore, coherent. Hence, they will interfere and produce a system of alternate
dark and bright rings, as shown in Fig. 1(b). These rings are known as Newton’s rings.

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 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

The optical path difference (∆) between the rays BC and DF is given by

𝜆 𝜆
∆= 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 − = 2𝑡 − … … … … … . (1)
2 2

Where, 𝑡 is the thickness of the air film, 𝑟 is the angle of refraction (the angle between the
refracted ray BD and normal BG). Here, for normal incident, r = 0 and therefore, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1; in
case of air, the refractive index, 𝜇 = 1.

According to the condition of interference,

𝜆 𝜆
For bright rings, 2𝑡 − = 𝑛𝜆 (where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … ), i.e., 2𝑡 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 …………. (2)
2

𝜆 𝜆
For dark rings, 2𝑡 − = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 (where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … ), i.e., 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 ………….. (3)
2

Figure 2 (a) shows the experimental arrangement for the determination of wavelength of
monochromatic light by Newton’s rings. S is a source of monochromatic light. A parallel beam
of light from the lens L is reflected by a glass plate inclined at an angle 45o to the horizontal.
Newton’s rings are viewed through the eyepiece of the travelling microscope focused on the air
film. Fig. 2(b) shows that the plano-convex lens appears as part of circle of radius R known as

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 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

the radius of curvature of this lens. If 𝑟n is the radius of the nth dark ring created for air film
having thickness, 𝑡, then from the triangle AOB one can write,
𝑅 2 = 𝑟n2 + (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 … … … (4)
Since 𝑅 ≫ 𝑡, 𝑡 2 can be neglected and then Equation (4) becomes
𝑟n2
𝑡= … … … … … (5)
2𝑅
Combining Equations (3) and (5), one can write for dark ring, 𝑟n2 = 𝑅n𝜆
So, for the diameter of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ ring (𝐷𝑛 ), can be expressed as, 𝐷n2 = 4𝑅n𝜆 … … … … (6)
For the diameter of the (𝑛 + 𝑝)𝑡ℎ rings (𝐷𝑛+𝑝 ), 𝐷n+p
2
= 4𝑅(n + p)𝜆 … … … … … (7)
From Equations (6) and (7), one can write
2
𝐷n+p − 𝐷n2
𝑅= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (8)
4𝜆p
This equation can be used to find the value of radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens using
Newton ring’s experiment.

Procedures:

1. At first unzip “Newton’s rings_vle (zipped)” File. Click on the executable file “Newton’s
rings_vle”, then a window will open as shown in Fig. 3.
2. The default option for the source of light is red. Select the yellow color of light by moving
the white triangular slider (marked by 2 in the Fig. 3) and record the wavelength of the light.
3. Change the radius of the lens using the light-blue knob (marked by 3) to see the clear rings.
For this, move the pointer of the knob towards left or right.
4. Change the coherence length of the light using the yellow knob at the top right-hand side
(marked by 4) to observe a greater number of rings on the microscope view. For this, move
the pointer of the knob towards left or right.
5. Repeat procedures 3 and 4 so that you can display at least 8 rings.
6. Move the vertical line of the eyepiece’s crosswire using the microscope movement knob at
the bottom (marked by 5) on the circumference of the 8th bright ring at the left side from the
central circular dark spot. Press “zero” knob (marked by 6), which will set the reading “zero”
for the 8th ring in the left side. Record the microscope reading.

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 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

Fig. 3: Newton’s rings experiment as observed in the simulation.

7. Then move the cross-wire to the right direction and set it carefully on the circumference of
each successive bright ring (7th, 6th …..1st rings at the left) and record the microscope
readings.
8. Move the cross-wire again to the right direction and set it carefully on the circumference of
each successive bright ring (1st, 2nd, 3rd …. 8th rings at the right) and record the microscope
readings.
9. Considering a particular ring, the difference between the right side and left side readings
gives the diameter of the ring.
10. Draw a graph with the square of the diameter as ordinate and number of the ring as abscissa.
The graph should be a straight line passing through the origin as shown in Fig. 4.
11. Determine the value of D2n+p − D2n and 𝑝 from the graph as shown and calculate the radius
of curvature of the lens using Equation (8).

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Fig. 4: Square of the diameter versus ring number graph.

Data Collections:

Table 1: Data for the diameter of the Newton’s rings

Ring Microscope reading (mm) 𝑫𝒏 = 𝐑 − 𝐋 𝑫𝟐𝒏

number (mm) (mm2)
Left side (L) Right side (R)
8

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Calculations:
2 −𝐷2
𝐷n+p n
From Equation (8) the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is, 𝑅 =
4𝜆p

Result:

Radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens =…….. cm

Discussion:

Based on your understanding from this experiment, answer the following questions:

1) If you change the radius of the lens with blue knob, what happens to the interference pattern?
2) If you change the coherence length of the light using the yellow knob at the top right-hand
side, what do you notice? What happened to the interference pattern when a large coherence
length is chosen?
3) Why are the rings circular?
4) In the Newton’s rings system, the rings close to the center are quit broad, what is the reason?
5) Why the center of the rings is dark in your experiment? When the center of the rings may
become bright, why?
6) Introduce a liquid in the gap between the lens and glass plate using the white switch on the
left hand side. What do you notice? What does it tell you about the wavelength of light for a
material of higher refractive index?

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VL-M3: DETERMINATION OF THE LATTICE CONSTANTS OF NaCl
CRYSTAL BY AN X-RAY DIFFRACTION SIMULATOR

Objectives:
➢ To understand the Bragg’s law.
➢ To determine the crystal structure of NaCl by using X-ray diffraction.

System requirements:

Computer (Desktop/Laptop), Operating systems: Windows, Bragg Diffraction_vle (zipped)

file.

Advise:

Students are advised to follow the procedures written in this manual very strictly while
performing the experiment. Do not try to explore anything else in the experiment.

Theory:

When X-rays encounter a crystalline material, they are diffracted by the plane of atoms or ions
(Bragg plane) within the crystal.
Consider the parallels planes of atoms in the Fig.1 from which X-rays are diffracted. The waves
may be reflected from the surface atom H or H . However, X-rays are reflected not only from
the surface plane, but also from the adjacent subsurface plane e.g., H. If these diffracted rays
are to remain in phase and be coherent, the distance MHP is the path difference between these
two diffracted waves, must be equal to integer multiples of the incident wavelength, , of X-
rays.

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 Fig. 1: MHP is the path difference between the two diffracted rays from the two parallel
planes of the crystal.

From the Fig. 1, the path difference is

Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of the

NaCl crystal structure.

MH P = MH  + PH 
= d sin  + d sin  = 2d sin 
Where,  is the glancing angle and d is the interplanar distance between the planes.

For constructive interference,

2d sin = n……………….(1)

Fig. 2 shows a typical unit cell of NaCl crystal. Sodium Chloride is an fcc crystal structure.
The basis is two ions, a sodium cation and a chlorine anion. The lattice planes run parallel to
the surface of the crystal’s unit cells. The interplanar spacing corresponds to one half of the
lattice constant, a, i.e.
a
d= ………………….….(2)
2
Substituting value of d in Eq. 1, the Bragg’s condition becomes,

a
2( ) sin  = n
2
 a sin  = n
n
a= ………………….….(3)
sin 

From, Eq. 3 the lattice constant can be determined.

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Fig. 3: Schematic diagram of diffraction of X-rays from a crystal coupling between counter-
tube (detector) and incident X-rays. 1 Collimator, 2 Crystal, 3 counter tube.

Fig. 3 shows the schematic diagram of diffraction of X-rays from a crystal, 2 coupling
between counter tube angle and glancing angle. This method is more precise when the glancing
angles are measured in higher diffraction order.

Procedures:
1. At first unzip “Bragg Diffraction_vle (zipped)” File. Click on the executable file “Bragg
Diffraction_vle then a window will open as shown in Fig. 4.
2. You can vary the wavelength of the X-rays using the Knob 1 on the left, the lattice spacing
using Knob 2 in the middle, amplitude of X-ray using Knob 3, and the glancing angle of
X-rays using Knob 4 on the right.

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 Fig. 4: Photograph of the simulated experimental set up.
3. Set the wavelength of the X-ray as 1.54 Å, lattice spacing as 2.81 Å. Set desirable amplitude
of X-ray using Knob 3.
4. Press ‘Show Machine’ button, you will see the typical X-ray diffractomer as shown in Fig.
5.

Fig. 5: X-Ray diffractometer.

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5. Press ‘Automatic scan’ button to scan through the range automatically, you will see an X-
ray diffraction pattern (Intensity versus 2 plot) as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6: The intensity of diffracted X-rays versus 2.

6. Construct a data Table (as shown in Table 1) of Intensity of diffracted X-rays versus 2,
and take data at least 3 interval, however around the peak interval should be 0.2. To get
the experimental data from the graph, right click on the graph and select ‘show’ and then
the ‘cursor display’ option. It will display two cursors (as shown in Fig.6). If they are
locked, unlock any cursor by clicking on the locked button and you will see two cursor
pointers (two yellow lines) along X- and Y-axes. Drag the cursor pointers to select data
points from the graph.

7. Draw the Intensity versus 2 graph, you will see three diffraction peaks, which satisfy
Bragg’s conditions (n = 1, 2, 3).

8. Construct another Table (Table 2) to obtain 2 values for corresponding Bragg’s

conditions. and calculate the corresponding n values.

9. Plot n vs sin, which will be a straight line passing through origin as shown in Fig. 8. The
slope of the line will give the lattice constant of the NaCl crystal (Eq. 3).

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Data Collections:
Wavelength of the characteristics X-ray radiation,  = 1.54 Å = 1.54 10−10 m

Table 1: The intensity of diffracted X-rays versus 2 data.

Intensity of Intensity of
2 2
Sl. diffracted X-rays Sl. diffracted X-rays
(deg) (deg)
(arb. unit) (arb. unit)
1 16
2 17
3 18
4 19
5 20
6 21
7 22
8 23
9 24
10 25
11 .
12 .
13 .
14 .
15 .

Calculations:

Draw a graph of intensity of diffracted X-rays versus 2 data as shown below.

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 Fig. 7: Intensity of diffracted X-rays versus 2 data.

Table 2: Data for sin and n

2 sin Diffraction order (n) n (m)

Fig. 8: Plot n vs sin

Result: The value of the lattice constant of NaCl crystal using an X-ray diffractometer
is…….m

Error analysis:

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Discussion:

Based on your understanding from this experiment, answer the following questions:

1. What is a unit cell? Discuss the lattice parameters of a unit cell.

2. Briefly discuss about crystal planes and Miller indices.
3. If you decrease wavelength (< 1.5 Å) of the X-rays, what will happen to the Bragg angle
for a particular crystal plane?
4. If you increase the interplanar distance (> 2.81 Å) of the crystal keeping the wavelength
of X-rays fixed, what will happen to the Bragg angle?
5. Can you perform this experiment using visible light, justify your answer?

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 Lab manual for Online Physics Sessional Classes
Department of Physics, BUET

VL-H2: CALIBRATION OF A GIVEN THERMOCOUPLE

Objectives:
➢ To understand the calibration curve of a given thermocouple.
➢ To determine unknown temperature using the calibration curve.

System requirements:

Computer (Desktop/Laptop), Operating system: Windows, Thermocouple_vle (zipped) File.

Advise:

Students are advised to follow the procedures written in this manual very strictly while
performing the experiment. Do not try to explore anything else during the experiment.

Theory:

In 1821, T. J. Seebeck observed that if wires of two different metals, such as copper and iron, are
joined together to form a closed loop and if two junctions are kept at different temperatures, an
electric current begins to flow in the loop. This phenomenon is called thermoelectric effect, and
generation of current in the loop due to difference in temperatures is called Seebeck effect. The
loop comprising the two metals is referred to as a thermocouple. The existence of current implies
that there is an electromotive force (emf) acting in the circuit. This is known as thermo-
electromotive force and the electric current produced in this way is called thermo-electric
current.
When one junction of a thermo-couple is maintained at and the other junction is heated to a
higher temperature as in Fig. 1, then thermo-electromotive force is developed in the circuit.
The direction of the emf depends on the pair of metals used and the temperatures of the
junctions. The magnitude of emf that developed in the circuit can be calculated by balancing it
against a potential drop in certain length of a potentiometer.
Let be the potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire having a total length of L
cm. Now, if be the emf developed in a thermo-couple, which is balanced against a length cm
of the potentiometer wire then,

The potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire is given by the relation,

Where, emf of the driver battery in the potentiometer circuit

total resistance of the potentiometer wire of length
From equation (1) and (2) we get,

Hence, by determining the balancing length , thermo-electromotive force developed at a given

temperature can be calculated from equation (3).

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By measuring the thermo-electromotive force developed for different temperatures of the hot
junction, a graph can be plotted with the temperature of the hot junction as the abscissa and the
emf as the ordinate. This is known as the calibration curve for the thermocouple.
After a thermocouple has been calibrated in this manner, it can be used to measure any unknown
temperature by measuring the emf produced at any unknown temperature and then reading off
the temperature from the calibration curve corresponding to the measured emf.
If the cold and hot junctions of a thermocouple are kept at and , respectively, then the
e.m.f. developed in the thermocouple is given by,

For small ,
Hence, the calibration curve for the given thermocouple will approximately be a straight line.

Fig. 1. Experimental setup for measuring the emf of a thermocouple.

Procedures:

1. At first unzip “Thermocouple_vle (zipped)” File. Click on the executable file

“Thermocouple_vle”, then a window will open as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig: 2. VP Lab Experimental setup.

2. Fill the right-hand beaker completely with water using the blue knob by keeping the
pointer at ‘Fill’ position and hold the water into the beaker by keeping the pointer at
‘Hold’ position as shown in Fig. 2.

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3. Drag the jokey of the potentiometer in such a way that the pointer of the galvanometer
remains left of zero.
4. Then turn the heater ‘on’ by clicking it. As the water warms up, an electromotive force
(emf) will be produced and the balancing point of the Galvanometer will move.
5. During heating, try to keep always the galvanometer pointer left to zero by moving the
jokey. When the pointer will come to zero position (null point), take the reading by
pressing the knob ‘store data’.
6. As the temperature rises, the value of e.m.f. produced will be changed and galvanometer
pointer will be shifted. Follow the step 5 repeatedly (15 times) and take the reading until
you reach a temperature about 100 .
7. Press the ‘show graph’ knob and see the relationship between the thermo-emf (as
ordinate) and the temperature (as abscissa). It is to be noted that the experimental value of
temperature and e.m.f. can only be obtained from the analysis of the graph.
8. For getting the experimental data from the graph, right click on the graph and it will
display different options. Go to ‘show’ and select the ‘cursor display’ option [as shown in
Fig.3 (a)]. It will display two cursors but they are locked. Unlock any cursor by clicking
on the locked button and then it will look like Fig.3 (b) and you will see two cursor
pointers (two yellow lines) along X- and Y-axes. Drag the cursor pointers to select one
data point [as shown in Fig.3 (c)]. Then, you will observe data value in the cursor display.
For example, in Fig.3 (c), the value of the selected data point is displayed as (17.52,
19.78). Move the cursor to the next data point and take the value. In this way, make the
data table of emf and corresponding temperature of the hot junction.

Fig: 3. Thermo-electromotive force versus temperature graph.

9. Draw the emf versus temperature graph in your graph paper. Draw a straight line that
passes through the origin as shown in Fig. 4.

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Data collection and graphs for analysis:

Table: The temperature dependent emf:

No. Temperature ( ) emf E/ (mV)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

The graph of emf versus temperature is shown below:

Fig. 4: The open circle is the experimental data and the straight line (red color) is
the best fitting theoretical curve.

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Calculation:
The best fitting curve follows the equation [mV] from where you can obtain the
unknown temperature for any known value emf (say 50 mV).

Result:

The graph of emf vs temperature produced a straight line that passes through the origin. This is
the required calibration curve.

Discussion:
Based on your understanding from this experiment, answer the following questions:

1) On what factors does the direction of thermo electric current depend?

2) What is the importance of calibrating a curve?
3) Instead of water bath, use the sand bath (say, temperature of the hot junction can be raised up
to 350 C) and plot the temperature along x-axis and the thermo-emf along y-axis and draw a
curve. What would be the nature of your graph?
4) How does the emf change when the temperature of the hot junction is continuously
increased?
5) What is neutral temperature? Does it depend on the temperature of the hot junction?

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