Quantum Sensing and Metrology (AT30202)

Example Problems

Topics Covered and Mid-semester syllabus:

➢ Classical sensing and photodetection

➢ Classical photodetection noise: thermal noise, flicker noise, shot noise, dark noise.
➢ Sensitivity, precision, accuracy
➢ Information theory basics: Probability distribution, mean, variance, Shannon entropy,
information measure, Classical Fisher Information, Cramer-Rao bound, and sensitivity
limit.
➢ Quantum states: pure state, mixed states, Bloch sphere representation, qubit and qudit,
multi-partite states, entanglement, entanglement quantification, Von Neumann
entropy, mutual information, classical and quantum correlation.
➢ Quantum operators: Unitary operator, Hermitian operator, density operator, Trace and
Partial trace of operators, Pauli operators, operator expectation value and variance,
commutation relation, Heisenberg uncertainty.
➢ Quantum measurements: projection operator, partial projection, positive operator value
measure (POVMs)

1. Sensitivity, Fisher Information, Cramer-Rao Bound, and Photodetection

i. Write the expression of the mean number of detected photons 𝑁𝑑𝑒𝑡 , when a
photodetector receives a photon flux 𝑁𝑖𝑛 per second, and the detector has a
quantum efficiency 𝜂.
ii. Given that the shot noise follows a Poisson distribution, write down its standard
deviation in terms of mean.
iii. If the incident photon flux is 106 photons/sec and 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟖, compute the expected
number of detected photons and the corresponding shot noise.
iv. Find the expression of Fisher information 𝐼 for a Poisson-distributed signal.
v. Compute the Fisher information 𝐼(𝑵𝒊𝒏 ) for the photodetection example given in
(iii).
vi. Interpret what happens to the Fisher information as photon flux increases.
vii. Write the expression of Cramer-Rao bound (CRB) in terms of Fisher information 𝐼.
viii. Compute CRB for the photodetection example given in (iii).
ix. What does the CRB tell us about measurement sensitivity for high and low photon
flux?

2. Quantum theory basics

1 2
i. Given two quantum states |𝜓⟩ = [ ] and |∅⟩ = [ ], compute the norms of |𝜓⟩
𝑖 −1
and |∅⟩.
ii. Normalize |𝜓⟩ and |∅⟩ to make them physically valid quantum states.
iii. Compute the inner product ⟨𝜓|∅⟩.
iv. Define a Hermitian operator.
3 2𝑖
v. Verify that 𝑂̂ = [ ] is a Hermitian operator.
−2𝑖 1
vi. Compute the eigen values and eigen vectors of 𝑂̂.
vii. Show that the eigenvalues are real, as required for physical observables.
 viii. Explain an arbitrary quantum state |𝜓⟩ as linear combination of the eigenvectors of
𝑂̂.
1 1
ix. Given a normalized state |𝜓′⟩ = 2 [ ], compute the expectation value 〈𝑂̂〉.
√ 𝑖
x. Compute the variance of 𝑂̂.
xi. Interpret what the variance represents in terms of measurement uncertainty.

3. Purity and entropy

i. Define the purity and von Neuman entropy of a quantum state represented with the
density operator 𝜌.
|0⟩+|1⟩
ii. Compute the purity and von Neuman entropy for the state |𝜓⟩ = .
√2
|0⟩⟨0|+|1⟩⟨1|
iii. Compute the purity and von Neuman entropy for a state 𝜌 = 2
.
iv. Interpret the relationship between entropy and purity.

4. Separable and entangled state

i. Define a separable state in terms of the density operator of its subsystems.
ii. Show that the density matrix of the state |𝜓⟩ = (𝑎|0⟩ + 𝑏|1⟩)⨂(𝑐|0⟩ + 𝑑|1⟩) is
separable.
|00⟩+|11⟩
iii. Show that the density matrix of the state |Φ+ ⟩ = cannot be written as a
√2
separable mixture.

5. Partial trace and entanglement

|01⟩+|10⟩
i. Compute the density operator of the state |Ψ + ⟩ = .
√2
ii. Compute the reduced density matrices of the subsystems, i.e., 𝜌𝐴 = 𝑇𝑟𝐵 (𝜌𝐴𝐵 ) and
𝜌𝐵 = 𝑇𝑟𝐵 (𝜌𝐴𝐵 ).
iii. Compute the purity and entropy of the whole system and the individual subsystems.
iv. Explain why the subsystem appears mixed despite the pure global state.

6. Mutual information and entanglement

i. Define mutual information in terms of von Neuman entropies.
|01⟩−|10⟩
ii. Compute the density operator of the state |Ψ − ⟩ = .
√2
iii. Compute the reduced density matrices of the subsystems, i.e., 𝜌𝐴 = 𝑇𝑟𝐵 (𝜌𝐴𝐵 ) and
𝜌𝐵 = 𝑇𝑟𝐵 (𝜌𝐴𝐵 ).
iv. Compute the von Neuman entropies 𝑆(𝜌𝐴 ), 𝑆(𝜌𝐵 ), 𝑆(𝜌𝐴𝐵 ).
v. Compute the mutual information 𝐼 (𝐴: 𝐵).
vi. What does the value of 𝐼 (𝐴: 𝐵)tell us about the entanglement?
vii. Compute the mutual information 𝐼 (𝐴: 𝐵) for a state 𝜌𝐴𝐵 = 0.5|Ψ− ⟩⟨Ψ− | +
0.5|00⟩⟨00|.
viii. Discuss why mutual information is a stronger measure of total correlations
compared to entanglement entropy alone.

7. Pauli operators and Bloch Sphere

𝜃 𝜃
i. Write the density matrix of the state |𝜓⟩ = (cos 2 |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 2 |1⟩).
ii. Show that its Bloch vector representation is 𝑟⃗ = (sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 , sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 , cos 𝜃).
iii. Where do the points (0, 0, 1) and (0, 0, −1) correspond to on the Bloch sphere?
 iv. Write down the Pauli matrices.
v. Compute the expectation values of the Pauli matrices for the state |𝜓⟩ =
𝜃 𝜃
(cos 2 |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 2 |1⟩).
vi. What do these expectation values tell us about the qubit state?
vii. For what values of 𝜃 and 𝜙 do we obtain maximum and minimum expectation
values?

8. Projective measurements
i. Mention the properties of the projection operators.
ii. Write down the projection operators in the computational basis.
iii. Compute the probability of obtaining the outcome 0 and outcome 1 for a given state
𝜃 𝜃
|𝜓⟩ = (cos 2 |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 2 |1⟩).
iv. Find the post-measurement state for both of the above cases.
|0⟩+|1⟩ |0⟩−|1⟩
v. Write down the projection operators in | +⟩ = and | −⟩ = .
√2 √2
vi. What will be the probability of obtaining the outcome | +⟩ and | −⟩?
vii. Find the post-measurement states corresponding to outcomes | +⟩ and | −⟩.
viii. Relate projective measurement with the collapse of the wavefunction
interpretation.

9. Positive operator value measurements (POVMs)

i. How POVM operators are different from projection operators?
ii. Explain why a projective measurement cannot perfectly distinguish two states
expressed as |𝜓1 ⟩ = |0⟩ and |𝜓2 ⟩ = (cos 𝜃 |0⟩ + sin 𝜃 |1⟩).
1 |𝜓 ⟩⟨𝜓 |−|𝜓2 ⟩⟨𝜓2 |
iii. Show that 𝐸̂1 = (𝐼̂ + 1 1 ‖|𝜓1 ⟩−|𝜓2 ⟩‖
) and 𝐸̂2 = 𝐼̂ − 𝐸̂1 form a valid POVM.
2
iv. Check that 𝐸̂1 and 𝐸̂2 do not represent a projective measurement.
v. Compute the probabilities of correctly identifying |𝜓1 ⟩ and |𝜓2 ⟩.
1
vi. Compute the error probability (Helstrom bound) 𝑃error = 2 (1 − √1 − |⟨𝜓1 |𝜓2 ⟩|2 ).