POINTERS 1: Definition - Jeepneys, a cultural icon of the Philippines, are

• Air – is the invisible mixture of gases that surrounds also major contributors to air pollution. Most
the Earth. It's what we breathe and what allows things Jeepneys use older, reconditioned diesel engines
like birds and planes to fly. that emit significant amounts of black soot and
• Water – is a clear, tasteless liquid that is essential for other pollutants. They account for over 15% of road
life. It covers most of the Earth's surface and is found in transportation greenhouse gas emissions and 48%
rivers, lakes, oceans, and even inside our bodies. of airborne particulate matter in Manila.
• Pollution – is when harmful substances or energy are 3. Industrial Pollution
introduced into the environment at a rate that's faster - Industrial activities, including factories and power
than it can be safely stored or dispersed. Pollution can plants, are another significant source of air pollution
harm people, animals, and plants, and damage the in the Philippines. In addition to vehicle emissions,
environment. these industrial sources release various pollutants
that contribute to air quality deterioration in urban
LINK: areas like Northern Manila. While motor vehicles
Pollution: were among the main causes of air pollution in the
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/pollution/ Philippines, contributing to 80% of the country’s air
pollution in 2016, stationary sources, including
factories and open burning, were responsible for
POINTERS 2: 20%.
4. Slash-and-Burn Agriculture
A. Background/Overview - Traditional agricultural practices such as slash-and-
Key Factors burn (kaingin) significantly impact air quality. This
involves cutting and burning vegetation to clear
Air Pollution land for farming, releasing carbon dioxide, carbon
1. Vehicular Emissions monoxide, and particulate matter into the air.
- Vehicular emissions, especially in urban centres Despite the government’s efforts through legislation
like Metro Manila, are a primary source of air like the Clean Air Act of 1999, this practice
pollution. The significant increase in the number of continues, especially in rural and indigenous
vehicles, especially during peak hours, has led to communities. This issue exists all across Southeast
heightened pollution levels. The lifting of COVID-19 Asia and also contributes significantly to air
restrictions further exacerbated this issue due to pollution in Thailand.
the sudden surge in vehicle usage, which has 5. Use of Fireworks
continued until today. It’s reported that vehicular - While a seasonal cause, the use of fireworks during
sources account for 65% of air pollution in the celebrations contributes to temporary spikes in air
Philippines, primarily in Metro Manila. pollution. Firecrackers release harmful particulate
2. Jeepneys matter, carbon, and sulfur, posing public health
 risks. Effective control of these spikes requires the and heavy metals in animal agriculture, further
enforcement of regulations by local government reduce air quality.
units. 9. Household Pollution
6. Coal Burning - Household pollution is a considerable source of air
- Coal burning is a significant source of air pollution pollution in the Philippines. This includes emissions
in the Philippines. Despite being the most polluting from cooking with solid fuels, kerosene, or other
fuel option, coal remains the dominant energy non-clean energy sources, especially prevalent in
source in the country, accounting for 52% of gross rural areas with limited access to clean fuels and
power generation. Plans to ramp up coal production technology. Burning waste and other materials in
contrast with the Philippines’ commitment to open spaces, a common practice in some areas
reducing emissions under the Paris Agreement. contributes to air pollution. Furthermore, lead levels
Coal plant emissions are estimated to cause up to in Metro Manila are more than three times the
2,400 deaths per year in the Philippines due to World Health Organization’s established safe limit,
various diseases (Greenpeace also states that air indicating the severity of household pollution and its
pollution from fossil fuels, including coal, is impact on air quality.
attributed to cause an estimated 27,000 premature
deaths per year in the Philippines). LINK:
7. Open Burning ALL Air Pollution: https://breathesafeair.com/air-pollution-in-
- Open burning, a common practice for waste the-philippines/
disposal in some areas, contributes to air pollution
by releasing toxic substances, including dioxins,
furans, and particulate matter. This practice is Water Pollution
particularly harmful in densely populated areas and 1. Industrial Pollution
near industrial sites, where the concentration of - Industrial pollution accounts for 24% of the
pollutants can be significantly higher. country’s water pollution. There are over 820,000
8. Agricultural Activities industrial facilities in the Philippines, 60% of which
- Agricultural activities contribute significantly to air are within the Manila Bay Metro Region. Industrial
pollution in the Philippines. This includes using activities often release pollutants like heavy metals,
fertilizers and pesticides, which can release harmful oils, solid waste, industrial wastewater and
chemicals into the air. Other agricultural practices, hazardous chemicals. These compounds can be
such as the use of plastics, irrigation, land highly toxic and bioaccumulate in animals, further
preparation practices, and the burning of increasing their risk of entering humans.
agricultural residues, also contribute to air pollution. 2. Agricultural Pollution
Additionally, animal waste management, both in - Agricultural pollution accounts for 37% of the
land and aquatic farming, can release pollutants. country’s water pollution, primarily from animal
Feed supplements, including antibiotics, hormones, waste and pesticide and fertiliser runoff. This is
 largely the result of the country’s rapid increase in • Mandaluyong, Taguig, Pasig: These cities
pesticide and fertilizer use, which has increased in experienced "acutely unhealthy" or "very unhealthy" air
the country. Between 1961 and 2005, fertilizer quality during New Year celebrations due to fireworks
usage increased by 1,000%, and in the decade and firecracker use. These cities are characterized by
between 1977 and 1987, pesticide usage went up a mix of residential areas, commercial hubs, and
by 325%. These contaminants are largely toxic to industrial zones.
humans in both chronic and acute exposure. • Manila, Quezon City, San Juan, Marikina, Caloocan,
Additionally, fertilizer runoff can lead to Malabon, Valenzuela, Navotas, Las Piñas,
eutrophication, causing harmful algal blooms that Muntinlupa, Parañaque, Pasay, Taguig, Bocaue,
deplete oxygen in the water and harm aquatic life. Marilao, and Santa Maria: These cities experienced
3. Domestic Sewage Pollution smog due to vehicular traffic emissions and thermal
- Only 10% of domestic wastewater is treated, and inversion. These cities represent a diverse range of
only 5% of the population is connected to a sewer residential communities, from historic districts to
network. This leaves the remaining 95% of the modern suburbs5.
population reliant on septic tanks, pit latrines or with 2. Commercial Communities
no management for sewage waste. Untreated • Ortigas Center: This central business district
sewage that enters the water supply can carry experienced smog due to heavy vehicular traffic. The
waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid, Ortigas Center is a major commercial hub with
dysentery, and hepatitis. More awareness numerous office buildings, shopping malls, and hotels.
regarding improved sanitation services is needed. • Binondo Chinatown: This historic commercial district
is located in Manila and has experienced air pollution
LINK: from various sources, including traffic and industrial
ALL Water Pollution: https://energytracker.asia/water-pollution- emissions. Binondo is known for its bustling markets,
in-the-philippines/ restaurants, and businesses.
3. Vulnerable Communities
• Communities near industrial zones: These areas are
Affected Communities often exposed to higher levels of air pollution from
factories and industrial activities. This can pose a
Air Pollution significant health risk to residents, especially those with
1. Residential Communities pre-existing respiratory conditions.
• Makati, Pateros, Parañaque, Caloocan: These cities • Low-income communities: These communities are
have experienced "very unhealthy" or "unhealthy for often located in areas with higher levels of air pollution
sensitive groups" air quality levels due to vog from Taal due to factors like proximity to industrial zones and
Volcano. These cities are densely populated with a mix limited access to green spaces. Residents in these
of high-rise residential buildings and sprawling communities may have limited resources to mitigate
neighborhoods. the health effects of air pollution.
 Coastal communities and fishermen are among those
Water Pollution affected by the pollution.
1. Communities Living Along Waterways:
• Informal settlers: These communities often reside LINK:
along riverbanks, lakeshores, and even sewer lines, Air Pollution:
making them highly vulnerable to water pollution. They 1. https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/topstories/metro/91
face a constant risk of exposure to contaminated water, 7528/denr-up-to-very-unhealthy-air-observed-in-some-
which can lead to waterborne diseases and health metro-manila-areas/story/
problems. 2. https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/01/15/198504
• Low-income communities: These communities often 1/air-quality-metro-manila-improves-remains-
lack access to clean water and sanitation facilities, hazardous-other-areas/amp/
further increasing their vulnerability to water pollution. 3. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1882588/post-revelry-air-
They may rely on contaminated water sources for quality-unhealthy-in-metro-manila-areas-denr
drinking, bathing, and other daily needs, putting their 4. https://asianews.network/post-revelry-air-quality-
health at risk. unhealthy-in-metro-manila-areas/
• Communities near industrial zones: These areas are 5. https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2023/09/23/229839
often exposed to industrial wastewater discharges, 2/smog-blankets-metro-manila-nearby-provinces/amp/
which can contain harmful chemicals and pollutants.
This poses a significant threat to the health of residents Water Pollution:
and the local ecosystem. 1. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_crisis_in_Metro_
Manila
Specific Examples: 2. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the-
• Pasig River: The Pasig River, once a vital waterway, philippines-metropolitan-manila-area/
is heavily polluted due to industrial waste, sewage, and 3. https://energytracker.asia/water-pollution-in-the-
garbage. Communities living along the river, including philippines/
informal settlers, are particularly affected by the poor 4. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/164837/water-water-
water quality. everywhere-and-much-of-it-polluted
• Laguna de Bay: This large lake is also facing pollution 5. https://www.change.org/p/clean-the-waterways-of-
issues, primarily from agricultural runoff, industrial metro-manila
waste, and sewage. Communities relying on the lake
for fishing and other livelihoods are impacted by the
declining water quality. Timeline of air and water pollution
• Manila Bay: This bay is a major source of seafood and
a popular tourist destination, but it has been heavily 1. Early 1900s - 1970s:
polluted by industrial waste, sewage, and plastic waste. • Early 1900s: The Pasig River, once a source of
life and transportation, starts showing signs of
 pollution due to increasing industrial activity and • 2012: Air pollution levels in Metro Manila
population growth. continue to be a concern, with PM10 averaging
• 1970s: Air pollution becomes a noticeable issue 70 ug/ncm.
as the number of vehicles increases, leading to • 2017: PM2.5 levels in Metro Manila average 36
smog and respiratory problems. The city's air ug/ncm.
monitoring equipment, donated in 1974, breaks • 2019: Metro Manila experiences a water crisis
down and is never replaced. due to low water levels in Angat Dam and Ipo
2. 1980s - 1990s: Dam, leading to water interruptions and public
• 1980s: The situation worsens with the influx of outcry. President Duterte threatens to terminate
aging diesel engines from Japan, contributing to contracts with Manila Water and Maynilad, the
high sulfur and lead content in fuel. The city's city's water suppliers.
air pollution control efforts are limited, with a
small team tasked with stopping vehicles with 4. 2020s - Present:
visibly dirty exhaust. • 2020: Taal Volcano erupts, causing "unhealthy
• 1990s: The Pasig River is declared biologically for sensitive groups" air quality in Metro Manila
dead, with no living organisms remaining. The and worse air quality in areas closer to the
city's environmental problems are attributed to Calabarzon region.
rapid population growth, poverty, unregulated • 2021: WHO updates its air quality guidelines,
industry, and poor planning. highlighting the need for stricter standards in
• 1999: The Clean Air Act is enacted, setting the Philippines.
national ambient air quality guideline values, • 2023: The DENR-EMB reports improved air
but these remain significantly higher than World quality in Metro Manila from January to June,
Health Organization (WHO) recommendations. attributing the improvement to changes in fuel
emission standards, increased use of biofuels,
3. 2000s - 2010s: and tighter monitoring of industrial emissions.
• 2000s: The Manila Observatory begins However, nationwide air pollution levels
monitoring fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in increase during the same period.
Metro Manila. New Year celebrations, with • 2024: Metro Manila experiences "very
extensive use of fireworks and firecrackers, unhealthy" air quality in several areas due to
contribute to the worst air pollution episodes of vog from Taal Volcano. New Year celebrations
the year. again contribute to "acutely unhealthy" air
• 2008: The Supreme Court issues a mandate for quality in some areas.
the government to invest in cleaning up Manila
Bay and other waterways, including Laguna LINK:
Lake and Pasig River. ALL:
1. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1975771/metro-manila-air- 2. Land Use and Zoning: Historically, marginalized
quality-from-white-to-dark-gray-in-20-days/amp communities have been relegated to areas with higher
2. https://plus.inquirer.net/news/metro-manila-air-quality- pollution levels due to discriminatory land use policies
from-white-to-dark-gray-in-20-days/ and zoning practices. These areas are often
3. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1855987/denr-emb-cites- designated for industrial activities, waste disposal, and
metro-manilas-improved-air-quality-from-jan-june- transportation hubs, leading to a concentration of
2023/amp pollution sources that disproportionately impact
4. https://www.greenpeace.org/philippines/press/9763/ne residents. This pattern perpetuates environmental
w-report-shows-air-pollution-levels-up-as-metro- injustices and limits access to clean air and water for
manila-enters-gcq/ vulnerable communities5.
5. https://opinion.inquirer.net/69835/worst-air-pollution-
episode Health Risks (and Environmental Inequality)
6. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_crisis_in_Metro_
Manila 1. Respiratory Illnesses: Air pollution in Metro Manila,
7. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the- primarily from vehicle emissions, industrial activities,
philippines-metropolitan-manila-area/ and open burning, significantly contributes to
8. https://wwf.org.ph/resource-center/story-archives- respiratory illnesses like asthma, bronchitis, and
2019/day-zero-metro-manila-water-problem/ pneumonia. Marginalized communities, often living in
9. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-05-29- densely populated areas with limited access to
wr-254-story.html healthcare, are more susceptible to these health
problems.
2. Waterborne Diseases: Water pollution from industrial
B. Justice Issues waste, sewage, and agricultural runoff poses a
Displacement (and Environmental Injustice) significant threat to public health. Informal settlers and
low-income communities, often lacking access to safe
1. Informal Settlements: Metro Manila is home to drinking water and sanitation facilities, are at higher
numerous informal settlements, often located in areas risk of contracting waterborne diseases like cholera,
with high pollution levels, such as along riverbanks, typhoid fever, and diarrhea.
near industrial zones, and on reclaimed land. These 3. Cumulative Exposure: Marginalized communities
communities are frequently targeted for relocation or often experience a "cumulative exposure" to multiple
eviction due to "development" projects, often without environmental hazards, including air, water, and soil
adequate compensation or access to safe and healthy pollution. This combined exposure can lead to more
alternatives. This displacement further exacerbates severe health consequences and exacerbate existing
their vulnerability to pollution and limits their ability to health vulnerabilities.
improve their living conditions.
 8. https://medium.com/@raclem121419/environmental-
Loss of Livelihoods (and Environmental Injustice) justice-unveiling-the-disparities-in-environmental-
impact-on-minorities-and-409a8040d5b0
1. Fishing Communities: Water pollution in Manila Bay
and Laguna de Bay has severely impacted fishing
communities, leading to declining fish stocks and C. Community Response
reduced catches. This loss of income has devastating Protest
consequences for these communities, who rely heavily - https://www.greenpeace.org/philippines/press/6312
on fishing for their livelihoods. 7/climate-activists-vow-more-protests-as-philippine-
2. Informal Sector Workers: Many informal sector government-turns-a-blind-eye-to-communities/
workers, such as street vendors and waste pickers, are
directly exposed to pollution and its health risks. Their Legal Actions
livelihoods are often dependent on working in polluted - https://www.abs-
areas, making them particularly vulnerable to the cbn.com/news/world/2025/2/15/myanmar-militia-
economic and health impacts of environmental says-ready-to-deport-10-000-cyber-scam-workers-
degradation. 1639

LINK: Advocacy
1. https://opinion.inquirer.net/122424/clean-air-a-matter- - https://www.greenpeace.org/philippines/our-
of-social-justice work/previous-campaigns/
2. https://medium.com/@raclem121419/title- - https://www.manilawater.com/water-education-and-
environmental-justice-and-air-pollution-the-detrimental- environmental-advocacy
effects-on-the-population-in-c038736e444f
3. https://www.epa.gov/ej-research/epa-research- D. Government and Corporate Accountability
environmental-justice-and-air-pollution • Government
4. https://www.apha.org/Topics-and- 1. Policy Framework: The Philippines has
Issues/Environmental-Health/Environmental-Justice established a comprehensive legal framework for
5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC981055 environmental protection, including the Clean Air
9/ Act (RA 8749), Clean Water Act (RA 9275), and
6. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-pollution-in-the- Ecological Solid Waste Management Act (RA
philippines-metropolitan-manila-area/ 9003). These laws provide a foundation for
7. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372997822_I addressing pollution and promoting sustainable
ssues_and_Perspectives_on_the_Water_Crisis_of_Me development.
tro_Manila_Cities_Philippines 2. Institutional Mechanisms: The Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) is the
primary government agency responsible for
 overseeing environmental protection and 3. Lack of Transparency: There may be a lack of
implementing these laws. The DENR, through its transparency in corporate practices, making it difficult
Environmental Management Bureau (EMB), is to assess their environmental impact and hold them
tasked with setting standards, monitoring pollution accountable for their actions.
levels, and enforcing regulations.
3. Challenges in Implementation: Despite the ➢ Effectiveness of Efforts and Suggestions for
existence of these policies and institutions, Improvement
challenges remain in their effective implementation. 1. Strengthening Enforcement: The government needs
These challenges include: to prioritize stricter enforcement of environmental
- Weak Enforcement: Enforcement of regulations, including imposing penalties for non-
environmental regulations is often lax, leading to compliance. This would require increased resources for
non-compliance by industries and individuals. the DENR and LGUs, as well as greater political will to
- Limited Resources: The DENR and LGUs often address environmental issues.
face resource constraints, limiting their ability to 2. Improving Data Collection and Monitoring: The
effectively monitor and enforce environmental laws. DENR needs to enhance its data collection and
- Lack of Capacity: The DENR and LGUs may lack monitoring systems to effectively track pollution levels
the technical expertise and manpower to effectively and identify sources of pollution. This would allow for
implement environmental programs. more targeted interventions and better evaluation of
- Political Influence: Political pressure and vested the effectiveness of environmental policies.
interests can sometimes hinder the effective 3. Promoting Public Awareness: Raising public
implementation of environmental regulations. awareness about the impacts of pollution and
promoting sustainable practices is crucial. This can be
• Corporations achieved through public education campaigns,
1. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Some community outreach programs, and media
corporations have implemented CSR initiatives aimed engagement.
at reducing their environmental impact and promoting 4. Empowering Communities: The government should
sustainable practices. These initiatives may include empower communities to participate in decision-
investing in cleaner technologies, reducing waste, and making processes that affect their environment. This
supporting community-based environmental projects. can be done through community consultations,
2. Compliance with Regulations: Corporations have a providing access to information, and supporting
legal obligation to comply with environmental community-based initiatives.
regulations set by the government. However, some 5. Holding Corporations Accountable: The government
companies may engage in practices that violate these needs to hold corporations accountable for their
regulations, leading to pollution and environmental environmental impact. This includes ensuring
damage. compliance with regulations, promoting transparency in
 corporate practices, and holding them responsible for
any environmental damage caused.

LINK:
ALL: https://dicf.unepgrid.ch/philippines/pollution