College of Engineering

Department of Petroleum and Chemical Engineering

PNGE3212
Rock & Fluid Properties

Labrotary Manual
 List of Experiments

1. Core Cutting and Cleaning

2. Porosity of Core Samples Using Helium Gas Porosimeter

3. Permeability of Core to Liquid

4. Permeability of Core to Gas

5. Permeability Distribution in a Reservoir Core Slab

6. Measurement of Liquid Density, Using Density bottles and Hydrometers

7. Measurement of Viscosity Using Conventional Viscometers

8. Measurement of Surface Tension

9. Drainage and Imbibition Displacement through a Reservoir Core

10. Kinematic Viscosity

 PNGE 3212 Lab Spring 20xx
Rock & Fluid Properties Lab

Lab Report Structure

The lab report should be submitted not more than 1 week after the conductance of the
experiment. The structure of the lab report should be as follows:

 Title page (see below for a template)

 Summary
 Table of Contents
 List of Figures, with page numbering
 List of Tables, with page numbering
 Introduction
 Experimental Procedure, with equipment/devices pictures
 Results and Discussion of Results
 Conclusions
 References
 Appendix (if any)
 College of Engineering
Department of Petroleum and Chemical Engineering

PNGE3212
Rock & Fluid Properties Laboratory

Spring 2023

Lab#1 Report

Experiemnt#3
Measurement of Porosity using Helium Gas Porosimeter

Submitted by

Group#5

Name1 ID#1

Name2 ID#2

Name3 ID#3

Name4 ID#4

5th February 2023

 Experiment 1

Core Cutting and Cleaning

Objectives
1) Investigate the different shape of rocks obtained from the reservoir and the method for
coring and cutting.
2) Study the importance of cleaning the cores using Soxhelt extraction method

1.1 Core Cutting

Rock samples are recovered from the bottom-hole of wells that are being drilled, taken to surface
and transported many miles away to a core laboratory. These processes must be performed
following strict rules of proper core cleaning to preserve the original properties of the reservoir
rock. Ideally, the rock sample recovered from the well will represent the reservoir rock. However,
once the rock is being drilled, exposed to drilling fluids, and taken out of the hole, the original
conditions at which the rock is found in the reservoir will change.
The rocks samples from the reservoir came in two different shape which are cubic slabs and
cylindrical slabs as shown in figure 1

Figure 1: Different shape of core samples

from crude oil reservoirIn order to study the
core properties, this slabs need to be cored
using coring machine to get specific
dimensions as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: Core Dimensions

Apparatus

Figures 3 and 4 represent the devises used for coring and cutting.

Figure 3: Coring Machine Figure 4: Cutting Machine

Procedure

1) Place the rock samples slab in the working table of coring machine and tight it properly.
2) Chose the proper size of drilling bit.
3) Switch on the water before start drilling.
4) Wear the guard shield and start the motor.
5) Lower the drilling bit slowly to start the coring with high caution.
6) Continue lowering the bit until reach the desired height of the core.
7) Once the coring done, start lifting the drilling bit and switch of the motor and water
supplier.
8) After getting the core sample, take the sample to the cutting machine if required to cut the
excess and undesired parts.
1.2 Cleaning
After the coring step, the core needs to be cleaned from any trapped liquid ( oil, drilling fluid,
small solid particles). There are several method to clean the core such as distillation extraction,
Flow through, Centrifuge flushing and gas driven solvent.

1) Distillation Extraction: This is the most common used cleaning method. The sample is
placed in a soxhlet or Dean-Stark apparatus. Solvents are evaporated and flowed through
the core removing the fluid in place. Then, they condensate and evaporated again in a
continuous closed process. The main disadvantage of this method is that the solvent may
not contact all of the core especially smaller pores.

2) Flow-Through: The core is placed in a core holder and solvent are continuously injected
under pressure into the core. The injection may be continuous or halted periodically
allowing time for the core to soak in the solvents. Cuiec ( Cuiec-1975) stated that this
method is better that the extraction method in the sense that solvents injected under
pressure may contact even the smaller pores of the rock.

3) Centrifuge Flushing: A centrifuge is used to spray warm clean solvent against the core. The
centrifugal force causes the solvent to flow through the sample. The main advantage of this
method is that it is a fast method and can be used in tight samples, which are not effectively
cleaned by the extraction method.

4) Gas- Driven Solvent Extraction: Used for whole cores where fluid saturation are not
needed. The core is cleaned by repeated cycles of internal dissolved-gas drive. Toluene
saturated with carbon dioxide is injected under pressure into the rock and pressure is
rapidly released to expand the carbon dioxide and flush the solvent through the pore space
removing the oil and water.

Solvent used for core cleaning

The core cleaning process is said to be successful when all the contaminants are removed from the
surface of the rock leaving it strongly water-wet. Core cleaning is mostly a trial and error process
where the selection of the best solvent to be used greatly depends on the experience with particular
rock. It has been shown that using a mixture of solvents gives better results than using a single
solvent. The most common mixture of solvents used for cleaning are chloroform/ methanol and
toluene/ methanol. Some solvents work better than others for different types of rocks and fluid.
Sandstone is classified as an acidic surface type while limestone is considered as a basic surface
type. This difference in surface type can assist in choosing the best solvent for cleaning. The acidic
solvents will give better results if it is used for rock with acidic surface such as sandstone while
the basic solvents work better for rocks with basic surface like limestone.
Apparatus
Figure 5 shows the required apparatus used for cleaning the core through the principle of
distillation extraction. In addition, the solvent to be used for the cleaning should be prepared.

Figure 5: Soxhelt assembly apparatus

Procedure

1) Place the core inside the Soxhelt.

2) Pour the solvent inside the round bottom flask (The quantity of solvent should be half of
the flask size).
3) Set the apparatus as shown in figure 4.
4) Connect the condenser with water.
5) Turn on water supply to begin circulating
6) Switch one the heating mantle and adjust the rate of boiling so that the reflux from the
condenser is a few drops of solvent.
7) Allow the extraction to continue until the color of the solvent inside the soxhelt is
transparent.
8) Monitor the solvent level during the extraction to ensure that the sample remains
submerged.
Analysis and Discussions

 Why importance to get a core?

 What is the purpose of using water in coring step?
 What are the purposes of cutting step?
 Select any of core cleaning method and explain it.
 How to select the solvent for the core cleaning?
 Experiment 2
Measuring of Grain Volume and Porosity

Objective
The objective for this experiment is measuring the effectual porosity of core samples and grain
volume using a Helium Porosimeter based on Boyle-Mariotte’s law.

Introduction
Rocks are made up of grains or crystals that fit together. In cases where the fit is very tight and
there are no gaps or pore spaces between the grains or crystals, we say that this rock has no
porosity. At the other end of the scale, some rocks have lots of pore space between grains and so
there is room for air, water or other liquids and gases.

A simple definition of porosity or the amount of pore space is the volume of space within a rock,
which can be occupied by gas (air) or a fluid (water, oil). Measuring the porosity of a rock will
give an indication of its storage potential for groundwater, oil or gas.

In the top diagram, where there is any material (or cement) in the rock to fill in the gaps holding
the grains together, there will be less pore space. The bottom diagram shows that the more space
between the grains, the greater the porosity.

The porosity of a rock varies because of the size of the grains in the rock and the shape of the
grains. Another factor that affects the porosity of a rock is whether or not there is any material in
the rock (or cement) to fill in the gaps between pore spaces and hold the grains together. If a rock
has a lot of gaps between grains it is said to have good porosity and a lot of water can fit between
the grains. A rock with good porosity can hold a lot of groundwater
Instrument Diagram
The Helium Porosimeter is used to determine grain volume (solid volume) of a core sample. The
principle is based on Boyle-Mariotte’s law.

Boyle-Mariotte’s Law is used to calculate grain and pore volume from two measures of pressure
of a known mass of helium (or nitrogen). The gas is initially held in a reference tank at a reference
pressure and then expanded in into a matrix cup (core holder).

Helium Porosimeter instrument includes:

 A pressure regulator connected to user gas net

 A relief valve to protect system from overpressure
 A tank ‘’calibrated reference vessel”
 A matrix cup, which is a quick release core holder.
 A stop valve V01 to set in or out line the tank pressure and the gas net.
 A pressure transmitter to displays process pressure in tank and in matrix cup when
connected.
 A switch valve VO2 to set matrix in line with the tank or to vent the matrix

Principle of Measure and Definitions

Bulk Volume: bulk volume is the geometric volume calculate from diameter and length.
Grain volume: is the volume of solid in sample.
Pore volume: Pore volume is the volume of connected pores that can be invaded by gas.
Porosity: is defined as the ratio of pore volume to sample bulk volume,
 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 + 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) − × 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑝

𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 − 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Pore volume = Bulk Volume- Grain Volume

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 and 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑝 are read at digital display. 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 and 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 are provided below.

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (cc) = 36.811

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 (cc) = 100.381

Measuring Procedure
1. Measuring Preparation
1. Measure the diameter and the length.
2. Measure the weight.

2. Load Sample
1. Open matrix by unscrewing (anti clockwise) the top handle for about one revolution.
2. Remove the metal cup from the frame.
3. Make sure that there are no sand particles on the of the matrix cup (wipe them with the finger).
4. Hold the cup close to horizontal and slide the sample. Horizontal position avoids chocking the
sample that could occur if operator hold sample in vertical position.
5. Drive back the matrix cup into its frame until it touch the rod bars at the backside of the matrix.
6. Tight the matrix by rotating to handle clockwise.

3. Build- up pressure to Reference Pressure (𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒇 )

1. Open Valve V1 to pressurize the small tank (𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) and observe pressure at monometer.

2. Wait about 5 second after pressure reaches the expected Reference pressure of ±200 psia
3. Close back valve V1
4. Wait for about 30 second and read pressure
5. Now, during next 30 second pressure must stay steady within + 0.2 or + 0.3 psi maximum (the
lower change, the better)
6. Assuming pressure is steady; write the read value of Reference pressure.

4. Expand gas into sample matrix (𝑷𝒆𝒙𝒑 )

1. Switch valve V2 toward EXPAND.
2. Wait about 30 second.
3. Pressure must become steady +0.2 or +0.3 psi maximum (lower change, the better)
4. Assuming pressure is steady; write the read value of Expand pressure.
5. Switch the valve V2 toward VENT to depressurize the matrix cup.
6. The sample can be removed from matrix cup; a new measure can take place.

Results
Length
Core No. Diameter (mm) Weight (g) 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒇 (Psi) 𝑷𝒆𝒙𝒑 (Psi)
(mm)

Discussion and Analysis

 Calculate the average Grain volume and Porosity of different sample.

 Comment your results.
 Comment on all types of errors in the experiment.
 Experiment 3
Measuring of Liquid Permeability

Introduction
The properties of petroleum reservoir are related to the characteristics of the rock, the fluids in the
rock, and the reservoir itself. Porosity and permeability are specific rock properties. Effective
porosity is the ratio of the interconnected pores in a rock to the bulk volume of the rock. In addition
to finding available pore space, the hydrocarbons must be able to move from pore to pore and
eventually migrate up closer to the surface. The ease with which fluids move through the
interconnected pore space of a rock is called Permeability. In other words, it is the ability of a
rock to transmit fluids: the higher the permeability of a rock, easier it is for the fluid to flow through
it.

Theory
The determination of permeability involves measuring the rate of flow of a fluid of known
viscosity through a shaped sample under a stable differential pressure. Absolute permeability of a
core is measured when the core is 100% saturated with a fluid. A rock, which contains more than
one fluid, has an effective permeability to each fluid phase and the effective permeability of a
rock to a fluid is a function of its percentage saturation. The effective permeability to a fluid with
which the core is 100% saturated is equal to absolute permeability. Relative permeability is defined
as the ratio of effective permeability to one fluid to the absolute permeability to the same fluid,
and is determined at different fluid saturations. It was Henri Darcy who investigated the flow of
water through a sand filter of water purification. Darcy’s law was modified to measure absolute
permeability to liquids.
14700(µ)(𝑄)(𝐿)
𝐾=
(A)(∆P)
K =Permeability in millidarcies
µ = Viscosity of flowing liquid at test temperature, centipoise
Q = Liquid flow rate, cc/sec
L =Length of the core sample, cm
A =Area of core sample, square cm
∆P=Upstream pressure=pressure across the core sample while flowing
14700 =Conversion factor
Apparatus
The apparatus used for this experiment is the BP-804 Instructional Liquid Permeameter.

Before starting the test

All core samples should be precision right cylinders with end faces parallel to within +/- 0.01
inches for best results.
Use the following list to insure all information and system parameters are ready for the upcoming
test procedure.
1- Know the sample dimensions (will the sample fit in the core holder?)
2- Have at least 500cc of the liquid to flow through the sample during the test procedure.
3- Know the flowing liquid viscosity at test ambient temperatures, centipoise.
4- Know the flowing liquid density at test ambient temperatures, g/cc.
5- Know the desired flow rate to use during the test procedure, cc/min.
6- Sample pore volume, cc
7- Sample bulk volume, cc
8- Sample length, cm
9- Sample diameter, cm
10- Know the liquid content in the sample pore space (cc or % pore space)
11- Initial flowing liquid saturation, % of pore space
 12- Sample weight, saturated, g
13- Insure that all upstream and downstream flow lines are clean and dry
14- Insure the core holder is clean, rebuilt, and ready to load a core sample.
15- Insure that all pressure transducers are zeroed and calibrated
16- Insure that all gas flow meters are calibrated
Store the core sample under the last fluid flowed through the sample until it is ready to load into
the confining sleeve.

Test Procedure, Specific and Effective Permeability

The following procedure describes the basic operation of the TBP-804. This is a CONSTANT
FLOW RATE test procedure. Please read these directions before proceeding.
IMPORTANT NOTE: This procedure assumes that there is only one flowing phase.
1- Load the core sample and place confining pressure on the core sample.
2- Be sure to connect the Upstream tubes and both Downstream tubes and close the
downstream isolate valve.
NOTE: The confining pressure must be maintained at least 300 psi above the flowing
Upstream pressure. Failure to maintain the confining pressure above the flowing pressure
will create a leak and invalidate any test results.
3- Set the upstream pressure gauge Bypass valve to the “Bypass” position.
4- Set the upstream select valve to the “Pump” position.
5- Close the downstream Isolate valve. (on tubing out bottom of core holder) Be sure a low
profile container is placed under the open end of the tubing that exits the downstream
isolate valve.
6- Read the valve on the upstream pressure gauge and document this pressure as the initial
zero value or zero the gauge. This value will be used to correct the actual upstream pressure
measured during a permeability test.
7- Set the upstream pressure gauge Bypass valve to the INLINE position.
8- Open the upstream “Face Flush” valve.
9- Insure that the downstream isolate valve is closed.
10- Start the injection pump. A low flow rate to start is recommended.
11- The flow rate can be changed at any time by entering a new value from the pump control.
12- When the injection liquid exits the Face Flush valve, close the Face Flush valve and open
the downstream isolate valve simultaneously.
13- Monitor the upstream pressure as it builds up prior to flowing through the core sample.
14- When the upstream pressure is stable, the permeability test is ready to begin.
15- Document the stable upstream pressure.
Results
Flow rate (ml/min) Pressure (Psi)

Discussion and Analysis

The following items should be addressed in your report:
 Describe the principle/theory of liquid permeability measurement
 Calculate the liquid permeability
 What factors affect the permeability values of any rock
 Comment your results.
 Comment on all types of errors in the experiment.
 Experiment 4
Measuring of Gas Permeability

Introduction
Gas Permeability means the property of solids that allows the passage of a gas through the body
in the presence of a pressure differential.it refers to the degree to which pore spaces (voids that
can be filled by a fluid) in a medium connect to each other, promoting the movement
of fluid through that material. Permeability and porosity (the number of void spaces in a
medium) are closely connected, however, a material may be highly porous but have few channels
connecting these pores, leading to a low permeability. In a permeable material, holes, pores, and
cracks are lined so that fluid is able to flow through the material. The permeability of a material
is determined by assessing how much a material resists the flow of fluids—if it takes a lot
of pressure to squeeze fluid through the material it has low permeability. Conversely, if the fluid
travels through easily it has high permeability.

Theory
The expression for determining the permeability of a porous medium to gas is of different form
to that of liquid. This is because a gas is compressible whereas a liquid is not. A gas flows
toward the downstream end of a core sample, its pressure decreases, the gas expands and so its
velocity will increase.
The Darcy equation for ideal horizontal laminar flow of gas under steady state isothermal
condition is given as follows:

𝐐𝐛 𝛍 𝐋 𝐏𝐛
𝒌𝒈𝒂𝒔 =
𝐀 ∆𝐏 𝐏𝐦
𝛍 = gas Viscosity (Cp)

𝐐𝐛 = atmospheric gas flow rate (cm/s)

𝐏𝐛 = bse or atmospheric pressure (absolute Atm)

ΔP = differential pressure (Atm)

𝐏𝐦 = mean core gas pressure (Atm)

L =lngth of sample (cm)

A = cross sectional area of cylinder (cm2)

This equation is therefore used to calculate core permeability to nitrogen, under laminar
flow conditions.
Differential pressure ΔP (psid) is the difference between core upstream P1 and downstream P2
pressure across the core.

ΔP = P1 ─ P2 (atm)

Apparatus

0.000

0.000 0.000

0.000

0.000

Figure1: gas permeability apparatus diagram

Experiment Procedure
1. Core preparation for permeability measurement:

All samples must cored and polished to cylindrical shapes. All specimens have lengths
of 3 inch and diameters of approximately 1 inch or 1.5 inch . Samples were cleaned and dried in the oven
to eliminate pore water for gas permeability measurement.

2. Loading a core sample:

 Place the core in the core holder and push it with the quick release end plug.
 Replace the quick release by lining up the male cloverleaf component with the
corresponding female component.
3. Removing a core sample

To remove the core sample: switch the inlet valve to OFF position, switch the valve to i1P
OFF. Release the confining pressure by switching PRESSURE I VENT to VENT.
Slacken the adjustment screw slightly turning the screw anti-clockwise about a quarter turn,
and pull back the SS connection tube from the core face.
Pull on the outer knurled ring then rotate a quarter turn until the end platen component is freed.
The quick release end should be able to be easily removed. If the core does not come on the
bottom platen, help by pushing the top platen. Be careful not to use too much force initially
- just sufficient to free the core from the sleeve.

4. Forward flow operation

In Forward flow mode, gas leaving the core will be vented directly to the atmosphere via the
selected flow meter. For given flow rate therefore, core differential pressure will be at maximum.

 Switch selector valve toward FORWARD

 Set the P transducer to safe position (P OFF)
 Ensure that regulators are fully turned anticlockwise initially.
 For a core of unknown permeability, select the HIGH FLOW range (0-
2,000 cc/min) and select the LOW PRESSURE REGULATOR.
 Switch source valve to ON. Slowly increase l o w -pressure r e gu l a t o r to
obtain desired maximum flow or test pressure.
If on increasing nitrogen pressure, the maximum flow capacity of the flow meter is
exceeded without generating any significant pressure across the core, a higher capacity
flow meter should be ordered.
Alternatively, a rapid increase in injection pressure associated with no or only
negligible flow registered on the flow meter. Indicates that the flow range is too high
for the core sample under test. Select lower rate flow meter.
In general, selection of the most suitable flow meter rating should be based on the core.
Results
Differential
Flow rate Q Upstream pressure Temperature T
pressure ΔP
(ml/min) (Psi) (℃)
(Psi)

Discussion and Analysis:

 Describe the principle/ theory of gas permeability measurement.
 Tabulate the reading and calculate the gas permeability.
 What factors affect the permeability values of any rocks?
 Comment your results.
 Comment on all types of errors in the experiment.
 EXPERIMENT 5
Permeability distribution in a reservoir core slab
Objective
To measure the gas permeability distribution in a reservoir core slab.

Introduction
The permeability of oil reservoir varies from one location to another within the same rock. The
permeability sometimes changes several fold within an inch of rock, which appears quite uniform.
Probe permeameter is a device used to assess approximate permeability of an irregular core, whole
cores and outcrop rock samples. Due to its compact and portable design features, it is also known
as the mini permeameter.
The equipment is based on the application of Darcy’s flow principles, similar to that of the
conventional gas permeameter. The only exception is the use of a probe to flow gas at a chosen
location within a core/rock slab, keeping pressure constant. The generated flow rate is measured
which is a function of the rock type. Using a number of assumptions, a quick and approximate
assessment of permeability to gas at different locations can be made.

Apparatus
1 INLET PRESSURE GAUGE 11 0-2 PSI PRESSURE DISPLAY
2 GAS INLET QUICK CONNECTOR 12 HIGH FLOW DISPLAY (%)
3 GAS OUTLET TO CORE HOLDER TOP 13 LOW FLOW DISPLAY (%)
4 SYSTEM PRESSURE GAUGE 14 LOW FLOW ADJUSTING POTENTIOMETER
5 GAS OUTLET TO PROBE UP 15 LOW/HIGH FLOW SELECTOR
6 VALVE PROBE TIP SELECTOR 16 HIGH FLOW ADJUSTING POTENTIOMETER
7 GAS OUTLET TO PROBE DOWN 17 POWER SUPPLY AND FUSE
8 SYSTEM PRESSURE REGULATOR 18 POWER SYSTEM
9 USB INTERFACE PORT 19 TEMPERATURE DISPLAY
10 0-10 PSI PRESSURE DISPLAY 20 0-2 PSI PRESSURE DISPLAY

Calculation of results
The following equation can be used to measure permeability of rock at a particular point:

Q1 P1
K ( apparant) 
P  P0 2
2
aGo 1
2
Where:
P0 = Atmospheric pressure (atm)
P1 = Tip seal injection pressure (atm)
Q1 = Rotameter flow reading at P1 (ml/sec)

 = Gas viscosity at P1 and T1(C) in cp

Go = Geometric factor (Go=5.16)
a = internal radius of tip seal (cm)
Where a = 20mm

To find the Q use the calibration curve

 MASS FLOW CONTROLLER CALIBRATION
(high flow)
0.0
Mass Flow Rate (g/s)

0.0

0.0

0.0
y = 6E-05x - 3E-05
R² = 0.9994
0.0

0.0
Gas Rate (%)
0.0
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00

MASS FLOW CONTROLLER CALIBRATION

0.00 Low flow
0.00
Mass Flow Rate (g/s)

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00
y = 4E-06x + 3E-05
0.00
R² = 0.9992
0.00

0.00

0.00
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00
Gas Rate (%)
Procedure

1. Connect the regulated exit port of a Nitrogen bottle to the gas inlet (2) with a nylon hose
¼" OD, gas inlet pressure must be between 100 and 120 psi.
2. Using the pressure controller (8), set the system pressure to 100 psi.
3. Move the probe to a certain location on the slab. Then press bottom 6 in the measuring
unit to move down the probe.
4. In the measuring unit turn valve (15) to the "LOW FLOW" position, with the low flow
adjustment control (14) set a flow rate between 20% and 100 %, look for the pressure
increase in the 0 to 100 psig pressure display (20 & 10).
5. If the pressure in the display for flow at 100 % is smaller than 0.1 psig, change the mass
flow controller from "LOW FLOW" to "HIGH FLOW" by using valve 15. Select the
flow rate between 5 and 100% and observe the pressure increase on the 0 to 100 psi
pressure display (10 & 11).
6. When a steady state has been reached, take the reading of pressure and temperature.
7. Change the flow rate two times and repeat steps 4-6.
8. press bottom 6 in the measuring unit to move up the probe. Change the position of the
probe and repeat steps 3-7.

Position Q (%) P (psi) T (℃)

Analysis and Discussion

The following items should be addressed in your report:
 Sketch the apparatus used.
 Tabulate the data and calculated permeability.
 Calculate the average permeability to gas at each location.
 Calculate overall mean permeability of the rock.
 State possible sources of error.
 EXPERIMENT 6
Measurement of Fluid Density

Objective
Demonstrate the use of Hydrometers and Calibrated density bottles to measure the density of
different fluids.

Introduction
Density of a fluid is the mass of the fluid per unit volume. Mathematically, it is the ratio of the
mass to the volume of the fluids, ρ = m/V. The density of a material varies with temperature and
pressure. This variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases.
Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its
density. Increasing the temperature of a substance (with a few exceptions) decreases its density by
increasing its volume.

According to Archimedes principle, for a floating body the weight of liquid displaced is equal to
the weight of the body. If the liquid is floating in a low-density ligid, a greater volume of liquid
will have to be displaced than when the body is floating in a high-density liquid. A devise designed
to indicate readily how much of a body is submerged when it is floating in a liquid is called a
Hydrometer. Because the upper stem is thin, small difference in the density of the test liquid will
cause a considerable change in the amount of the stem that is submerged, so that a hydrometer can
be made not only to read directly the density or specific gravity of the liquid in which it is floating
but to do so with a high degree of accuracy.

Another method to measure liquid density at room temperature is by using calibrated density
bottles. Typically made of glass, a pycnometer is a flask of a pre-defined volume used to measure
the density of a liquid. Essentially, glass pycnometers measure the unknown mass of a liquid – this
mass is then divided by the known volume of the pycnometer to determine the density of a liquid.
Experiment 6.1: Hydrometers

Usually consisting of a graduated glass tube above a bulbous weight, a

hydrometer floats in a liquid at varying levels depending upon the
density. The point at which the liquid level touches the graduated stem
is recorded.
Hydrometers with different scales are available to test liquids of
varying densities- these have different sized weights and/or more air in
the enclosed tube. API scale and specific gravity scale are used in this
experiment.
The function of the hydrometer is based on an Archemedes principle
that a solid suspended in a liquid will be buoyed up by a force equal in
weight to the water displaced. Therefore the lower the density of the
liquid, the lower the hydrometer will sink.

PROCEDURE:
1. Place the fluid in a 500 ml or 1000 ml cylinder
2. Drop carefully an appropriate hydrometer into the fluid; it will
float with the liquid surface cutting the scaled stem at some
point.
3. Record the reading of hydrometer
4. Repeat the procedure with three different fluids using appropriate hydrometers

CALCULATIONS OF RESULTS:
S.G. = Specific gravity of a liquid
API = (141.5 /S-G.)— 131.5
5G. = 141.5/ (131.5 + API)
S.G. = Density of a liquid / Density of water
S.G. @ 60 F= S.G. (obs.) - 0.0004(60-T (obs.)

Fluid S.G API Density

Experiment 6.2: Calibrated density
bottle

Density bottle is a small glass bottle, which has a

glass stopper at its neck. The bottle can store a
fixed volume of a liquid. Generally, the density
bottle comes in two sizes, 25ml or 50ml. The glass
stopper has a narrow hole in it. When the bottle is
filled with liquid and a stopper is inserted. The
excess liquid rises through the hole and drains out.
Thus, the bottle will contain the same volume of
liquid each time when it is filled.

PROCEDURE:
1. Determine the weight of the dry and empty density bottle.
2. Fill the density bottle with liquid, avoiding bubbles. The ground neck should be covered to
about 1/3.
3. Align the stopper respectively, the thermometer of the density bottle according to the
marking, and insert carefully. The capillary tube fills up and the displaced liquid comes
out.
4. Carefully dry the outer surfaces of the stopper (respectively, the side capillary) and the
density bottle with tissue.
5. Determine the weight of the filled density bottle.
6. Calculate the density from the mass (weight) and the volume of the liquid at the room
temperature.

CALCULATIONS OF RESULTS:
Density (ρ) = Mass (m)/Volume (V)
Density = (M2–M1) / Flask Volume

Fluid Volume Empty weight Full weight Density

(M1) (M2)
Discussion and Analysis:
 Tabulate the measurements and results
 Calculate the API and specific gravity of fluids used
 Compare the density reading of different used liquids in both methods.
 Comment your results.
 Comment on all types of errors in the experiment.
 EXPERIMENT 7
Viscosity

Objective
To determine the rheological parameters of provided crude oil at different temperatures and
classify its rheological behavior.

Introduction
A fluid is defined as a form of matter that is unable to withstand an applied tangential (or shear)
stress when at rest. The smallest shearing stress is capable of producing any desired change of
shape, provided that sufficient time is allowed for the deformation. This is in contrast to the
behavior of a solid, in which a definite value of the shearing stress must be applied to produce a
given deformation. The study of deformation and flow is termed rheology. A fluid offers no
resistance to change of shape but it does exhibit a resistance to the rate of change of shape. The
property that gives rise to this resistance is called the viscosity. It should be noted that for liquids
the viscosity decreases with an increase of temperature whereas for gases the viscosity increases
with an increase of temperature.
The Newtonian viscosity (Pa·s) depends upon temperature and pressure and is independent of
shear rate. Newtonian behavior is exhibited in fluids where dissipation of viscous energy is due to
collision of comparatively small molecules. For a Newtonian fluid, we can write:
𝒅𝒖
𝝉=𝛍
𝒅𝒚

For non-Newtonian fluids the flow curve is not linear (see Fig. 1). “Viscosity” is not a constant
at a given temperature and pressure but depends upon other factors such as the shear rate the
apparatus in which the fluid is contained or even on the previous history of the
fluid. Non-Newtonian fluids may be categorized into three broad types:
1 Time-independent shear rate is only a function of shear stress
2 Time-dependent more complex
3 Viscoelastic characteristics of both solids and fluids
Figure 1 above shows flow curves for the three distinct types; namely:
a. Bingham plastics
b. Pseudoplastic (shear rate thinning) fluids
c. Dilatant (shear rate thickening) fluids

Apparatus
The Haake ROTOVISCO VT 500 Viscometer is an apparatus used to measure the torque as a
function of shear rate for various non-gaseous fluids. Direct viscosity readings in Pa.s or mPa.s
can also be taken from the control panel by pressing button

Figure 2: Haake ROTOVISCO VT 500

Viscometer
Theory
The integrated computer of the VT500 receives the data `sensor system`,`speed`,`torque` and
`temperature` from the measuring device. With the help of the calculation factors stored, the
absolute values `viscosity` and `shear rate` can be calculated. The viscotester is calibrated for a
maximum torque of 2 Ncm.
The shear stress 𝜏 can be calculated as:
𝝉 =Md(display) * f/10 [Pa]
The shear rate D can be calculated as:
D= M * n/1000 n=rpm
Using Newton equation, the viscosity can be calculated from the shear stress and shear rate:
𝝁= 𝝉 /D [Pa.s]

To calculate the data ‘Viscosity’ and ‘Shear rate’, the stored factors in the VT500 are shown in
the appendix1.
Procedure

Measuring the viscosity by manual speed setting and rea- ding the results from the display can
be broken down in individual steps:

1. Connect the sensor system with rotor to the VT500

2. Select sensor system, Key 0...31
3. Fill sample into measuring system
4. Insert measuring cup into the temperature vessel and fasten it
5. bring cone and plate into contact
6. lower VT500 and immerse tube into the measuring cup
7. lower VT500 and immerse rotor into the cup
8. Allow sample to warm up until the preset temperature value is reached, rotation
will shorten the warm up time.

9. Adjust zero point [key]

10. Set speed 1 at speed selector (smallest speed) and start motor
11. Set display to viscosity
12. Read display and note data
13. Set display to shear rate

14. Read display and note data

15. Set display to torque

16. Read display and note data

17. Set display to speed

18. Read display and note data

19. Repeat above steps with speeds 2,3,4……..10
20. Change the temperature on the bath by 10 degrees ℃ and repeat the above procedure.
Take the readings at 25, 30, 40, 50 and 60℃.
Results

For each temperature, prepare a table as below:

Table 1: Obtained Speed, Torque and Shear rate

Temperature Speed selector Speed Torque Shear rate
Analysis and Discussion

 Calculate the viscosity

 Draw Temperature vs. Viscosity cure
 Draw Shear Rate vs. Shear Stress curves
 Determine the behavior of the fluid whether Newtonian or no-Newtonian
Appendix
Appendix1: The Stored factors in the VT500.
No. Description f-factor M-factor
0 - 10 1000
1 NV 363 5410
2 MV1 657 2340
3 MV2 768 900
4 MV3 1110 440
5 SV1 2530 890
6 SV2 7680 890
7 MVDIN 614 1290
8 SVDIN 3694 1290
9 MV-E 558 1290
10 SV-E 3221 1290
11 HVDIN 70410 1290
12 MV2P 768 880
13 SV2P 7680 780
14 E30 1836 450
15 E100 6120 210
16 E500 26500 190
17 E1000 57100 150
18 FL10 540 400
19 FL100 5610 200
20 FL100 56100 100
21 B1 143 100
22 B2 570 100
23 B3 1430 100
24 B4 2855 100
25 B5 5700 100
26 B6 14300 100
27 B7 57150 100
28 PK1,1 17400 6000
29 PK1,0.5 17400 12000
30 PK2,1 47750 6000
31 PK2,0.5 47750 12000
32 FREE 10 1000
33 FREE 10 1000
34 FREE 10 1000
35 FREE 10 1000
 Experiment 8
Surface tension
Objective
To measure the surface tension of three different solutions.

Introduction
The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible for
the phenomenon known as surface tension. The molecules at the
surface do not have other like molecules on all sides of them and
consequently they cohere more strongly to those directly
associated with them on the surface. This forms a surface film,
which makes it more difficult to move an object through the
surface than to move it when it is completely submersed.

Surface tension is typically measured in Newton per meter (N/m) , the force in Newton required
to break a film of length 1 m. In general mN/m is used since 1 mN/m = 1 dyne/cm.

Instrument principle
Torsion balance is an apparatus used to measure surface tension (Figure2).

Index pointer

Knurled disc

Clamping screw
Adjusting screw

Figure 2: Torsion balance apparatus.

The principle of the instrument is shown in Figure 3. 1) At the beginning, the ring is above the
interface and the force is zeroed. 2) The ring touches the interface and there is a slight positive
force due to the adhesive force between the ring and the surface. 3) The ring must be pushed
through the interface; due to the surface tension, which will cause a small negative force. 4) The
ring breaks through the interface and a small positive force is measured due to the supporting wires
of the ring. 5) When lifted through the interface the measured force starts to increase. 6) The force
keeps increasing. 7) The maximum force is reached. 8) After the maximum there is a small
decrease of the force until the lamella breaks, or the ring is pushed back below the surface.

Figure3: force vs. time curves at different stages of the experiment

Procedure
 Place liquid on the glass plate.
 Hook the platinum- iridium ring to level arm.
 Insert ring to the glass plate.
 Adjust sample table to lift ring until it approaches the surface of the liquid and almost
breaks.
 Record torsiometer reading.
 Repeat procedure three time for each liquid.
 Repeat procedure for other liquids.
Results

NO Type of liquid Surface tension (dyne/cm) Average

Analysis and discussion

 Discuss the result and comment on the different of surface tension of three liquids.

 Comment your results.

 Explain the possible sources of error and limitation of the equipment.
 EXPERIMENT 9
Drainage & Imbibition Displacement through A Reservoir Core

Objective
The main objective of this experiment is to obtain the end-point data during the drainage and
imbibition process also to obtain an estimate value of irreducible fluid saturation (Sor, Swi) in a
rock sample. During the drainage process, the wetting phase is displaced by the non-wetting phase.
During the imbibition process, the non-wetting phase is displaced by the wetting phase.

Introduction
A drainage and imbibition displacement processes are the most common core flood process to
obtain the relative permeability data on reservoir cores in the laboratory. The main factors which
control the drainage or the imbibition processes are the pressure gradient, wettability, rock
structure, fluid saturation and various forces such as viscous, capillary and gravitational forces.
Relative permeability data of reservoir cores of the wetting and non-wetting phase could be
obtained in the laboratory using the drainage or imbibition processes

Theory
Use the below equation to calculate;
Effective permeability
𝛍𝐐𝐋
k =
𝐀∆𝐏

End point of effective k to oil

𝐐𝐨𝐋𝛍𝐨
Ko =
𝐀 𝚫𝐏

End point of effective k to water

𝝁𝒘𝑳𝑸𝒘
Kw =
𝐀 ∆𝐏
 Instrument Diagram

Accumulator Core holder

Confining unit
Positive displacement pumps

Transducer
P1 P2

Burett
e

REQUIREMENT:
1. Positive displacement pumps
2. Core holder
3. Nitrogen gas supply to confine the core
4. Clean reservoir core sample (water wet)
5. Fluids (water and Diesel)

PROCEDURE (Drainage Process)

1. Take a clean core (water wet) of known absolute permeability and porosity
2. Saturate the core with water and measure kw (effective permeability to water), at
this point Ko = 0
3. Displace the water with an immiscible oil of a similar viscosity to that of water in
the core
4. Obtain both Swi and end-point effective permeability
PROCEDURE (Imbibition Process)

1. Take a core (water wet) of known absolute permeability and porosity

2. Saturate the core with oil and measure ko (effective permeability to diesell), at this
point kw = 0
3. Displace the oil with water of a similar viscosity to that of oil
4. Obtain both Sor (residual oil saturation) and end point water effective permeability

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION:

 Identify the wetting and non-wetting fluid

 Discuss and calculate the irreducible phase saturation
 Calculate the of end- point of oil effective ko at the saturation Swi
 Calculate the of end- point of water effective kw at the saturation Sor
 What would you expect if the saturated fluid was displaced with another fluid of
different viscosity (higher or lower) than the fluid initially in the core at the same
flow rate
 Experiment 10
Kinematic Viscosity

Objectives
1) Measure the Kinematic viscosity for three different fluids ( Water, Kerosene and Engine
oil)
2) Study the effect of temperature on the kinematic viscosity

Introduction
Kinematic viscosity is a measure of a fluid's internal resistance to flow under gravitational forces.
It is determined by measuring the time in seconds, required for a fixed volume of fluid to flow a
known distance by gravity through a capillary within a calibrated viscometer at a closely controlled
temperature.
This value is converted to standard units such
as centistokes (cSt) or square millimeters per
second. Viscosity reporting is only valid
when the temperature at which the test was
conducted also is reported - for example 23
cSt at 40 degrees C. Kinematic viscosity is
measured by noting the time it takes oil to
travel through the orifice of a capillary under
the force of gravity (Figure 1). The orifice of
the kinematic viscometer tube produces a
fixed resistance to flow. Different sized
capillaries are available to support fluids of
varying viscosity. The time taken for the fluid
to flow through the capillary tube can be
converted to a kinematic viscosity using a
simple calibration constant provided for each
tube. The value of kinematic viscosity can be
detrmain by recording the time required for
the fluid to travel from the start mark to the
stop mark as shown if figure 1.

Figure 1: CANNON-FENSKE ROUTINE AKV VISCOMETER

Then by utilizing equation 1, the kinematic viscosity can be calculated:

V=Cxt
Where:
V = Kinematic Viscosity,
C = Calibration constant of the viscometer,
t = time in second.

Each size of canon tube has its individual constant and is suitable for specific range of viscosity.
Table 1 illustrate these details:

Cannon tube size Constant Range of viscosity (cSt)

25 0.002 0.4 to 2

50 0.004 0.8 to 4

75 0.008 1.6 to 8

100 0.015 3 to 15

150 0.035 7 to 35

200 0.1 20 to 100

Table 1: Calibration Constant for Different Cannon Tube.

Figure 2 shows the viscosity of some common liquids – ranging from low viscosities (i.e. very thin
liquid, flows and pours fast) to high viscosity (i.e. very thick liquid, slow to move when it is
poured)
Apparatus
The main apparatus to conduct this experiment are:
1) Cannon tubes with different size (25,100, 150)
2) Water bath
3) Fluids ( Water, Engine oil and Kerosene)
4) Stop watch

Figure 2: Cannon Tube Figure 3: Water bath

Procedure

1) Clean the canon tubes

2) Make sure the cannon tube is dried
3) Fill around 10 ml of the sample.
4) Suck the fluid until reach the starting point shown in figure 1
5) Once the fluid reach the starting mark start recording the time.
6) When the fluid reach the end mark stop recoding the time.
7) Repeat the same steps for the other two fluid.
8) Switch on the water bath heater and adjust the temperature to 40℃
9) Immerse the cannon tube inside the bath and once the temperature reach the adjusted
temperature, repeat steps 4 to 6.
10) Repeat the same steps for other two fluids.
11) Chang the temperature to 60 ℃ and repeat the previous steps.
Results

Temperature:
Size of cannon Kinematic Viscosity
Sample Time (s)
tube (cSt)

Temperature:
Size of cannon Kinematic Viscosity
Sample Time (s)
tube (cSt)

Temperature:
Size of cannon Kinematic Viscosity
Sample Time (s)
tube (cSt)

Discussion and Analysis:

 Tabulate the measurements and results
 Comment your results.
 Comment on all types of errors in the experiment.