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Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
 Table of Contents SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
2 3

SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Manual

Publisher:
International Training

tdisdi.com Email: worldhq@tdisdi.com

© International Training 2006 4th Edition v0723
Notice of Rights:
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior
written permission of the publisher. For information on getting permission for reprints and
excerpts, contact International Training.
Author:
Katie Schickel

Technical Editors and Contributers

Sally Camm
Richard Carlson
Lauren Kieren
Sebastian Soffici
Photography / Illustrations:
Jennifer Adler
Doug Arnberg (www.exploreH2O.com)
Harry Averill
Richard Carlson
Bret Gilliam
Sean Harrison
Lauren Kieren
Y. Zin Kim
Peter Lapin
Pete Nawrocky
Sebastian Soffici

Disclaimer:
All diving activities have inherent risks involved. Each individual diver engaging in any
form of diving must accept the risks and accept responsibility for their own actions. The
author and publisher assume no liability to anyone for loss, damage, injury or death caused
by any error or omission in the work. Any and all such liability is disclaimed. The infor-
mation in this manual pertains to scuba diving, and is only to be used as a supplement
Special Thanks to: to recognized training by a certified SDI Scuba Instructor. This manual cannot replace
Bonaire Tourism Board, Captain Don’s Habitat, Aqua Lung, professional instruction and good judgment.
Henderson Aquatics, Innovative Concepts, Oceanic USA,
Pinnacle Aquatics, Rek Tek Scuba, World of Scuba, Dive
Rite, AUP, Fourth Element, and SCUBAPRO. ISBN: 1-931451-08-7 Product ID #: 210000-01
 Table of Contents SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
4 5
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
.......................................... .......................................... .......................................... ..........................................
Chapter 1 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5
The Underwater Environment Scuba Equipment Skills Development Planning Your Dive
Setting Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Welcome to Diving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Personal Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Scuba Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Diver Fitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
History of Diving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Mask, Fins, Snorkel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Putting on Your Scuba Equipment . . . . . . 68 Buddy System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Scuba Diving International . . . . . . . . . 10 Exposure Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Pre-Dive Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Buddy Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
The Aquatic Environment . . . . . . . . . 12 Scuba Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Review the ABCDE’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Dive Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Adapting to the Underwater World . . . 12 Buoyancy Compensator Device . . . . . . 46
Entries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Repetitive Dives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Giant Stride Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Safety Stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Controlled Seated Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Emergency Decompression . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Weight Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Back Roll Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Omitted Decompression . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Heat Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Underwater Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Shore Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Computer Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Oceanography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Dive Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Surf Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 In-Water Emergencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Other Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
In-Water Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Overexertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Dive Watch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
BCD Inflation/Deflation . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Problems at the Surface . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Depth Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Weight Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Tired Diver Tow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Descents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Entanglement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Marine Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Regulator Clearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Missing Diver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Marine Life Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Rescue Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Regulator Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 First Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Knife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Fin Pivot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Seasickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
.......................................... Dive Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Hovering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Decompression Sickness . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Gear Bag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Chapter 2 Breathing from a Free-Flow. . . . . . . . . 77
Dive Flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Physics and Physiology Logbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Mask Clearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Swimming Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Slate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Cramp Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
BCD Removal Underwater . . . . . . . . . . 79
Positive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Compass Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Snorkel Clearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Negative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Hand Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Boyle’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Ascents and Out-of-Air Emergencies . . 82
Physiology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Normal Ascent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 ..........................................
Air Spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Alternate-Air Assisted Ascents . . . . . . . 82
Equalization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Controlled Swimming Ascent . . . . . . . 83 Chapter 6
Boyle’s Law and Decreasing Pressure . . 30
Exits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Continuing Your Dive Experience
Lung Over-Expansion Injuries . . . . . . 31
Scuba Disassembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Beyond Open Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Breathing Air Under Pressure . . . . . 32 Technical Diving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Decompression Sickness . . . . . . . . . . 34 Public Saftey Diving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Nitrogen Narcosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Oxygen Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Mixed Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
7

..........................................
Foreword
It’s been said that diving is more than just a
sport or recreation. It’s a state of being - and
a state of becoming. Being divers makes us
different. It makes us special. As divers, we
see and do things few can even imagine (and
fewer still experience). We discover the true
nature of Planet Earth - the Water Planet -
and how critical this precious resource is to
our survival.
At Scuba Diving International, we know
all of this from first-hand experience. Diving
has taken us to breathtaking coral gardens in the Caribbean, Pacific, and Indian
Ocean. It’s brought us face to face with gigantic (but surprisingly gentle)
whale sharks off the Galapagos. It’s taken us to sunken shipwrecks - some
centuries old - in every corner of the globe. It’s taken us hundreds of metres
back in stalactite-filled underwater caves, where we discovered the remains
Welcome to our world. of a 12,000 year-old Mayan, one of the first humans to inhabit the Western
Hemisphere. It’s allowed us to hear humpback whales serenade one another
(It is, after all, your world,
off the coast of Maui. Yet some of our best diving experiences have taken place
too - although you may be in lakes, rivers, quarries and beaches close to home.
about to discover its true So incredible have all of these experiences been, that we’ve made diving
nature for the first time.) our careers. As diving educators and dive boat captains, we’ve taken thou-
sands of people diving in the Caribbean and Pacific. We’ve seen, first hand,
We hope the experience is
what it is divers can do to make their experience safer and more enjoyable.
every bit as special for you (We’ve also seen a few things you might want to avoid.)
as it is for us. It’s these lessons we’d like to share with you now. The fact that we have
so much real-world experience (SDI employs a higher percentage of licensed,
100-ton dive boat captains than any other training organization) makes learn-
ing to dive the SDI way different.
The way people dive and the equipment they use has changed dramatically
over the past 25 years. Unfortunately, the way most people learn to dive has
not. For us, the fact “it’s always been done this way” just isn’t good enough.
So we developed a way you can learn to dive that reflects real-world technol-
ogy and real-world diving procedures. The result? A course that’s more effec-
tive and more enjoyable.
Welcome to our world. (It is, after all, your world, too - though you may
be about to discover its true nature for the first time.) We hope the experience
is every bit as special for you as it is for us.

Brian Carney
President
Scuba Diving International
tdisdi.com
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
9
The Underwater Environment Overview
• Welcome to Diving
• History of Diving
• Adapting to the Underwater Realm
• Oceanography
• Marine Life

......................................................................

Welcome to Diving
Congratulations! By signing up for this course, you have taken the first step
in what may become a lifelong fascination. Whether you travel around
the world or seek out the waters in your own backyard, scuba diving
allows you a glimpse into the spectacular underwater realm.
Consider for a moment what the earth looks like from outer
space. Nearly 75% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water,
providing unlimited diving opportunities and new experiences (see
Figure 1-1). Biologically, the oceans are home to more biodiversity
than all terrestrial species combined. Few sports offer the same level
of adventure as diving. Few take you to such unseen parts of the planet.
Under the guidance of your SDI instructor, you will develop the basic
skills and knowledge necessary for safe diving practices. While scuba diving Figure 1-1
can be enjoyed by both young and old, anyone taking up the sport should The Blue Planet. Over 75%
be in reasonably good health, proficient in swimming, and should have a of the Earth’s surface is
positive mental attitude. As you dive more and become more comfortable covered by water.
in the water, your mastery of diving skills will improve dramatically.
As your skills develop and you gain broader diving experiences, you
may want to seek advanced training. Underwater photography, night div-
ing, boat, rescue, wreck, underwater navigation, deep, ice, and computer
nitrox diving are just some of the advanced diving experiences that you can
explore. This course will open the door to unlimited diving adventures.

......................................................................

History of Diving
In addition to ensuring the survival of every living thing inhabiting the plan-
et, water has also been a source of scientific study and intrigue through the
ages. Accounts of diving contraptions date back to ancient times. For ex-
ample, diving bells fashioned from wooden barrels were used in classic Ro-
man warfare. The earliest diving inventions were bulky, relied on surface-
supplied air, and greatly restricted the mobility of the diver (see Figure 1-2).
The invention of scuba, which stands for self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus, gave divers mobility by allowing them to breathe
compressed air underwater for extended periods. In 1943, two Frenchmen, Figure 1-2
Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Emile Gagnan introduced the world to the first The earliest diving inven-
modern scuba equipment. Their invention, the Aqua-Lung, consisted of a tions were bulky, restricting
the mobility of the diver.
double-hosed regulator that attached to a compressed air cylinder.
 Chapter 1: The Underwater Environment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
10 11
The sport of scuba diving took off in the 1950s. In its infancy, Why learn to dive with a
scuba diving was highly experimental, and not much was understood computer? Just as electronic
about the physiological impact of breathing compressed air under calculators replaced the use of
1102 992 1102

pressure. In 1957, the United States Navy published the USN dive slide rules because they were
63 63

33 31 33

12

8 7
11
10
8
12
tables. The dive tables provided a way to calculate how long a person far more efficient and accurate,
could stay at various depths underwater without a high risk of pres- dive computers provide a more
7 6 7
6 6
6 6

sure-related injuries (see Figure 1-3). The tables also showed how accurate model of dive planning and
much time a diver must stay on the surface before making another management (see Figure 1-4).
2010-2013
dive. Except for few changes, they are the same USN tables that are Advancements in diving
in use today. technology have made the sport
As interest in diving grew, equipment manufacturers made dra- safer and more enjoyable through
Item: 110520-01

matic improvements in both the design and workmanship of scuba the years. For example, before
gear. The necessity to accurately measure depth and time while un- the invention of the submersible
derwater led to the next invention that had a revolutionary impact on pressure gauge, there was no way
Figure 1-3 diving – the electronic underwater personal dive computer (PDC). to determine exactly how much air
The U.S. Navy diving tables
Dive computers became commercially available to the diving public was in a tank. Essentially, when a
provide a way to calculate
depth and time limits. in 1959. Since then, they have evolved into sophisticated instruments diver could no longer breathe, he
that make diving safer and more enjoyable. Today a sport diver can would reach behind him and pull
explore the underwater realm using the same technology that places open a spring-activated reserve
astronauts in outer space. valve, called a “J-valve”, that
would theoretically provide enough air for him to ascend to
the surface. History proved that J-valves were not reliable in
Scuba Diving International monitoring cylinder pressure. Today, diving without a way to
Scuba Diving International (SDI) takes advantage of the latest tech- continuously monitor air pressure is considered reckless.
nological developments in dive computers. SDI was the first dive
training agency to provide entry-level scuba instruction that incorpo-
rates the use of dive computers.
The automatic features of today’s dive
Figure 1-4
Dive computers make diving computers make them very appealing.
safer and more enjoyable by
calculating time and depth
limits before, during and after
a dive.
A similar story unfolds with regard to dive tables and
gauges for measuring depth and time underwater. Even
with the use of modern dive equipment, the human body is
not naturally equipped to stay underwater for an extended
duration. We must adhere to time and depth limits based
on the properties of physics and physiology.
The multiple automatic features of today’s dive
computers make them very appealing. Their ability
to provide essential dive data in real time, without
the use of dive tables, takes the mental gymnastics
out of diving. Audible and/or visual alarms for
critical diving violations, such as ascending
too fast, decrease the margin for human error.
Their value and popularity among both new
and seasoned divers is undisputed.
 Chapter 1: The Underwater Environment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
12 13
Scuba Diving International recognizes the need for updated diver Vision
training that incorporates the use of modern diving technology. What
does this mean for you, the SDI student? It means that you will use Objects underwater appear larger than they really are. In fact, things
a personal dive computer throughout your in-water instruction and in the water are magnified by 25% (see Figure 1-5). In order for your
certification dives. Incorporating modern diving technology also retinas to focus underwater, there must be an air-space between your
means a more streamlined scuba course with more instruction time eyes and the water. A dive mask creates an artificial air space. As light
in the water, where it counts, instead of in the classroom. Diving with travels through this airspace, it bends, creating a magnifying effect.
the latest, most sophisticated equipment means that you emerge as a Objects also appear closer underwater than they do on land. Vision
scuba diver ready to confidently plunge into diving in the 21st century. distortion can sometimes be disorienting. If you feel dizzy or disori-
ented underwater, stop, grab a hold of a stationary object, and wait.
Once you have regained your sense of direction, you can continue with
The Aquatic Environment your dive.
Underwater, all of your senses are altered. Soon you will be experi-
encing complete weightlessness. Things will look bigger and sound
louder, and your movements will be dramatically affected by the wa- Figure 1-5
Objects appear 25% closer and
ter around you. And while this sensory overload can be an enjoyable
33% larger underwater than they
aspect of diving, it is important to learn why the changes occur. do on land.
What the diver views
Adapting to the Underwater World
The human body is not naturally equipped to be underwater. As you
will learn in the next chapter, Physics & Physiology, our bodies are
governed by the physical properties of matter and energy. Because
water is denser than air, light and sound travel differently underwater Actual size of fish
than they do on the surface.

Objects appear closer underwater You will also notice that you cannot see as far in any one direc-
tion underwater as you can above the water. Your visibility is greatly
than they do on land. reduced. Divers express visibility, how far they can see horizontally, in
metres/feet. Available light, water clarity, bottom composition and time
of day are among the factors that determine visibility.

Light
As you descend, you will notice that the deeper you go, the bluer your
surroundings become. A fish that is actually red will appear green at a
depth of 30 metres (100 feet). This is because white light, such as sun-
light, is made up of a spectrum of colors – red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, violet. The individual colors in the spectrum are absorbed
the deeper you go (see Figure 1-6). In order to see true color underwa-
ter, divers use underwater lights.
Water that contains a large quantity of suspended particles is said to
be turbid. Light does not penetrate well through turbid water because
the particles in the water reflect the light. Turbidity greatly reduces Figure 1-6
visibility. And while diving in low visibility is commonly practiced, it Water absorbs color, starting with
poses more risks, such as losing sight of other divers. red, as you go deeper.
 Chapter 1: The Underwater Environment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
14 15
Sound Heat Loss
Diving is not a silent sport. You will hear yourself breathing loudly. Becoming cold while diving can be very uncomfortable and po-
You will hear the snapping and clicking noises made by fish and tentially dangerous. Water conducts heat away from the body
other marine life. You will also hear engines of boats overhead. about 25 times faster than air does. That is why 22°C (72°F)
Because water is about 800 times denser than air, it is a very water feels quite cool, but 22°C (72°F) air feels comfortable.
effective conductor of sound. Sound waves move approximately It’s important to wear proper thermal protection for the area in
four times faster in water than in air. This makes it very difficult which you are diving. Even with insulation such as a wet suit or
to determine from which direction the sound is coming (see Figure dry suit, you can still get chilled after a long duration in the wa-
1-7). Sound distortion can be dangerous to a diver when a boat is ter. When you feel yourself begin to shiver, get out of the water,
overhead. The best thing to do when you hear a boat engine is to dry off and seek warmth.
stay down until the sound disappears and then surface by your dive You may experience changing water temperatures during a
float or your own dive vessel. single dive. This occurs when water of differing densities and
temperatures form layers. An abrupt change in water tempera-
ture is called a thermocline (see Figure 1-8). Thermoclines can
occur in any body of water. Cold water is denser, so it tends to
sink under warm water if undisturbed or unaffected by extrane-
ous factors such as winds, currents and seasonal variations.
It pays to be prepared. Always find out from local dive
guides what the water temperature is and whether or not the
area typically has thermoclines. The air temperature could be
a balmy 29°C (85°F ) and the water temperature at the surface
could be a comfortable 27°C (81°F), but the water at the bottom
could be a bone-chilling 13°C (55°F )! Plan ahead.

Oceanography
Figure 1-7
Because water is denser than air, As stated earlier, more than 75% of the Earth’s surface is cov-
sound waves travel faster and ered by water. From the smallest ponds, lakes, quarries and
closer together than they do on springs to massive rivers and the oceans, there are countless
the surface. It can be difficult to bodies of water to explore. The vast majority of sport diving is
determine from which direction a done in the ocean in temperate and tropical weather.
sound is coming.
While you are not expected to have a thorough understand-
ing of oceanography in order to dive safely, you should have a
working knowledge of tides, currents and weather. Being able
to assess conditions is an invaluable skill in any water-related
activity. You should be able to decide for yourself when seas are
too rough, currents are too strong, or weather is too threatening
to dive. Take responsibility and make your own decisions about
when to dive and when to cancel a dive. No matter where you
dive, you should always learn about the conditions before you go.
Figure 1-8
A thermocline is a layer of water,
Tides which separates warmer surface
water from cold deep water.
Tides are the steady rise and fall in water level that results from
the gravitational pull of the moon and sun on large bodies of
water (see Figure 1-9). The moon is the more powerful force of
the two, pulling water outward as the Earth rotates. Tides affect
water current and visibility.
 Chapter 1: The Underwater Environment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
16 17
Divers should be aware of tidal variations in coastal areas where Longshore Current – A longshore
currents may become too strong to swim against. Plan shore dives so current runs parallel to the shoreline.
that you will enter and exit the water when there is the least amount This current is caused by waves Shore Shore
of current. approaching the shore at an angle and
Local tide tables of coastal areas are readily available in local can be quite strong. Plan your dive so
newspapers and through daily marine reports. Knowing tidal patterns that your entry is well up-current of
can greatly help in planning a dive. In general, the best time to dive your exit point. Sand
Bar Waves
is during slack tide, the period in between low and high tide in which Waves
the water level is neither rising nor falling. This is the time with the Waves Rip Waves
Rip Currents – A rip current, or Current
Longshore Current
least amount of tidal current.
run-out, is a narrow flow of swiftly
moving water that runs perpendicular
Figure 1-9 Water Exit
The Tide Cycle:
to shore and can quickly pull people
New Moon. out to sea. Rip currents are formed
Figure 1-10
With the sun and moon aligned when water flowing out to the sea is funneled through
Rip currents are formed when water
on the same side of the Earth a narrow restriction, such as between two sandbars or a flowing out to the sea is funnelled
their combined gravitational pull break in a coral reef (see Figure 1-10). The force of a rip through a narrow restriction, such as
creates the highest tides. is diminished as it dumps into deeper water, generally not between two sandbars or a break in
Full Moon.
far beyond the surf zone. You can identify a rip current by a coral reef.
With the Earth in the middle, the a stream of foamy turbid water running perpendicular to
sun and the moon are in shore. If you are caught in a rip current, the best thing to do Wave
opposition. New Moon First and Last is to swim parallel to shore until you reach an area free of Wave Direction Leng
th
Quarter of the rip current. Then swim toward shore. Wa
Both alignments are known as ve
the Moon He
Spring Tides. igh
t
Waves
First and Last Quarter Crest
of the Moon. Waves are formed by wind pushing water on the surface.
In this phase, the sun and moon The size of a wave generally depends on fetch – how hard
Full Moon
are not aligned causing less varia- and long the wind has been blowing and the distance the Trough
tion between the tides. These are wind has traveled without being obstructed. The greater
referred to as Neap Tides.
the fetch, the larger the wave. A wave’s height is measured
Current from its highest point, the crest, to its lowest point, the
Water motion is a compelling force. Currents can be extremely dan- trough. The distance from the crest of one wave to the crest
gerous when they overpower a diver who is not prepared. On the of the next wave is called the wavelength (see Figure 1-11).
When the waves encounter shallow water, the bottom of Figure 1-11
other hand, with some understanding we can use currents to our ad- Waves can be hazardous to divers
vantage to take much of the work out of a dive. In some areas with the wave starts to slow down and the top becomes too steep
when getting on and off a boat.
steady and predictable currents, there are regularly conducted drift and unstable. Breaking waves at a shoreline are called surf,
dives in which the divers enter the water, drift with the current, and which is water that moves up onto shore and back out to sea.
then exit at a different point from which they started. Waves can be hazardous to divers during shore dives,
The northern and southern hemispheres each have permanent or when getting on and off a boat.
offshore currents such as the North American Gulf Stream. Offshore
currents are affected by the warm water near the equator coupled Surge
with the rotation of the Earth. They move warmer water toward the Deep underwater, you cannot feel the wave action on the
poles and cooler water toward the equator. This is why Bermuda ex- surface. However, in shallow water when there are waves
periences warm, tropical water, but the nearby coastline of the United overhead, you will likely experience surge. Surge is the
States is cold by comparison. back and forth motion of water caused by wave action.
When making shore dives in the ocean, divers are most affected Surge
by longshore and rip currents.
 Chapter 1: The Underwater Environment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
18 19
In a strong surge, a diver has little control over which direction to
swim. Instead, the diver gets moved involuntarily with the motion of
Marine Life Injuries
the water. Surge can pose a threat when diving a shallow water reef Most marine life injuries amount to no more than a temporary, yet
with many coral or rock formations. Under such conditions, it is best painful, sting or abrasion. Many marine organisms possess toxins
to move away from underwater formations and into deeper water that, when touched with bare skin, can produce symptoms ranging
where the surge is weaker. from a mild rash or sting to anaphylactic shock or even paralysis.
Fire corals are common on tropical reefs and cause a painful, lasting
sting.
Marine Life Some types of jellyfish and jellyfish larvae can cause mild to life-
When asked what they fear most about the water, the majority of threatening stings. The Portuguese man-o-war is a type of jellyfish
people will say, “sharks.” Indeed, sharks have become a pariah in that has long tentacles comprised of millions of individual nemato-
our collective psyche. But when you compare the number of shark cysts, or stinging cells. Their tentacles can break off on a descent /
attacks on scuba divers with the number of species of sharks that have ascent line and will sting unprotected skin that comes in contact with
been nearly decimated by commercial fishing, you start to reevaluate them.
Scuba diving is a that fear. Consider that thousands of divers each year participate in
Some fish that live on or around the sea floor may appear innocu-
organized shark dives (see Figure 1-12). The fact is that humans are
spectator sport. not natural prey for sharks, and the gruesome scenes in movies and ous but have powerful defense mechanisms. For example, scorpion-
television depicting shark attacks have unfairly labeled them “man- fish and lionfish have poisonous fins and should never be touched.
Avoid touching eaters.” Contact with a sea urchin’s spines can cause infection. Always keep Figure 1-13
fish, coral, and Most of us get into diving to see what’s down there. Scuba allows meat tenderizer or vinegar in a first aid kit to treat injuries caused by Inquire about typical environmental
us a privileged glimpse into the spectacular realm of life underwater, marine life.
other aquatic life. and it’s important for us to remember that our presence there can be
conditions so that you can plan
properly for the dive.
damaging as well as educational.
Most injuries from marine life are the result of the animal’s
defensive response to a perceived threat. Watch where you put your
hands and fins. Avoid touching fish, coral and other aquatic life.
Scuba diving is a spectator sport. Just a light touch on a coral head
can destroy the organism’s protective membrane, causing permanent
damage. A lone diver inadvertently sitting, leaning, or crashing into
a coral head can kill more coral than would grow in his or her entire
lifetime. Always be cautious and respect the environment.

Laws governing the scuba diving, marine life harvesting, and

Figure 1-12
Scuba diving gives us a marine mammal interaction vary from one location to the next (see
privileged glimpse into the Figure 1-13). When diving in a marine park or sanctuary, the local
most biologically diverse management agency will post its rules. Do not forget to inquire
parts of the planet. about typical environmental conditions so that you can plan properly
for the dive. Proper planning includes finding out about dangerous
indigenous marine life and the proper first aid treatment for injuries
they might inflict.
 Chapter 1: The Underwater Environment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
20 21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Underwater Environment Summary

Soon you will be entering the underwater world for the first time. Your vision
will be altered and your hearing heightened; you will feel weightlessness and
you will be exposed to completely new stimuli.
You now know how your vision and hearing will change underwater; you
know how to assess diving conditions, and you know the types of marine life
that can be harmful.
In the next chapter, you will learn why some objects float while others sink;
you will understand what changes take place in the human body as the pressure
underwater increases, and you will learn how to prevent dive-related maladies.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Chapter 1: Knowledge Quest

1. What does SCUBA stand for?

2. List the three important scuba diving changes that occurred in the 1950s.

3. Name three different devices that modern dive computers replace.

4. What sets Scuba Diving International apart from other training agencies?

5. How much larger and closer do objects appear underwater and why?

6. How much faster does sound move through water than air and why?

7. What is the first color to be absorbed underwater?

8. When diving from shore, the best time to dive is when there is the least
amount of tidal current. _________ tide is when there is no horizontal
water movement.

9. If you are caught in a rip current, first swim _____________ to the

current to get out of it before swimming towards shore.

10. Waves are usually caused by ______________.

11. Anticipate surge action to avoid contact with stationary objects.

True or False?

12. What types of marine life cause most diving injuries?

13. What should you do if you see a potentially dangerous animal

underwater and it does not leave the area?

14. List three different reasons that it is advisable to check with your local
dive center before conducting a dive in an area you are unfamiliar with?
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
23
Physics and Physiology Overview
Physics
• Buoyancy
• Pressure
• Boyle’s Law

Diving Physiology
• Air Spaces
• Breathing Air Under Pressure

.......................................................................

Few sports have such a powerful effect on the body as scuba diving. As air-
breathing, terrestrial beings, we spend our lives at or near sea level in an at-
mosphere of air. Underwater, our senses are altered; we rely on compressed
air, and our bodies are subjected to the enormous weight of water overhead.
In order to safely adapt to this underwater world, we need a basic under-
standing of what the body goes through. We need to know the rudiments of
physics and physiology.
Physics is simply the study of how matter and energy behave. Laws of
physics explain why the planets revolve around the sun and, at the same
time, why you shouldn’t stick a fork in an electric toaster. The same physi-
cal laws that govern us on land, govern our behavior underwater. Applying
the laws of physics underwater helps explain, for example, why a tennis ball
shrinks when it’s taken to 30 metres (100 feet) below sea level.
Once we understand the physical forces at work underwater, we can
have a better comprehension of what the human body goes through when
exposed to higher levels of pressure in the surrounding atmosphere.
The second part of this chapter deals with physiology, or the study of the
body’s physical and chemical processes.

.......................................................................

Physics
Buoyancy
You may have noticed that most people have a natural
tendency to float. Similarly, certain materials like styrofoam
float, while other objects, like pennies, sink. The tendency of
an object to float or sink is based on a physical law known as
Archimedes’ Principle. It states that an object immersed in
liquid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the liquid
the object displaces.
In other words, a copper penny, although very small, sinks
because it displaces a very small amount of water. A styrofoam
cup, on the other hand, floats because its total weight is less
 Chapter 2: Physics and Physiology SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
24 25
Figure 2-1
Positive buoyancy. than the weight of the water it displaces. For the same reason, a Negative Buoyancy – An object that sinks is negatively buoy- Figure 2-3
Two pieces of equipment, the BCD
steel cruise liner floats because the hull is shaped to displace a large ant (see Figure 2-4). When you do your first dive in the pool, your
and weights, are used to control
amount of water. instructor and class members may kneel on the bottom in order buoyancy at all stages of a dive.
In diving, there are three states of buoyancy – positive, neutral, to practice important skills. Sometimes it is necessary to become
and negative. On any given dive, you will achieve each state of buoy- negatively buoyant while diving in order to remain stationary on the
ancy at various points during the dive. bottom.
You should be able to achieve all three states of buoyancy on
Positive Buoyancy – A positively-buoyant diver floats at the any given dive by using two pieces of equipment that relate directly
surface (see Figure 2-1). At the beginning of the dive, when you first to your buoyancy – the buoyancy compensator device (BCD) and
enter the water, and at the end of the dive, you may have to spend a weight belt or an integrated weight system (see Figure 2-3). The
a fair amount of time waiting on the surface. Establishing positive BCD is a jacket that can be filled with air on the surface to make you
buoyancy will help you conserve energy while on the surface. positive. As you descend, you can vent the air out to become nega-
tive or neutral. The weight belt is a simple nylon belt laced with lead
Neutral Buoyancy – An object that is neutrally-buoyant remains weights that counteract the buoyancy of your body, exposure suit
at a constant depth, neither floating nor sinking. For the duration of and scuba tank. Your instructor will help you determine the proper
a typical dive, being neutrally buoyant is the ideal position. Estab- amount of lead to wear for your environment and equipment pack-
lishing neutral buoyancy allows you to observe your surroundings age.
and prevent damage to delicate aquatic life such as corals that rest Because salt water is much denser than fresh water, an object that
on the sea floor. Neutral buoyancy also allows you to swim in a is neutrally buoyant in salt water will sink in fresh water. Conversely,
comfortable and relaxed position (see Figure 2-2). As you will see an object that is neutral in fresh water will float in salt water. For this
in Chapter 4, the skills section, you can fine tune your buoyancy reason, it’s necessary to wear more lead weight in salt water than in
control simply by breathing. fresh water.

Figure 2-2
Neutral buoyancy
can help prevent
damage to delicate
aquatic life like cor-
als that rest on the
sea floor.

Figure 2-4
Negative buoyancy.

Water is about 800 times denser than air.

Pressure
Although you do not feel it most of the time, air has weight. When
a strong wind blows, and it becomes harder to walk, then you
notice the weight of air. The air that surrounds the Earth is called
atmospheric pressure. A person standing at sea level has a force of
pressure on their body that is equal to 1 atmosphere, or 1 atm (bar).
 Chapter 2: Physics and Physiology SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
26 27
1 atm/bar
If that person drives up a mountain to a higher elevation, the air If we take that bell down to 20 metres (66 feet), or 3 atm/
becomes lighter and the atmospheric pressure gradually declines. bar, the volume in the bell will decrease to one third from what
Just think of high-altitude rock climbers who need to breathe it was on the surface, on so on.
compressed oxygen because the air at altitude is too thin to sustain
normal breathing.
Mercury
Water, on the other hand, is about 800 times denser, or heavier, The density of air increases as the
than air. As you descend deeper and deeper, the weight of the water
above you rapidly and steadily increases. The surrounding, or ambi- surrounding pressure increases.
ent, pressure increases as you descend underwater. In fact, every 10
metres (33 feet) of depth (in sea water) represents one atmosphere
4 atm/bar (bar) of pressure. You may be wondering where the air goes. The bell is full
At sea level (or a depth of zero metres or feet) the surrounding of air on the surface. At 10 metres (33 feet), there is half the
¼ the pressure is equal to 1 atm/bar. For each 10 metres (33 feet), the pres- volume. Assuming that the air hasn’t simply leaked out into
volume sure increases by 1 atm/bar, so 10 metres (33 feet) equals 2 atm/bar, the water, the air is compressed as the pressure is increased.
20 metres (66 feet) equals 3 atm/bar, and so on. Molecules that make up the air are forced closer together. The
greater the depth, the tighter together those molecules become.
Another way of saying this is that the density of air increases as
Boyle’s Law the surrounding pressure increases.
During the 17th century, an Irish scientist, Sir Robert Boyle, conduct-
In fact, air density increases in direct proportion with in-
ed a series of experiments that would define the physical properties
creases in ambient pressure. Therefore, at 10 metres (33 feet),
Figure 2-5 of gases under pressure. Using a U-shaped tube and liquid mercury,
or 2 atm/bar, the density of air in our bell will be twice as great
Boyle’s experiment Boyle proved that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to
demonstrated that as at the surface. At 20 metres (66 feet), the air will be three
the ambient pressure. In other words, if pressure increases, volume
when pressure on one times as dense as the air at the surface.
decreases and vice versa. This is known as Boyle’s Law (see Figure
end of a U-shaped tube The relationship of depth, pressure, volume and density
is quadrupled, the gas 2-5).
is integral to diving physics. For example, it becomes impor-
volume on the opposite Let’s apply Boyle’s Law to diving. If we were to take a bell and
tant when talking about gas consumption. Before you started
end is quartered. lower it down to 10 metres (33 feet), the air in the bell would be at a
this course, you may have wondered how long one tank of air
surrounding pressure of 2 atm/bar. So, according to Boyle, the vol-
lasts underwater. The answer depends not only on how heavy
ume of air in the bell will decrease by one half (see Figure 2-6).
a breather you are, but more importantly on how deep you are
Figure 2-6
diving. To answer this question, we need to apply Boyle’s Law.
Boyle’s Law states
that gas volume is
Depth Pressure Volume Density If it takes a diver one hour to breathe all the air in his tank
inversely propor- at sea level (1 atm/bar), then it will takes him 30 minutes to
tional to absolute exhaust the same size cylinder at 10 metres (33 feet), or 2 atm/
pressure. At an bar. The same cylinder at 20 metres (66 feet) will only last one
absolute pressure third as long, or 20 minutes, and so on. At 40 metres (132 feet),
of 2 atm/bar, gas
volume in a glass is
that diver will only have 12 minutes. [At 40 metres (132 feet),
decreased by half. or 5 atm/bar, volume is decreased by one fifth. One fifth of 60
Based on this law, minutes is 12 minutes.] As you can see, the deeper you go, the
we can calculate quicker you consume your air. For this reason, it is important to
volume and den- check your air pressure often, especially on deeper dives.
sity of air at any
given depth.
 Chapter 2: Physics and Physiology SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
28 29
Diving Physiology
Now that we understand the physical properties of how gas behaves
under pressure, we need to look at what impact this has on the hu-
man body. Increased pressure has serious physiological impacts on
the air spaces in your body.

Air Spaces
Approximately two-thirds of the human body is made up of water.
Unlike air, water cannot be compressed. So theoretically, the body
can go as deep as the ocean’s deepest point without consequence.
However, the human body has natural air spaces that are directly
affected by increases in pressure.
There are four air spaces that you need to be aware of while diving:
the ears, lungs, sinuses, and the artificial air space formed by your dive
mask (see Figure 2-7). Soon, you will make your first pool dive, and you
will descend in shallow water. Even when your head is only a couple
of feet underwater, you will feel the increased pressure in your ears.
When a flexible container such as a tennis ball is submerged, the the pressure inside an air cavity is less than the external pressure. Vir- Figure 2-8
size of the ball shrinks. However, the air spaces in the body cannot tually all rigid and semi-rigid air chambers can experience a squeeze if A squeeze occurs when the
stand to shrink very much, or they will be damaged. It is necessary the internal air pressure is not compensated in some way. pressure inside an air space
to equalize air spaces to ambient pressure to avoid a painful and pos- is less than the surrounding
An ear squeeze is caused when the pressure outside of a diver’s ear-
pressure. Adding air to the air
sibly harmful condition known as a squeeze. A squeeze occurs when drum is greater than the pressure in the middle ear. A sinus squeeze occurs space equalizes the pressure.
when the pressure inside any one of the numerous sinus cavities is less than
ambient pressure. And a mask squeeze occurs when the air space created
by the dive mask is less than the surrounding pressure (see Figure 2-8).
To avoid a squeeze, it is necessary to add air to the body’s air spac-
es until the pressure inside the air space is equal to ambient pressure.
Sinus Air Space
This is called equalization. While the alveoli in the lungs do constitute
an air space, equalization of the lungs occurs automatically simply by
Figure 2-7 Mask Air Space Ear Air Space the act of breathing.
The body has natural air spaces
— ears, sinuses and lungs — and
an artificial air space — formed by
the dive mask — that are directly
Equalization Techniques
affected by changes in pressure as To avoid an ear and sinus squeeze, air from the lungs must travel
you dive. through the Eustachian tubes into the middle ears and sinuses. To
equalize the ears and sinuses, simply pinch your nose and blow gen-
tly against your blocked nose. This procedure is called the Valsalva
maneuver (see Figure 2-9). The Frenzel maneuver is accomplished by
flexing the muscles in your throat which relaxes the Eustachian tubes
and permits equalization of your middle ears and sinuses.
Both the ear drum and sinus membranes are delicate tissues that
can rupture from over-pressurization. To prevent injury in these areas,
Lungs it is very important to equalize at the surface just before beginning
your descent and then every couple of feet as you descend. If you feel Figure 2-9
any discomfort or pain in your ears during descent, stop and ascend a To equalize the ears, pinch your
nostrils shut and blow lightly
few feet until you no longer feel any discomfort. Try to equalize again
out the nose.
and continue with the descent.
 Chapter 2: Physics and Physiology SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
30 31
Remember, if you feel pain in your ears as you descend, it Boyle’s Law also affects our bodies as we ascend from a dive.
will only get worse if you keep descending. You can quickly rup- As pressure decreases on ascent, air expands. Say we fill a ball with
ture an eardrum by descending without adequate equalization. compressed air from a scuba cylinder at 30 metres (99 feet). For each
For this reason, you should not dive when congested or if consecutively shallower atmosphere, its volume will increase in di-
you have a cold. Similarly, you must not wear any type of ear- rect proportion to the surrounding pressure. If it doesn’t explode, its
plugs when scuba diving because they create an air space that volume will have increased four times when it reaches the surface
Squeeze Equalization cannot be equalized. (see Figure 2-11).

Equalize early and often.

Depth Pressure
e Volume
Figure 2-11
Mask Squeeze – As you start to feel the pressure in your The converse of Boyle’s
m/ft atm/bar Law states that volume
ears as you descend, you will also feel the pressure of your increases as absolute
mask against your face. The mask creates an artificial air space pressure decreases.
Reverse Block that also must be equalized as you descend. To do this, simply If you fill a ball with
exhale through your nose into the mask air space every few compressed air at a
Figure 2-10 feet during descent. pressure of 4 atm/bar,
On ascent, a reverse block can the volume of air in the
ball will have increased
occur if the internal pressure is Tooth Squeeze – Another type of squeeze, although un- four times by the time
greater than the ambient pressure.
common, is a tooth squeeze. A dental filling in a tooth can it reaches the surface, if
sometimes leave a tiny pocket of air trapped in the tooth. Un- it doesn’t explode first.
fortunately, there is no equalization method for this condition For this reason, the most
because there is no way to add air to the air pocket in a tooth. important rule in diving
A tooth squeeze can be very painful. If you feel pain in a tooth is to breathe continu-
ously and never hold
while descending, abort the dive. A short visit to your dentist your breath.
can correct the problem.

Reverse Block – A less severe but painful type of pressure- Lung Overexpansion Injuries
induced malady is a reverse block. During ascent, expanding
Expanding air becomes critical when we look at what happens to
air normally escapes naturally from the ears and sinuses as the
the body’s air spaces during ascent. The most serious consequences
internal air pressure seeks equilibrium with ambient pressure.
of expanding air is a lung over-expansion injury, which can be fatal.
You don’t have to do anything to equalize your ears on the
However, these conditions are very easy to avoid as long as you
ascent. However, a reverse block is a condition that occurs
obey the number one rule in diving: Breathe continuously and never
when air cannot escape freely from an air space (see Figure
hold your breath.
2-10). A reverse block causes a pain or discomfort in the ears
or sinuses during ascent. If you experience pain while ascend-
ing, then descend a couple of feet until the pain subsides, wait
a moment, and continue your ascent. Breathe continuously
and NEVER hold your breath!
Boyle’s Law and Decreasing Pressure
We now know from Boyle’s Law that as pressure increases,
volume decreases and density increases in direct proportion
to the surrounding atmosphere. This explains why we breathe Slow, deliberate breathing is best while diving. Try to avoid shal-
more air at 30 metres (99 feet) than at 3 metres (10 feet) and low, rapid breathing. Slowly ascending from every dive is also criti-
why we need to equalize air spaces as we descend. cally important in preventing lung expansion injury. Ascending at a
 Chapter 2: Physics and Physiology SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
32 33
rate no faster than 10 metres per minute or 30 feet per minute will allow Figure 2-13
your lungs to metabolize expanding air at a safe rate. Every dive comput- As you breathe, gases are exchanged in
er has a function that measures ascent rate (see Figure 2-12). Very con- the alveoli in the lungs. During a dive,
the body absorbs nitrogen. Ascending
servative computers will sound a warning alarm at less than 10 metres
too rapidly can cause the nitrogen to
or 30 feet per minute. Other computers will allow for a slightly faster as- come out of solution into the blood-
cent rate. When in doubt, slow down. CYA: Computerize Your Ascent. stream and form a large bubble, which
can block the flow of blood.
Pulmonary Capillary

CYA: Computerize Your Ascent!

Figure 2-12 Air Embolism – An arterial gas embolism occurs when an air bubble
Very conservative computers blocks the flow of blood to the brain. This happens when lung tissue
will sound a warning alarm at ruptures from expanding air and the escaping air enters the blood
less than 10 metres or 30 feet stream. Air bubbles travel within the blood until they are eventually
per minute. Other computers Lungs
trapped in arteries that are too narrow for them to pass through. Once Alveoli
will allow for a slightly faster
ascent rate. When in doubt, trapped, they restrict blood flow to body tissues. This is very serious
slow down. if blood flow to or within the brain is restricted or completely blocked.
Signs and symptoms of air embolism are unconsciousness and Normal Before
paralysis. First aid for air embolisms is the administration of oxygen. Dive
A lung over-pressurization injury can occur in as little as four feet
of water. Slowly ascending from every dive and breathing continu- Nitrogen, on the other hand, is not used on a cellu-
ously are the only ways to prevent this type of injury while diving. lar level. It is simply absorbed into the bloodstream and
There are several types of lung expansion injuries, and deciphering the body tissues. As you breathe compressed air and de-
one type from another is beyond the scope of any individual who does scend underwater, your body tissues absorb a higher lev-
not have medical training. The signs and symptoms of pressure-related After First Dive
el of nitrogen than on the surface. Your body continues
injuries are: chest pain, difficulty breathing, fatigue, nausea, vomiting to absorb nitrogen throughout the dive. The longer and
and unconsciousness. The onset of most over-expansion symptoms is deeper you dive, the more nitrogen is absorbed and dis-
typically within minutes of surfacing from a dive. Anyone with these solved into your tissues. As you ascend from your dive,
symptoms must seek immediate medical attention. the dissolved nitrogen in the tissues re-enters the blood-
stream and travels back to the lungs where it is elimi- After Surface
Breathing Air Under Pressure nated in small parts every time you exhale. Once on the Interval
So far we have seen that changes in pressure affect the body’s air surface, the body continues to eliminate nitrogen until
spaces. But there are other physiological consequences of breathing it returns to its normal state. This is called off-gassing.
air at depth. Figure 2-14 illustrates what happens to the body
Air is composed primarily of two gases: oxygen (O2) and nitrogen on repetitive dives. (A repetitive dive is any dive made
(N2). The air we breathe is made up of approximately 21% oxygen within 24 hours of another.) As you can see, the diver After
and 79% nitrogen. The compressed air in a scuba cylinder is the same starts out with normal levels of nitrogen. After the first Second Dive
mixture of oxygen and nitrogen as the air we breathe on land. dive, the body has an elevated amount of absorbed nitro-
As we breathe, our lungs metabolize air by exchanging oxygen- gen. During a period of time on the surface, called a sur-
rich blood from the heart for oxygen-depleted blood from the organs. face interval, the body off-gasses some of the absorbed Figure 2-14
This gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of the lungs (see figure 2-13). nitrogen, but retains some as well. By the end of the sec- During repetitive dives, the
body absorbs increasing
The oxygen-rich blood is delivered to the body’s organs where it is ond dive, the body has an even higher level of absorbed
amounts of nitrogen. Surface
used by the cells to perform metabolic functions. Oxygen is necessary nitrogen. Nitrogen absorption can lead to a potentially intervals give the body time
to sustain life. serious condition known as decompression sickness. to off-gas.
 Chapter 2: Physics and Physiology SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
34 35
Decompression Sickness (DCS)/ Other signs and symptoms include:
Decompression Illness (DCI) • Confusion and unusual • Sensitive, painful, or itching
behavior skin
Reported cases of decompression sickness, also called “the bends,” • Coughing up blood • Shortness of breath
date back as early as the 1840s in coal miners working in pressurized • Difficulty urinating • Swelling
mines. In the early 1900s, physiologists started studying the effects of • Dizziness or vertigo • Tingling, numbness and
decompression sickness on military hard hat divers. What they found • Fatigue paralysis
was that a person could only stand certain levels of nitrogen absorp- • Muscle pain • Unconsciousness
tion before bubbles formed in the blood. If a scuba diver ascends too • Headache • Uncontrollable shaking
quickly from a dive after their body has absorbed increased levels of • Loss of hearing or ringing in • Visual disturbances
nitrogen under pressure, the nitrogen may come out of solution in the the ears • Vomiting
form of bubbles and block blood flow. • Memory loss • Weakness
In order to combat decompression sickness, the British Royal • Nausea
Navy developed the first dive tables, followed by the U.S. Navy dive
Treatment – First-aid treatment for decompression sickness consists
tables. The tables essentially predict how much excess, or residual,
of breathing 100% oxygen (see Figure 2-16). It is necessary to have Figure 2-16
nitrogen the body will have accumulated after a dive. The tables can First aid for decompression sick-
pure oxygen readily accessible when diving. A diver suspected of hav- ness is to administer pure oxygen
be used to plan dives safely by predetermining time and depth limits.
ing DCS should seek immediate medical attention. Treatment of DCS and seek further medical attention.
These limits are known as your dive profile.
consists of spending time in a recompression, or hyperbaric, chamber.
Your underwater dive computer automatically calculates your ni-
The chamber re-pressurizes the patient and helps shrink nitrogen bubbles to a manageable size.
trogen absorption based on your dive profile. It also calculates the
You should always know the location of the nearest hyperbaric facility prior to diving.
elimination of excess nitrogen based on the amount of time spent off-
gassing at the surface. It is important to continuously monitor your
No-Fly Time – After diving, it’s necessary to wait until your body has had sufficient time to
computer so that you do not exceed your time and depth limits.
off-gas before flying in a commercial plane or going to a greater altitude. Although the cabins
However, dive tables and computer models are based on theo-
in commercial airplanes are pressurized, there is a significant drop in pressure as the plane
retical body tissue. There are many factors that make a person more
reaches flying altitude. The general rule is to wait at least 12 hours, and up to 24 hours, to fly
susceptible to DCS. These factors include obesity, age, illness, past
after diving.
or present injuries, prior history of DCS, fatigue, dehydration, smoke
inhalation, use of drugs and alcohol prior to a dive, repetitive dives,
overexertion, cold water and diving at higher altitudes. Nitrogen Narcosis
While you can take reasonable measures to significantly reduce While nitrogen is the gas responsible for causing decompression sickness, it is also respon-
the risk of DCS, it is always an inherent risk while diving. But the sible for a temporary condition called nitrogen narcosis. Nitrogen breathed under pres-
risk is small. Approximately less than 1% of divers are afflicted with sure has narcotic effects closely resembling alcohol intoxication. Also called “rapture
a case of DCS in their lifetimes. of the deep,” narcosis can cause feelings of extreme euphoria or extreme anxiety. In ei-
ther case, the diver’s ability to think clearly and act appropriately is diminished, and he
Signs and Symptoms of Decompression Sickness – may not perceive himself to be impaired. Therefore, narcosis can be extremely dangerous.
Nitrogen bubbles can develop and become trapped any place in the The onset of narcosis varies greatly from person to person. Most divers do not experience it
body. Signs and symptoms depend on the number and size of bubbles until a depth of 30 metres (100 feet) and greater. Nevertheless, if you feel strange or believe you
Figure 2-15
and the area of the body where the blood supply is blocked. A rash are “narked,” simply ascend normally until you no longer feel the effects. There are no residual
In cases of decom- effects of narcosis; it wears off suddenly as you ascend. You may only have to ascend a few
pression sickness, or crackling skin may appear if bubbles occur in the capillaries near
nitrogen bubbles the skin. Joint pain is the most common symptom of DCS because metres/feet, but this will depend on your personal tolerance or susceptibility, which can vary
usually accumulate bubbles typically coalesce and collect in and around joints, causing from day to day.
in the joints, causing the joint to bend (see Figure 2-15). Severe decompression sickness
severe pain.
can result in permanent disability or death. The onset of decompres- Oxygen Toxicity
sion sickness can take up to 48 hours. Typically, symptoms start to Oxygen is the gas component in air that sustains all life. Without oxygen your brain would stop
appear within 15 minutes to 12 hours after a dive. working, yet too much oxygen can be harmful when it is breathed under high pressure. At depths
below 60 metres (200 feet), the oxygen in compressed air can become toxic. If you stay within
the limits of your training as an open-water diver, you should not be at risk for oxygen toxicity.
 Chapter 2: Physics and Physiology SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
36 37

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless and tasteless
gas. Pure, dry, filtered compressed air should not contain CO,
but sometimes compressors malfunction. Contaminated air gen-
erally has an oily smell and/or a bad taste because it is tainted
with compressor oil. Symptoms of CO poisoning include head-
ache, nausea, mental confusion and unconsciousness. Bright red
lips and fingernail beds are indications of exceptionally high CO
levels. Breathing contaminated air under pressure can be fatal.
For this reason, always smell the air from your tank prior
to diving. Do not use air that has an odor or taste. If you ever
begin to feel ill at depth, immediately abort the dive by making
a controlled ascent to the surface. Breathe fresh air or oxygen if
it is available. The symptoms should clear up, but if they do not,
seek medical attention.

Mixed Gases
As you expand your dive training, you may want to take a course
in nitrox or mixed gas diving. The open-water instruction in this
course is limited to diving with compressed air only. Some in-
structors may offer the option of combining nitrox training with ............................................
this program
Nitrox is oxygen-enriched air and has certain health benefits for Chapter 2: Knowledge Quest
sport diving. However, because of the increased level of oxygen
in nitrox, oxygen toxicity becomes an important factor. It is necessary to be trained in nitrox so 1. What is the absolute pressure (in atmospheres/bars) at 20 metres (66 feet)?
that you understand its limitations and dangers.
Similarly, in extended range and deep diving courses, you can learn about other gas mix- 2. What will be the volume in a ball that is filled with two litres/cubic feet of
tures, such as trimix, that utilize helium in addition to nitrogen and oxygen. Mixed gas diving is air at 30 metres (99 feet) when it is taken to the surface?
an advanced discipline, but it uses the same principles of physics and physiology that you have
read about in this chapter. 3. How many more times dense is the air in a balloon at 4 atm/bar compared
to the air density at the surface?
.............................................
4. If a scuba cylinder lasts two hours at sea level, how long will it last at 20
Physics and Physiology Summary metres (66 feet)?
In order for our bodies to adapt to diving, we have to understand the physical properties of the 5. How often should a scuba diver equalize during a descent?
water environment. Boyle’s Law tells us that an increase in ambient pressure causes gas volume
to decrease and gas density to increase. When we apply this law to physiology, we see we must 6. What should you do if you experience discomfort in your ears upon
equalize air spaces frequently to prevent a squeeze. Conversely, pressure decreases during as- descending?
cent, causing gas density to decrease and gas volume to increase. This is the basis for the most
important rule in scuba diving, “Breathe continuously and never hold your breath.” Following 7. What is a reverse block?
the rules will help prevent dangerous pressure-related injuries.
Decompression sickness is caused by a failure to adequately off gas nitrogen during an as- 8. What should you do if you experience a reverse block upon ascending?
cent. Conservative diving practices and good health are imperative to help prevent it. Likewise,
keeping yourself fit, diving within your limits, and being prepared to handle dive emergencies 9. What is the most important rule in scuba diving?
will greatly enhance the enjoyment of your diving experiences.
 Chapter 2: Physics and Physiology SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
38 39

10. What is the most serious injury that a diver could suffer from
if they hold their breath upon ascending?

11. Which gas component in air causes decompression sickness

and narcosis?

12. What medical problem can occur if a diver ascends much too
rapidly for nitrogen to be slowly released?

13. List at least five factors that can predispose a diver to

decompression sickness.

14. Describe the symptoms of DCS, including mild to severe

signs and symptoms.

15. What is the depth threshold where most scuba divers

generally begin to be affected by nitrogen narcosis?

16. List two possible ways a diver may feel if they become
“narked” at depth.

17. What should a diver do to alleviate the symptoms of nitrogen

narcosis?

18. Which gas causes extreme headache and nausea, and in high
enough concentrations causes unconsciousness and the lips
and fingernail beds to turn bright red?

19. What may indicate that the air in a scuba cylinder is harmful
to consume?

20. What should you do if you suddenly feel sick and develop a
headache during a scuba dive?
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
41

Scuba Equipment Overview

• Personal Gear
• Scuba Equipment
• Underwater Instruments
• Accessories

.............................................................

Scuba diving is an equipment-intensive sport. Much like high-

altitude mountain climbing, the gear you use is your life-support
system. Each piece of equipment has a particular function that will
allow you to see, breathe and maneuver through the water safely
and in relative comfort.
Diving equipment has gone through many improvements since its
origins in the 1950s. Modern gear is more comfortable, efficient
and longer lasting than it was then. Understanding how the gear
works and how each piece fits together is a vital part of the sport of
diving. In this chapter, you will learn the components of the scuba
system and their functions.

..............................................................

Personal Gear
Mask, Fins, Snorkel
The first pieces of equipment you should invest in are the mask,
fins and snorkel – the personal gear. While each piece of scuba
gear is important, the mask and fins require the most precise fit. An
ill-fitting mask can ruin a dive because it will leak. Fins that are
too loose or uncomfortable can cause blisters that may prevent you
from diving several days in a row.

Mask
A dive mask creates an air space between your eyes and the
surrounding water. It allows your eyes to focus while underwater.
A proper fitting mask is important in ensuring an enjoyable dive.
To size a mask, press the skirt of the mask against your face
without using the strap. Make sure there is no hair lodged
under the skirt. Next, inhale slightly through your nose to
create suction. The mask fits if it tightens against your face
and doesn’t fall off. If the skirt of the mask doesn’t form a
complete seal around the face, then water will leak in while
you’re diving. Finally, make sure you can pinch your nose
with your thumb and index finger while the mask is on. You
 Chapter 3: Scuba Equipment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
42 43

will need to do this maneuver frequently as you descend, to equalize Figure 3-2
the pressure and avoid a squeeze. A snorkel is used by scuba
Figure 3-1 The primary feature of a dive mask is its internal volume, or the divers when a long swim
Dive masks can have a single on the surface is required.
size of the air space between the lens and your face. Low-volume Using a snorkel conserves
lens (right) or double lens (left)
faceplate. For prescription lenses, masks sit close to the face and are easier to equalize than high-volume compressed air from the
most often it’s necessary to have masks. The benefit of a high-volume mask is that it gives you greater Snorkel scuba tank.
a double lens mask. peripheral vision by increasing your field of vision. A snorkel is useful on long surface swims because it allows you to
conserve air from your scuba cylinder (see Figure 3-2) . All snorkels
are made of a semi-rigid tube, a flexible mouthpiece and a fastener.
Some snorkels incorporate a one-way exhaust valve that makes
clearing water easier. Dry or semi-dry snorkels are designed with a
valve at the top of the tube to prevent or decrease water from entering.
A snorkel mouthpiece should be comfortable to use. An oversized
mouthpiece may be too awkward, and a rigid mouthpiece may be
uncomfortable compared to smaller and more flexible ones. With
some designs, the lower part of the breathing tube is corrugated and
flexible so that the mouthpiece drops out of the way when not in the
diver’s mouth.
The snorkel should always be connected on the left side of the mask
by a fastener or snorkel keeper. This is because the scuba regulator
always comes over the right shoulder. Finally, the snorkel should be
positioned so that it does not interfere with the regulator.

Corrective Lenses – Obviously, eyeglasses cannot be worn with Fins

a dive mask because the mask could not seal against the face. If you Fins help propel your body
wear contact lenses, you can wear them while diving, but you risk through the water. They
losing them if your eyes come in contact with water. Some companies make swimming far more ef-
manufacture corrective lenses in pre-ground half-diopter increments. ficient by increasing the sur-
In order to use corrective lenses, you need to have a mask with two face area of the feet. There are
lenses (above right) designed to accommodate corrective lenses, two basic styles of fins – full-
rather than a single-lens mask (see Figure 3-1). foot and open-heel. A full-foot
A new mask has a waxy coating over the faceplate that you fin encloses your entire foot inside
need to remove before use. Otherwise condensation will continually a foot pocket, similar to a slipper. An
form on the inside of the glass. Scrubbing the inside of the lens with open-heel fin has a foot pocket and a heel
non-abrasive cleanser or toothpaste will break apart the waxy film. strap (see Figure 3-3). Generally, full-foot fins
However, all masks have a tendency to fog up inside during a dive. allow for more efficient use of the leg muscles.
To prevent fogging, apply a de-fogging solution to the inside of the However, open-heel fins are necessary for dives in cold
lens before each dive. water because they allow for the use of thermally insulating
Men with facial hair may have problems with mask leakage. Be boots.
sure that whiskers lie flat beneath the mask skirt. Some men apply Getting a proper fit is essential. When trying on fins,
silicone grease or Vaseline® to the lower part of the skirt to create a look for a snug fit – not too tight or too loose. The fin should
better seal. Figure 3-3
not flop around when you move your foot from side to side.
While there are numerous fin designs
A final consideration in masks is the purge valve. Some masks Full-foot fins require exact shoe sizing. Open-heel fins are on the market, the two basic styles are
have a one-way purge valve built into the bottom of the mask. The adjustable, so one size accommodates several different foot open-heel (right) and full-foot ( left).
valve enables you to clear water simply by exhaling through your sizes. As for design, longer blades generally can make you Open-heel fins are necessary when div-
nose. faster, but they require more energy exertion. Your instruc- ing in cold water when neoprene boots
tor will help you determine which style is best for you. are needed for thermal protection.
 Chapter 3: Scuba Equipment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
44 45
Your fins should be the last piece of gear you put on before
getting in the water because they are awkward on land. When
walking with fins, it’s easier to walk backward, especially if you
are making a surf entry.

Maintaining your Mask, Fins and Snorkel

Rinse your mask, fins and snorkel with fresh water after every
dive, as salt water will quickly corrode materials as it dries (see
Figure 3-4). Make sure all buckles are free of sand or debris that
may cause them to malfunction. Store your mask, fins and snorkel
away from heat, sunlight and black rubber products.

Figure 3-4
Salt water, if left to dry on your dive
gear, can be corrosive. Always rinse your dive equipment
with fresh water after every dive.
Figure 3-5
Ranges are approximate and vary by individual tolerance. Longer exposures and deeper
dives may require greater protection. Hoods and gloves are essential below 20°C/68°F
Exposure Protection and generally used before this. Exposures below 24° C/75° F may require additional
As we learned in Chapter 1, water is an excellent conductor insulation in the torso.
of heat. Without any sort of protection, the body loses heat
approximately 25 times faster in water than on land. Becoming A wet suit works by trapping a thin layer of water between
chilled can quickly take the enjoyment out of a dive. Wearing the skin and suit. Body heat warms the trapped water to a com-
an exposure suit, be it a wet suit, skin or dry suit, decreases heat fortable temperature. If the suit is too loose, cold water will
loss underwater. Exposure suits also help prevent abrasions and steadily flow through, without providing warmth. A suit that’s
accidental brushes with marine life. too tight, on the other hand, can restrict body motion and respi-
Although individual tolerances to cold vary, exposure suits ration. Again, proper fit is essential in selecting a wet suit.
are usually worn in water as warm as 29°C (85°F ) (see Figure In warm climates, overheating can be a problem when don-
3-5). In warm water a Lycra® or Polartec® may be all that’s neces- ning your wet suit too soon before a dive. Putting on a thick wet
sary. Of course, appropriate attire may be as simple as a swimsuit. suit and then sitting in the hot sun before a dive can lead to heat
exhaustion or heat stroke. Be sure to find out how long before
it’s time to enter the water so that you can prepare accordingly.
Wet Suits
A wet suit is necessary for colder conditions and for long dives.
Dry Suits
Wet suits are made from closed-cell neoprene foam rubber. The
form-fitting design of a wet suit minimizes water flow next to the A dry suit becomes desirable in water temperatures around
diver’s skin, retaining heat at the same time. 10°C (50°F) and lower. Like the name implies, a dry suit is
The thicker the neoprene, the warmer the suit will be. Suit made of water resistant materials and keep the diver completely
thickness commonly varies from 2 mm to 12 mm or from 1/8 dry. Thermal undergarments may need to be worn underneath
inch to 3/4 inch. There are three basic styles of wet suits – shorty, the suit to provide extra warmth. Because dry suits are designed
farmer john and full. A shorty is a one-piece jacket with short with integrated inflation systems, dry-suit diving requires spe-
legs and is designed for warm water. A farmer john (also called cialized training.
a farmer jane in women’s cuts) is a two-piece wet suit consisting
of overalls and a jacket. The farmer john is versatile because it
can be worn as a one-piece or as a two-piece. A full wet suit is a
Wet Suit simple one-piece jumpsuit design with long sleeves and legs. Dry Suit
 Chapter 3: Scuba Equipment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
46 47

Figure 3-6 Boots and Gloves BCDs have four main components – harness, bladder (or air
Gloves and boots are worn for warmth
Feet and hands are also areas that require protection from heat cell), inflator/deflator mechanism and low pressure inflator hose. Es-
and protection against scrapes. sentially, the BCD is a jacket that holds the scuba cylinder to your
loss. Neoprene boots should fit like a shoe – not too tight,
not too loose. Hard rubber soles offer the best foot protection back and allows you to add or vent air.
against abrasions, cuts and slipping. Wet suit boots are avail- The most common model resembles a vest in which the air cell
able in zipper or non-zipper design. Zippers make getting in inflates around the diver. Some BCDs resemble a harness with air
and out of boots much easier. To keep the zippers from jam- bladders that inflate behind the diver. The harness-style BCDs have
ming, rinse them thoroughly with fresh water after each use. a greater lift capacity over traditional vest designs and are generally
Gloves protect the hands from abrasions and heat loss. needed in more advanced diving.
They are generally made from form-fitting neoprene and may
1. Air cell
have suede or puncture-resistant material sewn on the palms
2. Harness
and fingers for added protection.
3. Pull dump
Some gloves are designed to protect your hands from
4. Pull dump (airway)
scratches, others are made to provide thermal protection, and
5. Chest strap
some do both (see Figure 3-6). They also need to fit snugly so
6. Inflator/deflator
that they will not fall off and so they do not hinder use of your
7. Pull pump
fingers when handling equipment.
8. Weight system
9.Waist strap
Hoods
The greatest amount of heat loss occurs from the head (see
Figure 3-7). You can increase thermal protection by wearing a Figure 3-8
neoprene cap, hood or hooded vest. A cap covers just the head, The Buoyancy Compensator Device,
or BCD, comes in many styles with
a hood covers the head and neck, and a hooded vest covers the
many different features. You should
head, neck and torso. first decide if you want a standard
A hood that is too tight can be dangerous if it compresses style or a weight-integrated BCD.
the arteries in the neck, thereby slowing down blood flow to Weight-integrated BCDs alleviate the
the brain. A constrictive hood may also cause feelings of claus- need for a weight belt.
trophobia and panic. Be sure to select a hood that fits properly
and comfortably.
Inflator/Deflator
Exposure Suit Maintenance A corrugated hose attaches to the left side of the BCD and has an in-
Rinse your exposure suit with fresh water or soak it in a diluted flator mechanism at the very end. To inflate the BCD, simply depress
garment cleanser. Allow the suit to air-dry inside out. Rinse the power inflator button. This adds air directly from the scuba cylin-
boots, gloves and hoods in fresh water after every day of use. der through the low-pressure inflator hose. To conserve air from your
tank, you can inflate your BCD orally as well. Simply depress the de-
flator button (which opens the valve) and blow into the mouthpiece.
Scuba Equipment As you will see, it’s impossible to over inflate and rupture the
Buoyancy Compensator Device (BCD) BCD because a separate relief valve will automatically vent air to
As you will see in Chapter 4, buoyancy control is an impor- prevent overexpansion. To deflate the BCD, hold down the deflator
tant skill for all divers to master. Being able to control your button and hold the inflator hose above shoulder height.
buoyancy prevents you from knocking into coral on the sea Another function of the BCD is that it provides a way to affix a
floor, and helps conserve energy while floating on the surface. scuba cylinder onto the back. Straps, buckles and a harness hold the
A buoyancy compensator device, or BCD, is used to establish tank in place.
Figure 3-7
Hoods add extra warmth by
positive and neutral buoyancy.
trapping heat from the head.
 Chapter 3: Scuba Equipment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
48 49

Weight-Integrated BCD Regulator

A weight-integrated BCD has pockets or pouches that hold lead The air in a scuba cylinder is compressed at a high pressure. The
weights, thus eliminating the need for a weight belt (see Figure 3-8). function of a regulator is to deliver air to the diver at ambient pres-
Weight-integrated BCDs will have some type of quick-release fea- sure. Regulators consists of two main components – the first stage
ture such as pull tabs that allow you to ditch your weights in an emer- and the second stage (see Figure 3-10).
gency. The advantage of weight-integrated BCDs is the ease with
which weight adjustments can be made. They are also more comfort- First Stage – The first stage attaches to the tank valve and reduces
able; weight belts have a tendency to press against the hips and back. the high-pressure air to an intermediate pressure for breathing (see
Figure 3-11). First stage configurations can be a yoke-style or DIN
BCD Preparation and Maintenance assembly. The use of DIN assemblies is common throughout Europe
Before each dive, orally inflate your BCD and check for leaks. Check and in advanced diving applications, but most places around the
that the power inflator works correctly after you have assembled world carry tanks and regulators with yoke valves. See Figure 3-14
your scuba system. Be sure the cylinder bands are woven through the for DIN and yoke comparisons. Figure 3-11
buckles correctly before securing them to your cylinder. The bands A first stage consists of a high-pressure and low-pressure cham- The first stage attaches to
should not slide up and down if they are tightened properly around ber. When the tank valve is turned on, air travels from the cylinder the tank valve, reducing
Figure 3-9 the cylinder. to the high-pressure chamber of the first stage. Ports, or outlets, in high-pressure air to an
the first stage allow for instruments such as the submersible pressure intermediate pressure.
Since water will enter your Water will get inside your BCD when you hold the deflator but-
BCD’s air bladder during ton down during a dive. This water needs to be emptied before stor- gauge to attach to the regulator via a high-pressure hose.
a dive, you should always ing the BCD away. To empty water from the inside, detach the cylin- The other function of the first stage is to reduce the air pressure
rinse the inside as well as
der and then orally inflate the BCD. Turn the BCD upside down, hold from the tank to an intermediate pressure for breathing. Ports in the
the outside. low-pressure chamber allow low-pressure hoses to be screwed into
the deflator orifice lower than the bladder, and depress the deflator
button so that the water can drain out (see Figure 3-9). You may need the first stage. Those hoses deliver the air that you breathe to the sec-
to repeat this procedure a couple of times to get all of the water out. ond stage of the regulator.
If you have been diving in salt water or water that was highly turbid, First stage designs may be balanced or unbalanced, piston or
you will need to run fresh water inside the deflator orifice (while de- diaphragm. Some are made of aluminum, some titanium, and other
pressing the button) to rinse it. As with all of your equipment, don’t lightweight material. Some are environmentally sealed, and others
Figure 3-10
A typical regulator setup includes forget to rinse the outside of the BCD with fresh water. are not. While there are slight differences in the performance of the
the first stage, primary second stage, various designs, all modern regulators will work safely and adequate-
alternate air source, high-pressure ly for sport diving limits. Selecting the first stage regulator becomes
hose, low-pressure inflator hose and First Stage more important when you start doing extended range diving such as
gauge console. Follow dive store ice and deep diving when there are environmental factors such as
and manufacturer’s recommended
extreme cold and deep water.
service guidelines.
When the first stage is not in use, secure the dust cap to prevent
moisture and debris from getting inside the first stage.
High-Pressure Hose Figure 3-12
The second stage has
Second Stage – The regulator’s second stage delivers air at am- a mouthpiece and
Low-Pressure Inflator Hose bient pressure directly to the diver. A surprisingly simple device, the purge button.
second stage consists of a mouthpiece, air compartment, demand
valve, and purge button (see Figure 3-12).
The mouthpiece is made of silicone or rubber and is kept in the
mouth throughout the dive. Most second stages operate on an in-
Primary Second Stage ternal demand diaphragm that flexes down when the diver inhales.
This flexible diaphragm pushes down an internal lever which opens
Gauge Console a valve, thus permitting air to flow into the diver’s mouth. When the
diver exhales, the diaphragm returns to its normal position, releas-

Alternate Air Source

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50 51

ing the lever and halting air flow until the cycle is repeated again. Cylinder
The second stage has a one-way exhalation valve that allows the
A scuba cylinder is a high-pressure tank that contains
diver’s expired air to escape into the water. This is known as an
compressed air for breathing. Scuba cylinders are
open-circuit system.
made from either aluminum or steel alloys (see
A purge button on the second stage lets you activate the de-
Figure 3-13). The most commonly used scuba
mand valve mechanically. If your second stage gets knocked out
cylinders today are aluminum and have an air
of your mouth while diving, or if you get water in the mouthpiece,
capacity of 12 litres (80 cubic feet).
depressing the purge button will clear water out of the second stage.
The working pressure of a tank refers to the
In addition, all modern regulators are designed to be fail-safe.
amount of pressure a particular size cylinder is
This simply means that if the regulator has a mechanical problem
certified to handle in normal operation. Using
and freezes up, it will expel a constant flow of air rather than cut-
the metric system of measurement, cylinder
ting off the airflow. If a regulator starts to free flow, it will exhaust
volume is rated at its actual volume (sometimes
air rapidly from the scuba cylinder. In the event of a free flow,
called wet volume because its size is a measure
surface immediately.
of how much water it would hold). Therefore,
a 12 litre cylinder at 200 bar holds 2400
litres of gas. At 100 bar, it holds 1200 litres.
In the imperial system of measurement, a
standard aluminum 80 delivers approximately
Purge Button 80 cubic feet of air at atmospheric pressure
Inlet Valve Open when filled to its service pressure of 3000
Flexible Diaphragm
pounds per square inch (psi). Therefore, if the
contents’ pressure is 1500 psi, it has 40 cubic Figure 3-13
Exhaust Valves Closed
Scuba cylinders are made
Inhale
feet of air available at the surface. of either aluminum or steel
Aluminum (Al) is a relatively inexpensive and lightweight metal and come in a wide range of
Movable Lever compared to steel. The dry weight of a full aluminum 12 litre or 80 sizes. The most common is
cubic foot cylinder is close to 15 kg (33 pounds), but in salt water it the 80-cubic-foot aluminum
Exhaust Valves
only weighs only 750 grams or about 1.6 pounds. The dry weight of cylinder (far left). In metric it
Mouthpiece a full steel 12 litre or 80 cubic foot cylinder – which has a working is referred to as a 12 litre .
Inlet Valve Closed
pressure of 233 bar or 3500 psi is slightly more than 14 kg (about 32
Exhaust Valves Open pounds), and its in-water weight is 2.5 kg (5.5 pounds). As you can
see, the steel cylinder is heavier in the water; therefore, a scuba diver
Exhale using a steel tank does not have to wear as much lead weight as he or
she would when using an aluminum tank.
As you exhaust air from the tank, during a dive, the tank becomes
Alternate Air Source – For safety reasons, you should always more buoyant. Therefore, it’s necessary to wear enough lead weight
have two second stages. A backup second stage enables you to lend so that you can achieve neutral buoyancy with an empty tank.
air to another diver who runs out of air or experiences equipment
malfunctions. The backup second stage is called the alternate air Scuba Cylinder Maintenance
source, or octopus. The octopus should be brightly colored and
attached by a clip in the upper region of the torso so that it’s easy Standard maintenance on a scuba cylinder includes a visual inspection
to locate in an emergency. The air hose on an alternate air source is procedure (VIP) once a year and a hydrostatic test every five years, in
slightly longer than the hose for the primary second stage. the United States. During a visual inspection procedure, a VIP-certified
Some alternate air sources are integrated with the inflator examiner looks inside and outside the cylinder for signs of corrosion,
mechanism on the diver’s BCD. With this design, the donor must pitting, cracks, or anything that may indicate that the cylinder is not
breathe from the alternate air source and pass the primary second fit for service. If it passes the inspection, a visual inspection sticker
stage to the out-of-air diver. is affixed to the outside of the cylinder. The month and year that the
 Chapter 3: Scuba Equipment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
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inspection was completed is punched out on the VIP decal. Vi- Weight System
sual inspection procedures can be conducted at most dive shops. Lead weights are worn as ballast to counteract the positive buoyancy
Regardless of when the next annual VIP is due, there are some of the exposure suit and the diver’s natural buoyancy. There are two
instances when a visual inspection should be sought before having different types of weight systems: a weight belt and a weight-inte-
the cylinder filled. If the cylinder was dropped and damaged, if it grated BCD.
was exposed to extreme heat or fire, or if the air inside tastes or A standard weight belt is a wide, nylon belt with a plastic or metal
smells bad, it is necessary to get a VIP. clamp-action buckle attached to one end (see Figure 3-16). The belt
In the U.S. a scuba cylinder must be hydrostatically tested every is woven through slots in blocks of lead so that the weight is evenly Figure 3-16
five years (four years in the U.K.) at a certified testing facility. A balanced on each side of the diver. Some belts incorporate neoprene Weight belts can be simple
hydrostatic test measures the cylinder expansion when it is exposed pouches that permit the use of lead shot bags.
nylon straps with lead
VIP Sticker to its test pressure. If the cylinder passes, it is stamped with the hy- weights laced through,
All weight systems have a quick-release mechanism that allows or neoprene pockets for
drostatic test date and the inspector’s stamp (see Figure 3-15). the wearer to quickly and easily ditch their weight in case of an emer- comfort.
Compressed air cylinders are not meant to last forever. Years of gency. On a standard weight belt, the quick-release buckle should
use can weaken the metal, making it susceptible to structural dam- always be positioned so that it has a right-hand release.
age. Cylinders over 20 years old should be retired from use. The amount of weight necessary for each diver depends on the
To help extend the life of a cylinder, never completely empty it diver’s size and the type of thermal protection being worn. A good
of air. Draining a cylinder underwater may cause water to get inside general rule for a diver wearing a full 3mm wet suit is to wear five
and corrode the tank. to ten percent of their body weight in lead. Remember, you will need
more weight in salt water than in fresh water.
Figure 3-14 To don the weight belt, hold the buckle in your left hand and
Tank valves are either yoke-style bend forward at the waist. Reach your hands around your back and
(left) or DIN-style (right). Both are grab the free end with your right hand so that the belt drapes over
known as K valves.
the small of the back. Next, fasten the free end through the buckle
and tighten. Secure the buckle by pinching it closed. Be sure that the
weights sit on your hips and are spaced evenly on both sides.

Underwater Instruments
Yoke DIN Submersible Pressure Gauge (SPG)
Figure 3-15
The markings around the neck of a
Obviously, running out of air while diving is dangerous. As you will
cylinder indicate the governmental see in Chapter 4, you will practice several out-of-air emergencies
agency approval, metal type, working during your in-water training. However, running out of air is easy
pressure, serial number, manufacturer Cylinder Valves to avoid by monitoring your air pressure throughout each dive. The
and hydrostatic test. A cylinder valve is threaded into the neck of the cylinder and is instrument that measures air pressure from a scuba cylinder is called
designed to permit and block the flow of gas. Valves are machined the submersible pressure gauge, or SPG (see Figure 3-17).
from brass and then chrome-plated. There are several different styles An SPG consists of a spiral-wound Bourdon tube that activates a
of valves (see Figure 3-14). The most common style in use today is mechanical meter, generally calibrated in increments of 10 bar or 100
the simple on/off assembly known as the K valve. psi with an analog gauge with a scale ranging from zero to 400 bar (0
The gas outlet on a K valve has an O-ring for the first-stage ori- - 5000 psi). It can be housed in either a chrome-plated brass or a Lex-
fice to seal against. DIN valves are screw-in valves. All valves have an® case with a scratch-resistant mineral glass lens. An electronic
a safety feature called a burst disc. A burst disc is designed to blow SPG uses microchip technology powered by long-life lithium batter-
out at a pressure less than the pressure that the cylinder material will ies to provide a precise digital readout. Both types of SPGs connect
rupture at, but higher than the service pressure. to the high-pressure outlet of a first stage via a high-pressure hose. Figure 3-17
Check the valve O-ring (or DIN adapter O-ring) for signs of wear, The O-rings in the swivel and in the gauge-to-hose connection The submersible pressure
undergo a high degree of wear and are likely to develop a leak over gauge lets you know exactly
such as tears, cracks or ineffective seals. Replace worn O-rings. It is how much air is in your cylin-
a good idea to carry extra O-rings in your save-a-dive kit. der during a dive.
 Chapter 3: Scuba Equipment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
54 55

time. At the first sign of any bubbles escaping around these connec- Figure 3-19
tions, have the unit serviced before using it again. Dive computers can make diving
far more enjoyable by giving
It’s best to keep your SPG attached to your BCD near your
a real-time calculation of your
chest so that it only takes a glance down to see how much air is nitrogen profile.
in your scuba cylinder. Not only does this make checking your By providing warnings when you
air supply nearly effortless, it prevents gauge entanglement. are ascending too fast or when
Some dive computers are air-integrated. These units will mea- you have exceeded your time
sure air pressure directly, and a separate SPG is not necessary. limits, computers heighten both
safety and enjoyment.

Dive Computers
As an SDI student, you will learn how to dive using a personal un-
derwater dive computer, or PDC. Dive computers automatically cal-
culate your body’s theoretical nitrogen absorption by keeping track
of dive time and depth throughout a dive.
Dive computers have evolved greatly from their origins in the
1960s. Computers have enhanced the safety of the sport and have
changed the way in which dive training is conducted. Traditionally,
diving courses taught students how to plan dives according to dive
tables (see Appendix). While the tables give us a standard model
for dive planning, they have drawbacks. For example, let’s say you Dive Computer Features
are diving on a shipwreck that lies in 30 metres (100 feet) of water.
It’s important to read your owner’s manual and thoroughly under-
According to the dive tables, there is a 25 minute no-decompression
stand how to operate your computer before diving with it. The user
limit for that depth. (Bottom time is measured as the time from the
interfaces of different computer models vary greatly. Some have
beginning of descent to the beginning of ascent. It does not include
easy-to-read graphic displays; others display dive data in numerical
the duration of the ascent.)
form. Some turn on automatically when you enter the water; others
In actuality, you might start your dive at 30 metres (100 feet),
have an on/off button that must be activated before the dive. Some
swim up the deck of the shipwreck after a few minutes and spend
indicate no-stop limits with audible alarms, and some have visual
the rest of your dive at around 18 metres (60 feet). Yet, according to
decompression violation warnings (see Figure 3-18).
your plan, you can only spend 25 minutes on the dive.
Again, learn how to read your computer before diving with it.
It can only be a valuable tool if you know how to use it (see Fig-
Figure 3-18 1. Current depth in metres
While computer interfaces 2. Maximum depth reached ure 3-19). There are some universal features that can be found in all
vary greatly, all dive computers 3. Bottom time PDCs. You should be familiar with the following:
have a dive mode that shows 4. Remaining no decom-
max depth, current depth, No-
Deco time (or time remaining),
pression limit at this depth No Decompression Limit – As a beginning open-water stu-
total dive time and ascent rate
5. Nitrogen exposure bar
graph
dent, the type of diving you will learn in this course is called no-
(shown in metres here). 6. Oxygen concentration
decompression (no-deco), or no-stop diving. No-deco diving means
7. Partial pressure of oxy- that you can safely ascend directly to the surface at any point during
gen (PO2) a dive. Decompression diving, on the other hand, requires stops at
8. Ascent rate warning various depths for various durations during ascent in order to off-gas
9. Oxygen exposure bar the absorbed nitrogen in your body. Decompression diving allows for
graph
longer dives at deeper depths, during which the body becomes super-
saturated with nitrogen. Violating required decompression stops by
ascending directly to the surface may result in a case of decompres-
sion sickness. But decompression diving is a form of extended range
diving and is beyond the scope of this course.
 Chapter 3: Scuba Equipment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
56 57
Your no decompression limit, NDL is the amount of time remaining Decompression Mode Surface Mode Log Mode
at any point during a dive before incurring a mandatory decompression
stop. It is the single most important piece of data on your computer.
Unlike elapsed time, no-stop time begins with the maximum no-stop
time and counts down to zero. It may also be displayed graphically by
advancing pixels, bars or diamonds. As an open-water scuba diver, you
must plan to begin your ascent before your no-stop time reaches zero.

Depth – A depth sensor continuously monitors current depth through-

out the dive. This number will be digitally displayed at all times. Maxi-
1. Depth of current stop 1. Time of day 1. Dive date
mum depth (max depth) is the deepest point reached during the dive. 2. Time remaining at stop depth 2. Max depth of last dive 2. Max depth of dive
Depending on the computer, the max depth may be continuously dis- 3. Surface interval 3. Dive number
played, or it may be alternately displayed with other data such as water 4. Time to fly 4. Starting time
5. Ending time
temperature. 6. Bottom time

Required Decompression – As an open-water diver, you should

Dive Time – Dive time is the running time of the dive starting when never exceed the no-decompression time limit for a dive, but you should
you begin the descent. Dive time is displayed as elapsed time in minutes. know what to do in case you accidentally go into decompression.
The computer’s timer activates automatically when it is submerged and Most dive computers have audible as well as visual alarms when
deactivates at the end of the dive. Dive time is recorded as the total time a diver incurs decompression obligations. The computer will dis-
from its activation to deactivation point. play the required decompression depths, also called ceilings, and the
amount of required decompression time at each depth. The ceilings
Ascent Rate – As we learned in Chapter 2, it is necessary to ascend are usually represented by arrows. The decompression stops will be
slowly from every dive to avoid lung overexpansion injuries and de- expressed numerically during the ascent through each mandatory de-
compression sickness. In general, the rate of ascent should be no faster compression stop up to the surface.
than 10 metres per minute or 30 feet per minute. In practical applica-
tion, however, it’s almost impossible to determine ascent rate, particu-
larly when you are still mastering diving techniques. Surface Interval Time – Surface interval time is how long the
diver spends at the surface between repetitive dives. It is normally
registered in hours and minutes and spans the period from when the
diver exits the water until they re-enter the water for the next dive.
The no-decompression time limit for repetitive dives gets longer as
Remember to CYA: the surface interval gets longer. This credit may be graphically dis-
Computerize Your Ascent! played as a reduction of pixels, diamonds or bars.

Time To Fly – Time to fly is the minimum recommended surface

interval time before the diver should fly in a commercial airplane
Your dive computer has a function that measures your actual rate of [with a standard cabin pressure equivalent to atmospheric pressure of
ascent and warns you if you are coming up too quickly. Some comput- 2400 metres (8000 feet)]. However, conservative devices may set the
ers limit the ascent to one rate, such as 10 metres or 30 feet per min- threshold at an altitude of 300 metres (1000 feet), an ascent that can
ute. Others permit a variable rate of ascent that becomes progressively occur either by flying or driving into the mountains.
slower as the diver gets closer to the surface. This is because the greatest
change in volume occurs between 10 metres (33 feet) and the surface. Logbook – Almost all dive computers have a logbook function
Most computers display visual warnings when a diver ascends too that automatically stores relevant data from a specific number of
quickly, but they may also have an audible alarm to alert the diver to dives which can be recalled when the PDC is in the surface mode.
slow down. It is important to look at your computer’s ascent indicator In addition to logging maximum depth, dive time, temperature, as-
frequently when surfacing. If you see or hear an ascent alarm, slow cent alarms, violations, and surface interval time, most also record
down or stop until the warning alarm subsides, and then continue at a the date and time the dive was made.
slower rate.
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58 59
Battery Power – Your dive computer will monitor its own battery Most housings are plastic or chromed brass and have a clear lens.
power. This data may be displayed when it completes its diagnostic The case may be filled with air or oil and have a flexible diaphragm
before it enters a scroll mode, or you may be able to access a separate that moves internal mechanical components causing clockwise rota-
display screen with the information. The battery or batteries should be tion of a needle to indicate the water depth. A digital gauge has a
replaced before further use when they reach the minimum low level pressure sensor that conveys the depth reading as a numeric liquid
specified by the manufacturer. Some computers have batteries that are crystal display (LCD).
replaceable by the owner (or a professional scuba service technician), An analog gauge displays depth readings in 2-3 metre (five or ten
while other computers must be sent back to the manufacturer when foot) gradations and also has a maximum depth indicator needle that
batteries need replacing. points to the deepest depth of the dive until the diver manually rotates
One additional feature that you may wish to consider if you are go- it back to zero. As with most instruments, the display may be backlit Figure 3-22
ing to buy your own dive computer is “nitrox programmable.” Nitrox or have a luminescent dial. A compass is an important in-
Figure 3-20 is a form of breathing gas containing less nitrogen and more oxygen strument on any dive. The latest
A dive watch adds redundancy than plain air. Among other benefits, it prolongs a diver’s available Compass technology in compasses is the
and safety to your dive. bottom time compared to air, and many new divers like yourself take Being able to move in a three-dimensional space can be disorienting, digital compass (below).
an SDI Computer Nitrox Course very soon after graduating as an SDI particularly in low visibility. A submersible compass is a navigation-
open water diver. Having a dive computer that can be programmed to al aid that a diver uses to determine his or her direction in relation to
take full advantage of extended bottom time may be a sound invest- magnetic north. A compass can be used as a guide while swimming
ment. Ask your instructor or SDI dive center to explain this type of from one underwater location to another, to conduct a search pattern,
dive computer to you. to map terrain, or to find the way to an exit point (see Figure 3-22).
An analog compass consists of a plastic housing filled with oil
with a free-spinning needle (or card) that points to north. The lubber
Other Instruments line is a stationary line of reference on the face of the compass that
Dive Watch should be aligned with your body. Some compasses may have index
marks on a rotating bezel which help keep the diver aligned in the
In any type of diving, backup equipment adds an element of safety.
desired direction. A magnetic compass is affected by nearby ferrous
For example, we have an alternate air source on the regulator, and we
metals. Keep this in mind when trying to navigate around steel struc-
carry two dive lights on night dives. While your dive computer will
tures. The latest innovation is an electronic digital reading compass.
keep track of your dive profile, it’s a good idea to have a redundant
Some show the route the diver has traveled.
timepiece in case the computer fails (see Figure 3-20).
A compass is either worn around the wrist or mounted in a con-
A dive watch is like any other watch except that it is pressure tested
sole. An analog compass relies on the freedom of movement of its
to withstand the elevated pressures of a scuba dive. If it is an analog
needle for accuracy. Therefore, it’s important to keep the compass
unit, it has a ratcheted, one-way rotating bezel that indicates minutes
perfectly level when in use. Before each dive, check that the needle
from zero to 60. By setting the zero mark on the bezel in line with
moves freely and that there is no air inside the case oil that may im-
the minute hand at the start of a dive, you can easily keep track of the
pede instrument accuracy.
elapsed time. Digital watches have functions that track the elapsed time
as well. Either way, when relying on a dive watch, you must know your
predetermined time limit based on the preplanned maximum depth of Accessories
the dive. And you must begin your ascent before this limit is reached. Rescue Signal
Some dive watches today are so sophisticated that they can moni- Being prepared is the best way to prevent a normal situation from
tor depth and total time and store it in their memory location for recall turning into an emergency. Carrying a signaling device, for example,
later. Some incorporate dive computers in the watch itself. can help rescuers find you if you get separated from the dive boat
in the open ocean. A bright yellow or red inflatable device such as a
Depth Gauge narrow tube or lift bag are good signaling devices. Audible signals,
Figure 3-21 such as whistles or horns, are also useful at the surface (see Figure
A depth gauge senses the pressure exerted by the vertical column of
A dive console will usually 3-23). Some commercial diving vessels require their passengers to
water and air above it, and is generally calibrated to read zero metres /
have at minimum a depth carry some sort of visual signal.
gauge and pressure gauge. feet at sea level. The display may be in imperial or metric units and/or
calibrated for salt water or fresh water (see Figure 3-21).
 Chapter 3: Scuba Equipment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
60 61

Knife suit in first, then your regulator and then your buoyancy
A dive knife can be a useful tool to cut, pry and even dig. It is most compensator. Fragile items (mask and dive computer)
often needed to cut away fishing line or kelp that may entangle a should be protected in their case and packed at the top of
diver or his gear underwater (see Figure 3-24). the bag.
Dive knives are made of sharpened stainless steel and come
with a carrying sheath that attaches via straps or snaps. A knife can Dive Flag
be worn on the inside of your thigh or calf, attached to your buoy-
ancy compensator device, or wherever it can be easily accessed. A dive flag warns passing boaters that there are divers in
the water. There are two types of dive flags: the diver-
down and the international alpha flag. The international
Dive Lights
flag is a rigid replica of the white and blue alpha flag and
A dive light is necessary on night dives, but can also be a useful aid must be flown from a dive boat in international waters.
Figure 3-23 during the day to peek into crevices or restore the color that is natu-
All divers should carry some type of The diver-down flag is a rectangular red flag with a white
audio or visual signaling device in
rally lost underwater (see Figure 3-24). diagonal stripe from the top left to the bottom right. The
case of an emergency. A larger light is generally the primary, while a smaller light is the diver-down flag is the most widely recognized signal and
backup. One of each is necessary on a night dive. should be flown during all in-water activities.
A rubber O-ring seals the canister on the light. Use caution when While diving from shore, without an escort boat
opening a flooded battery canister. The inside is likely to be pressur- nearby, the flag must be mounted on a float and towed by the
ized and can cause personal injury if the housing explodes or battery Figure 3-25
divers with a line reel (see Figure 3-26) . A gear bag keeps all your
acid is suddenly vented from the case. Place a towel over the lens
equipment together.
or top and point it away from you and anyone else before opening
the canister. Immediately rinse the light components in fresh water.
Damaged dive lights should be taken to a professional scuba repair Figure 3-26
The international flag is a rigid
center for repair or replacement.
replica of the white and blue
alpha flag and must be flown
from a dive boat in international
waters. The diver-down flag is a
rectangular red flag with a white
diagonal stripe from the top left
to the bottom right.

Diver Logbook

Figure 3-24 Logbook

Dive knives are useful for cutting A logbook is a personal record of your training and recreational
away entanglements. Dive lights dives. If your dive computer does not interface with a PC to pro-
restore color that is lost underwater.
vide printouts of your dives, you should have a traditional logbook
to document your training.
The front of the logbook should have your name, address, certi-
Gear Bag
fication level, vital medical information and emergency phone num-
Showing up on the dock with your arms full of gear is a good way bers for your family, physician and Diver’s Alert Network
to lose all of your expensive dive equipment. A gear bag keeps your Every page has entries for the details of each scuba dive, includ-
equipment together and makes it easier to transport. ing a place for your SDI instructor, dive master or dive partner to
Larger bags designed for travel can have a rigid frame, wheels sign to verify the dive. Professional dive operators may require proof
and a handle (see Figure 3-25). To keep your staging area minimized of dives to participate in commercially run dives. More advanced
(especially on a dive boat), pack your gear in the reverse order that diving courses require evidence of a minimum number of dives for
it will be assembled. For instance, you would put your fins and wet
 Chapter 3: Scuba Equipment SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
62 63
enrollment. Keeping an accurate, up-to-date logbook will help you ................................................................
plan future dives and provides proof of your diving experience.
After each dive or day of diving, recall your dives from your dive
computer and record the data in your personal logbook along with Chapter 3: Knowledge Quest
the site location, dive partners, equipment used, weather, visibility, 1. What is the main purpose of a snorkel?
interesting details and so forth.
2. How do you know if a mask fits correctly?
Slate
3. Name at least one visual and one audible rescue signaling device.
A slate is a small rigid tablet that can be written on to communicate
with someone when underwater hand signals are inadequate (see 4. Name two basic fin designs and describe the main features of each.
Figure 3-27). It also provides a means to temporarily record dive
information until you can download your dive computer and trans- 5. What is the main difference between a wet suit and a dry suit?
Figure 3-27
fer information not registered by your PDC to a permanent logbook.
Slates are used to communicate
when hand signals are inadequate. You can chart the time in and time out, maximum dive depth, your 6. What extra attire can enhance a diver’s warmth when worn with a
compass headings, notable features of the dive site and so on (see wet or dry suit?
Figure 3-28).
7. Name two functions of wet suit boots.
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
8. List four functions of a dive computer.
Scuba Equipment Summary 9. Define maximum dive depth.
As you can see, scuba diving is highly equipment intensive. Through-
out your training, your gear may seem overwhelming, possibly bur- 10. Define no-stop time.
densome, and you may even feel task loaded at times. But once you
begin to gain control, confidence will follow, and soon you will real- 11. What are two ways a PDC may alert a diver that he or she is
ize that you are the master of your scuba system. ascending too fast?
In this chapter, you’ve learned about each component of a scuba
system. You now know that a scuba regulator reduces the air pres- 12. How do you determine the time limit for a repetitive dive from a
sure from your cylinder and allows you to breathe easily underwater. PDC?
An alternate air source is a backup second stage. A cylinder holds
compressed air that is delivered through a valve. A personal dive 13. What are the two main modes of operation of a dive computer?
computer will help you regulate your dive descent and ascent rate. A
compass facilitates navigation underwater. Your buoyancy compen- 14. What are two types of weight systems?
sator device holds your cylinder on your back and helps you to float,
15. What are the two types of dive flags that are commonly flown
sink or remain neutrally buoyant. Each piece of equipment is neces-
from a dive boat?
sary and performs a specific function for your safety, enjoyment and
comfort underwater. 16. Describe the function of a scuba regulator first stage and second
Figure 3-28
There are many advantages to owning your personal dive gear. stage.
Your instructor will carry a set of SDI
slates during your pool or confined SCUBA equipment that has been properly fitted will increase your
water training and during your open overall comfort and enjoyment. With the advances in materials and 17. A cylinder should be visually inspected at least ____________ a
water training dives. technology, there are numerous options available when choosing year and hydrostatically tested every _____________ years in the
your diving equipment. Consult you professional SDI dive retailer to United States.
help you select the right equipment to fit your personal diving goals.
18. List three components of a compass.

19. What does the abbreviation BCD stand for?

20. State the gauges that a console might hold.

 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
65
Skills Development Overview
• Setting Up
• Entries
• In-Water Skills
• Ascents and Out-of-Air Emergencies
• Scuba Disassembly

......................................................................

Soon you will be taking your first breath underwater. Now that you can
identify the components of the scuba assembly, it’s time to learn how to
use them.
Becoming comfortable with your gear will take time. Indeed, there is a
lot to remember as you descend underwater the first few times. During this
course, your task load while in the water will be high. However, to avoid
becoming mentally and physically overtaxed, the skills you will perform
take a natural progression in level of difficulty. You will be required to ad-
equately perform each skill before moving on to the next.
Once you have practiced the skills, using the equipment will seem natu-
ral and you will be able to enjoy your surroundings. The skills you learn are
designed to help you avoid or alleviate potential problems that may arise.
By the end of this chapter, you will have all of the knowledge and expe-
rience to enable you to take your first underwater plunge on scuba.

......................................................................
Setting Up Figure 4-2
Following the same technique to assemble your gear each and Before assembling
every time you dive will help avoid potential problems with your your gear, be sure
gear. For example, always checking the O-ring in your tank valve your cylinder has
before attaching your regulator will prevent a leakage problem in a current visual
the water (see Figure 4-1). inspection sticker.
Prior to the dive, be sure to do a gear check. Once the gear is as-
sembled, do another check to make absolutely certain you haven’t
forgotten anything.

Figure 4-1
Always check the O-ring
for signs of wear and tear.
 Chapter 4: Skills Development SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
66 67
Scuba Assembly
Step 1: Cylinder Check – Look at your scuba cylinder Step 3: Regulator Attachment – Remove the dust cap from
Step 3
and find its current visual inspection sticker (see Figure 4-2). your regulator and hold the first stage in your left hand. Now, still
Next, remove the valve cover and look at the rubber O-ring. standing behind the cylinder, rotate the chambers until the primary
It should be seated in the valve groove and should be in good second stage sits to the right. When this is done, the low-pressure
condition. If the O-ring shows signs of excessive wear, cracks inflator hose and the high-pressure hose will naturally fall to the left.
or tears, replace it with a new one. If a hose is bent sharply, you will need to rotate the first stage until
the hoses are free of bends.
Mate the yoke on the first stage to the valve outlet. Screw the
knob on your first stage until it is finger tight, i.e. no tighter than you
can make it with your thumb and one finger. Over tightening the first
stage will make it extremely difficult to remove after the dive.
(To install a first-stage DIN adapter, first check that it’s O-ring is
seated properly in the adapter and not worn, then screw the spin tube
completely into the DIN valve outlet until it is tight. Be sure the hoses
are positioned correctly before the adapter is tightened completely.)

Step 4: BCD Inflator Hose Attachment – Connect the low-

pressure inflator hose to the stem on the BCD’s inflator. The quick
connect/disconnect fitting at the end of the low-pressure inflator
Step 2: BCD Attachment – To attach your BCD to the hose is spring-loaded and snaps on by pulling the collar back, then
cylinder, spin the tank around so that the back of the valve is releasing the collar to lock the hose in place. Tug on the inflator hose
facing you. Place the BCD band(s) over the top of the cylinder while still holding the inflator assembly to be sure that the fitting is
so that the back of the BC is facing you (and the valve orifice secure and that the hose does not come off.
points toward the back of the BCD). Next, raise or lower the
BCD so that the top of it is even with the cylinder valve. This Step 5: Turn on the Air – Now that the hoses are connected,
will position the BCD high enough so that you won’t bump the it’s time to turn on your air. First, hold the submersible pressure
back of your head on the tank valve while swimming underwa- Figure 4-4
gauge face down. This will prevent an injury should the pressure Once the gear is assembled,
ter. Fasten the buckle(s) on the BCD. If the strap is tight, you gauge burst as the air is turned on. Slowly open the cylinder valve turn on the air and check the
should hear the buckle snap shut. by rotating the on/off knob counterclockwise until air starts to flow. pressure gauge.
To check that your BCD is securely fastened around the Open the valve all the way. This helps to keep the cylinder valve
cylinder, grasp the BCD by the nape and lift the whole unit up operating freely.
(see Figure 4-3). If the cylinder slips out of the straps, or if the
straps loosen, retighten the cylinder bands.

Step 4 Step 5
Figure 4-3
To attach the BCD to the cylin-
der, fasten the buckle(s). Lift the
unit up by the back of the BCD
to make sure it is secure.

Adjust the BCD so that the top

of the jacket is even with the
cylinder valve.
Step 2
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68 69

Now that the air is on, check your SPG (see Figure 4-4) or activate
Step 6 your air-integrated dive computer to see how much air is in your cyl-
inder. You should begin each dive with a full cylinder. (Cylinders are
filled to capacity when filled to rated pressure.)
Listen for hissing sounds near the cylinder valve. A hiss indicates
a leak in the equipment or a damaged O-ring that needs to be replaced.

Step 6: Regulator Test – Next, depress the purge button on the

primary second stage. Hold the second stage up to your nose and sniff
the air that comes out. If there is an unusual or foul odor, the air may
be contaminated. If this is the case, shut the air off, mark the tank and
do not dive with it.
You should test both second stages to make sure they are function-
ing properly. With the mouthpiece in your mouth, take a few breaths Pre-Dive Briefing
off each second stage. Also test the auto-inflator button on your BCD
to be sure it operates correctly. Air should flow into the BCD bladder All charter dive boats will have a system for gearing
when the button is depressed. When you release the button it should up, entering and exiting the water. The dive master or Figure 4-6
automatically come back up and air should stop flowing. Sometimes, supervisor will brief the group on its safety procedures before the You and your buddy can help each
Step 7 dive. other don the scuba assembly. Be
the auto inflator will not release and will continue to pump air through sure that all waist and chest straps
the bladder. Have any faulty equipment serviced before diving with it. The briefing may vary greatly from one operator to another, but are fastened and that no hoses are
most will review boat procedures, type of entry and exit, maximum snagged in the equipment.
depth and bottom time, minimum air supply to surface, environmen-
Step 7: Streamline Hoses – During a dive, it is a good idea to tal conditions, and a summary of emergency procedures. Always lis-
have your hoses and gauges close to your body for easy access, to ten to the dive briefing and follow the dive master or supervisor’s
avoid entanglement, and to prevent damaging delicate aquatic life (see instructions (see Figure 4-7).
Figure 4-5). Your SDI instructor can help you streamline your setup
with clips and rings. Review the ABCDE’s
Before you enter the water, review your ABCDE’s. Make sure your
Figure 4-5 Putting on Your Scuba Equipment Air is on by inhaling from your primary second stage while looking
Streamline your gauges
and hoses to prevent To put on your assembled scuba system when standing on land, the saf- at your pressure gauge. If the needle drops significantly when you
damaging aquatic live and est and easiest method is to have another diver, preferably your buddy, inhale, it indicates that the valve is either closed or only partially
avoiding entanglement. help you (see Figure 4-6). To begin, make sure the BCD shoulder straps opened. Next, make sure your BCD is inflated enough to support
are fastened, but the straps in the front (cummerbund, waist and chest) you at the surface. Use your auto-inflator button to be sure it works.
are not closed and are out of the way. Your buddy should lift your scu- Check that your Computer is turned on and has not retreated into
Both second ba unit by the cylinder while you put both arms through the arm holes. a surface mode or a sleep mode. Put on the rest of your Dive gear, Figure 4-7
Once you have control of the system, tell your buddy it is okay to let go. such as your mask, fins, and gloves. When you and your buddy have Always listen to the dive briefing
stages should Tighten the shoulder straps and fasten the cummerbund and/or exchanged the OK signal and the dive master has cleared you, Enter and follow the dive master or
waist and chest straps while still leaning forward with the cylinder the water. supervisor’s instructions.
be on your weight balanced on your back. When the BCD harness is secure, you
right side. can stand up straight, but remember that your center of gravity will Review the ABCDE’s before You Go
not be directly over your feet anymore. You will be somewhat back- • Air on
All other hoses heavy. If you are unsteady standing upright, lean forward to keep the • BCD inflated
should be on your weight over your feet. • Computer on
Make sure your console, second stages and inflator hose are not • Dive gear on
left side. tangled. Both second stages should be on your right side. All other • Enter the water
hoses should be on your left side.
Repeat the process by helping your buddy into his gear.
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There is nothing that will ruin a dive faster than forgetting a piece back around to the right. As you swing around, kick your outside leg
of equipment. Never rely on the dive boat to have back-up equipment down. You should be facing the platform upon entering the water.
for you. Always check your gear before the boat leaves the dock.
Go through a mental checklist before heading out: Back Roll Entry
Personal Equipment – Mask, fins & boots, snorkel, and wet suit. The back roll entry is the most common water entry from a small
boat that does not have a large dive platform. With your gear on,
Scuba System – BCD, regulator, weight belt, computer, and sit on the gunwale (the side of the boat), with your tank suspended
cylinder. behind you. Lean forward and cross your legs in front of you. Hold
Naturally, the accessory items – hood, gloves, safety items, sur- your mask and regulator in place with one hand. Cross all the hoses
face signals, light, and knife – are good to have. But first, make sure in front of you and hold them in place with your other hand. Perform Back Roll Entry
you have the basics. Now that we know what gear is necessary and an equalization technique just prior to your entry because you will
how to put it together, let’s learn how to put it on and use it. probably plunge two or three feet underwater before you float up to
Giant Stride Entry the surface. Tuck your chin against your chest, then lean back so that
Entries you roll backwards into the water.
The back roll can be a little disorienting. This feeling is natural
Starting the dive off with a smooth, safe entry will help establish the
because your head is the first part of your body to enter the water,
enjoyment for your entire dive. There are several different types of
and it is temporarily upside-down. The most common problem divers
water entries – giant stride, controlled seated entry, back roll, and
have on the back roll is knocking their masks off on entry. Be sure to
surf entry. The safest water entry is determined by the type of entry
hold your mask tightly so it isn’t knocked off by the force of the water.
platform, environmental conditions, physical ability of the diver, and
the kind of dive. Shore Entry
While the procedure for each entry varies, there a couple of rules A shore entry is appropriate when diving in a confined area that has
that always apply. First, have your regulator in your mouth during the a gradual sloping bottom, such as that around a freshwater spring
entry. Second, always enter the water with your BCD inflated so that or lake. To perform a shore entry, don everything except your fins.
you are positively buoyant on the surface. Third, always look before Walk out into waist-deep water or the depth where some of the
you leap. In other words, make sure there are no other divers in the weight of your gear is taken off your shoulders. Use your buddy for
way. And finally, always signal OK to the dive master once you are stabilization as you don your fins. Once you both have your fins on,
on the surface. swim out to deeper water and conduct a normal descent.
Giant Stride Entry Surf Entry
The giant stride is probably the most common deep water entry, es- While diving from shore in the ocean, you are likely to encounter a Shore Entry
pecially from large dive boats. It can be conducted from a low or surf line with breaking waves. This is obviously the most treacherous
high platform and in practically any sea state. To perform the giant type of entry and has the potential to be quite dangerous. As always,
stride, stand on the edge of the dive platform. Check the water below use your judgment before entering the water. If the surf looks too
to make sure it is clear of other divers. Put your right hand over your high, then find another place to dive.
mask and regulator and your left hand over your weight belt buckle. Timing your entry is necessary for a comfortable
Stand straight, look directly ahead and take a big step out off the edge surf entry. Observe the wave action for a while before
of the platform. entering. Notice how close the waves and the wave sets
If everything is all right, signal OK to the dive master and clear are together. Generally, a wave set begins with a series
the area as instructed. of approximately four smaller waves and ends with two
or three larger waves. Between wave sets there will be
Controlled Seated Entry a short lull; this is the best time period to make an entry.
A controlled seated entry is an easy way to enter calm water from The objective is to get past the surf zone into deep water
a low platform such as the side of a pool. To perform this entry, sit where it is usually calmer before another set rolls in.
down with your legs in the water and your regulator in your mouth. After you have assessed the wave action and have
Controlled Set both hands firmly down on your right side. Lean slightly toward taken notice of currents, then don all of your dive gear.
Seated Entry your right, shifting the weight of the cylinder to your arms and hands. Surf Entry
Push your body off and away from the platform as you swing your
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(Don your fins closer to the waterline.) The diver responsible for Figure 4-9). When you exhale, you should begin to sink slightly. Figure 4-10
towing the dive flag should unreel about eight to ten feet of line so that Add or subtract lead from your weight system until your weighting Follow the five basic steps when
the flag and float can lay on the ground. Once you and your dive buddy feels correct. Once you have established the best amount of weight making a controlled descent.
are geared up, shuffle backwards while holding hands. When the water for your particular gear configuration and exposure suit, record that
is deep enough to swim, turn around and swim out quickly. After you number in your logbook for future reference. Remember, you will Step 1
are both beyond the surf zone in calmer water, proceed with the dive need to wear more weight in salt water than in fresh water. Also, as
as usual. you dive more and become more comfortable in the water, you will
probably be able to reduce the amount of weight you wear.
Overweighting and underweighting are common problems,
In-Water Skills yet both are easily avoided with proper instruction. Wearing too
Now it’s time to dive. This section describes the skills you will be much weight will cause you to expend extra energy while swim-
performing during your certification. In the pool training, your SDI ming, which can lead to fatigue. Underweighting, on the other hand,
instructor will demonstrate each skill and then have you perform the makes it difficult to descend and to remain neutral during the dive as
skill, one student at a time. You must perform each skill to a satisfac- your cylinder becomes more buoyant. Wearing too little weight also
tory level before moving on to the next one. Step 2
makes it difficult to control ascent rate at the end of a dive.
During the open water portion of the class, your instructor will
brief you on the objective of the dive. However, your instructor will
not demonstrate the skills again in the open water before having you Descents
Figure 4-8
demonstrate them. Since this course is performance based, you can A descent must be controlled and deliberate. During the class, you
To deflate the BCD, hold work on a skill in the pool until you feel comfortable with it. will make several descents in the open water using a descent line.
the inflator assembly over The line provides a fixed point during descent and helps prevent dis-
your head and depress orientation underwater. On the last certification dive, however, you
BCD Inflation/Deflation
the deflator button. will make a free descent without using a line. Step 3
Once the class has geared up and gathered in the shallow end of the
swimming pool, the first thing you will practice is the inflation and
deflation of your BCD. A descent must be
A BCD can be inflated either automatically or manually. Manual
inflation is accomplished by placing your mouth on the oral inflator controlled and deliberate.
and blowing into the orifice while depressing the deflator button. In
between breaths, release the button to close the valve so that air will
not escape when your mouth is off the mouthpiece. It will take several To make a controlled descent, have all your equipment in
breaths until the BCD is fully inflated. place. Follow the five basic steps (See Figure 4-10): Step 4
Automatic inflation is achieved by depressing the power, or auto-
inflator, button. Use this time to familiarize yourself with the inflator/ 1. Make a visual check of landmarks on the surface to orient
deflator mechanism. When operating your power inflator, you only yourself.
need to depress your inflator button briefly to add a short blast of air.
Figure 4-9 To deflate the BCD, hold the end of the inflator hose over your head 2. If you used a snorkel on the surface, replace the snorkel
With the BCD deflated, you should and depress the deflator button. The deflator orifice must be higher than with the regulator. Make a note of the time and check
float at eye level when you take in the BCD bladder to enable all the air to escape (see Figure 4-8). your dive computer.
a full breath of air.
3. Equalize. Remember, you will need to equalize every
Step 5
Weight Check couple of feet as you descend, beginning on the surface.
Proper weighting means having just enough weight to achieve all three 4. Signal “OK” and “Going Down.” Both you and your buddy
states of buoyancy with only minor adjustments in the water. To check should exchange hand signs.
for proper weighting, enter the deep end of the pool wearing your scu- 5. Holding the inflator hose over your head, deflate the BCD
ba gear, including the amount of weight you estimate to be correct and descend.
(your SDI instructor will help you estimate). With the BCD deflated,
you should float at eye level when you take in a full breath of air (see
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74 75
Regulator Clearing Sweep
Sometimes you may find it necessary to take your regulator out of
your mouth underwater. This might be the case if you want to orally
inflate your BCD, or if your mouth becomes extremely dry. When-
ever the second stage is out of your mouth, it will fill up with water.
It is necessary to clear the water before breathing from it again. There
are two ways to clear a second stage – mechanically and orally. Both
methods achieve the same results.
To mechanically purge the second stage, block the mouthpiece
opening with your tongue and then depress the purge button on the
face of the second stage. This activates the demand lever which draws
air into the regulator. Blocking the opening with your tongue will
prevent water from being forced into your mouth (see Figure 4-11).
Figure 4-11
To clear the regulator Reach
mechanically, depress
the purge button be- Breathe continuously Figure 4-12
fore inhaling.
and NEVER hold your breath. Reach Method – To practice the reach method to recover your Use the sweep or reach
method to recover your
regulator; inhale, remove the second stage and release it at your side. regulator while underwater.
Use your left hand to reach behind you and push up on the bottom of
your cylinder. With your right hand, reach behind your head and grab
To orally purge the second stage, simply exhale into the mouth-
a hold of the primary hose where it attaches to the first stage. Run
piece. Exhaling forces the water out the exhaust valve. Whenever
your hand down the hose until you come to the second stage. Place it
clearing your regulator, always take your initial breath cautiously be-
back in your mouth and purge before inhaling.
cause there may still be a small amount of water remaining in the air
As with the sweep method, remember to inhale deeply before
chamber. It’s important to get in the habit of breathing continuously
taking the second stage out of your mouth. Continue to exhale when-
and never holding your breath. Any time the second stage is not in
ever the regulator is out of your mouth (see Figure 4-12).
your mouth, exhale tiny bubbles.
On another note, if you get nauseous underwater, you can vomit
through your regulator. The discharge will flow out the exhaust valve
Fin Pivot
just as exhaled air does. Fine-tuning your buoyancy is an important skill in diving. Your in-
structor will have you practice a couple of different exercises to aid
Regulator Recovery in buoyancy control – the fin pivot and hovering. In addition to using
your weight belt and BCD to control buoyancy, you will soon notice
Sometimes your regulator may get knocked out of your mouth ac-
that you can use your lungs as well (see Figure 4-13).
cidentally. In this situation, you need to know how to find it quickly
To perform the fin pivot, lie flat on the bottom of the pool, face
and replace it in your mouth. There are two techniques to retrieve a
down, with your BCD completely deflated. Add very short bursts of
second stage – the sweep and the reach methods.
air into your BCD using the power inflator button. Wait a moment
Sweep Method – To recover your second stage using the sweep Figure 4-13
method; inhale, take the second stage out of your mouth and release Keeping your body straight,
it at your side. Remember to exhale continuously when the regulator you can pivot on your fin tips
is out of your mouth. by inhaling and exhaling.
Lean to your right and extend your right arm straight back behind
you. In a sweeping motion, arc your arm toward the front of your body.
Your arm will hook the second stage hose. Reach over with your left
hand, pick up the second stage and put it in your mouth. Purge the reg-
ulator using either the oral or mechanical purge method. Signal “OK.
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Figure 4-14 Inhal Breathing from a Free Flow Regulator

The objective of the fin pivot skill Deep e As we saw in Chapter 3, modern regulators are designed to be fail-safe. In
is to achieve neutral buoyancy
ly
by using your BCD, then making other words, if the regulator malfunctions, it will release a constant flow
slight variations in your buoy- of air, rather than cutting off the air supply completely. If this happens,
ancy by using only your lungs. you can breathe from the free-flowing regulator in order to have enough
air to surface. Your instructor will have you simulate a free flow in the
pool by keeping the regulator purge button depressed (see Figure 4-16).
To perform this skill, lean your head as far as you can to one side. If
you don’t lean, the flow of bubbles might dislodge your mask, causing
it to leak. Remove the regulator from your mouth, place the mouthpiece
near your partially opened lips, and depress the purge button. You will be
able to inhale off the steady stream of air just as you would when taking a
normal breath. Exhale normally.
after adding each blast. Continue to add air until you feel your upper
body start to rise off the bottom of the pool. Once your upper body
Mask Clearing
is elevated off the bottom, inhale deeply and feel your body start to Your dive mask allows you to see underwater by creating an airspace in
rise more. Exhale and your upper body will start to sink toward the front of your eyes. However, water can enter this space during a dive, Figure 4-16
bottom. Inhale and rise. Exhale and sink. The objective is to achieve hampering your vision and decreasing your enjoyment of the dive. Some- Breathing from a
times, you may want to let water into the mask on purpose to help defog free-flowing regulator.
neutral buoyancy using your BCD, then to make slight variations in
your buoyancy using only your lungs (see Figure 4-14). the inside. The ability to clear your mask of water while diving, without
You should keep your legs straight with your fin tips on the bot- coming up to the surface, is an important skill that you will use often.
tom of the pool throughout this exercise. Also, keep your body as During pool training, you will learn how to clear a partially-flooded
straight as possible and do not arch your back. mask. To perform this skill, let some water into the mask by lifting the
mask skirt slightly away from your face. As water enters the mask, you
might want to exhale through your nose to avoid water from entering.
Hovering Fill the mask until the water rises just beneath your eye level. Next,
Once you have mastered the fin pivot, you will move on to a more press the top of your mask tightly against your forehead. Continuously ex-
advanced application of buoyancy control – hovering. The ability hale through your nose as you roll your head backward. The exhalation of
to hover motionless is an indication of proficient buoyancy control air will force the water out of the bottom of the mask. If all the water is not
(see Figure 4-15). Before beginning this exercise, make sure that the removed during the first attempt, take a deep breath and exhale through Figure 4-17
weights on your weight belt are evenly spaced. If you have more your nose again as you repeat the same procedure. Once you have practiced
weight on one side of your belt, you will automatically lean over dur- Some masks have a purge valve at the bottom. To clear this type of clearing a flooded mask,
ing this exercise. mask, push the top of the frame against your forehead and exhale through you will demonstrate
how to completely
To practice hovering in the deep end of the pool, begin by sit- your nose as your tilt your head down (see Figure 4-17). remove and replace your
ting on the bottom cross-legged. If you are not flexible enough to sit mask while underwater.
cross-legged, you can perform this skill in the kneeling position.
Add short bursts of air into your BCD with the power inflator
button, waiting a moment after each blast of air. Once you have ris- Step Step Ste
en about 0.5 metre/1 foot off the bottom, remain in your position 1 2 p3
motionless, rising and falling slightly as you inhale and exhale. You
should be able to hover motionlessly for one minute without touching
Figure 4-15 bottom and without breaking the surface.
The ability to hover motion-
less is an indication of profi-
cient buoyancy control.
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Mask Removal and Replacement Cramp Relief
Once you have mastered clearing a partially-flooded mask, you will It is not uncommon to experience a leg cramp while scuba diving,
practice taking your mask off underwater, swimming without it, then especially if you have not been diving in some time. A cramp is the
replacing and clearing it (see Figure 4-18). involuntary and sudden contraction of a muscle from chills or strain,
To perform this exercise, begin by slowly flooding your mask. but it can cause temporary paralysis of the afflicted muscle. It gener-
If you are sensitive to the chlorine, you can keep your eyes closed ally occurs in the calf, but can also affect the thigh.
throughout this skill. When the mask is flooded, completely remove To relieve a leg cramp, stop swimming, bend forward at the waist
it by pulling off the straps from around the back of your head. Be to grasp the fin tip of the afflicted leg. Pull it toward you as you
sure to exhale through your nose when your mask is off. Next, your straighten your leg. Maintain this position until the pain is relieved,
instructor will guide you on a short swim. After you return to the or repeat this procedure between momentary rest intervals.
Figure 4-18
stationery position, replace your mask back on your face. Secure the You can also use your dive buddy to help relieve a leg cramp
Mask removal and replacement. mask strap back around your head. Clear the mask using the same (see Figure 4-20). If your buddy has a cramped leg, cradle the back
procedure previously described. Finally, signal “OK.” of their ankle with one hand and push the bottom of the fin toward
them with your other hand. Once the leg cramp is relieved it is rec-
Swimming Techniques ommended you change your style of kick in order to work different
The flutter kick is the most preferred swimming kick while diving. muscle groups, thus reducing the likelihood of another leg cramp.
It is similar to the kicking motion of a crawl stroke (without fins),
except that the strokes are longer and slower. To flutter kick, keep the BCD Removal Underwater
legs straight and make long, slow kicks from the hips. You will want It could become necessary for you to remove your scuba system un-
to use the quadriceps and hip flexor muscles while kicking under- derwater if, for example, your tank comes loose from your BCD (see
water. Be aware of the position of your legs during the kick. If your Figure 4-21). To remove your BCD underwater, make sure that it is Figure 4-20
knees are bent, you will lose efficiency. completely deflated and that you are negatively buoyant. Unhook Two cramp relief methods.
Do not use your arms to swim underwater. Using the arms your chest and waist straps and loosen the quick-release shoulder
and hands is inefficient and can quickly lead to overexertion. straps (but do not disconnect the shoulder straps). While keeping
Keep your arms at your sides while swimming underwater; your regulator in your mouth, slide your left arm out of the armhole.
let your legs do the work. The idea is to keep yourself stream- Swing the entire scuba unit assembly around to your right side. If you
lined so that you experience less drag, or resistance, while mov- swing it to the left, your regulator hose will wrap awkwardly around
ing through the water (see Figure 4-19). Other popular fin kicks you.
your instructor will review is the frog kick and helicopter turn. When you are ready to put it back on, slip back into the BCD in
the reverse order. In other words, first insert your right arm and then
Figure 4-19 your left arm. Fasten the cummerbund, waist and chest straps. Re-
To flutter kick under- tighten the shoulder straps and make sure you don’t have any hoses
water, keep the legs
straight and make long,
caught up in the vest.
slow kicks from the
Figure 4-21
hips. Keep your arms at
Removing the BCD is
your sides.
useful if you need to
make adjustments while
underwater.

Step Step Ste

1 2 p3
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Compass Navigation force the water out of the snorkel tube. Immediately assume
the natural position for snorkeling, with face in the water
To use a wrist-mounted compass, bend your elbow so that the com- Figure 4-24
and snorkel tip pointed upward. Scuba divers primarily use
pass is in front of your face and the lubber line is aligned with the Hand signals are a simple and easy way
a snorkel to conserve their air supply while swimming at the
center of your body. Keep the other arm extended straight in front to communicate while underwater. Be-
surface before descending.
of you and grasp the elbow of the extended arm to help keep the fore each dive, be sure to review hand
compass level and steady. Compass navigation underwater is more signals with your buddy.
accurate if you combine it with natural (navigation) references. Communications
Figure 4-22 Align the index marks on the bezel over the needle or make a men-
To navigate using a compass, tal note of the compass bearing (see Figure 4-22). Next, select a Underwater, we can’t talk to one another. We could write
align the index marks on the fixed object that is in the direct path of your compass bearing and down everything on an underwater slate, but that wouldn’t
bezel over your fixed heading.
swim to it. Repeat these steps to navigate wherever you want to be efficient and would detract from enjoying the dive. In-
go. To determine the reciprocal heading for a straight line, add or stead, divers can communicate by using simple, universal
subtract 180 degrees. hand signals. The following illustrations depict the most
Your instructor will have you swim in a straight line underwa- common underwater hand signals. Knowing these signals
ter using your compass and then have you return on the reciprocal will add to your safety and enjoyment (see Figure 4-24).
heading. You should practice compass navigation on land before-
hand.

Snorkel Clearing
Water will enter the top of the snorkel barrel whenever a wave passes
over your head at the surface or when it is submerged underwater.
There are two ways to clear a snorkel – the blast method and the
displacement method.
The blast method involves forcibly blowing (exhaling) into the
mouthpiece to force the trapped water out the top of the barrel.
This procedure permits a swimmer at the surface to clear water
from his snorkel without lifting his head (see Figure 4-23).
With the displacement method, you can use expanding air to
clear your snorkel as you ascend from a breath-hold dive. First,
Figure 4-23
dive down to the bottom of the pool. On ascent, look up toward
Clearing the snorkel using the the surface, with the tip of the snorkel lower than the mouthpiece.
blast method. A few feet (metre or so) from the surface, begin exhaling into the
mouthpiece until your head breaks the surface. The exhaled air will
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At this point, the fastest and best response is for the donor to pass the
Ascents and Out-of-Air Emergencies out-of-air diver the second stage that is in his mouth or the alternate
According to Boyle’s Law, air volume expands as pressure decreases. air source, then locate and begin breathing from his remaining sec-
For this reason, the ascent can be the most dangerous part of a dive. As- ond stage. When passing the second stage, the donor needs to:
cending too quickly can lead to pressure-related injuries and lung over- • Exhale a steady stream of bubbles any time a regulator is out of the
expansion. Following the same procedure on every ascent will greatly mouth.
enhance your safety. • Grasp the second stage by holding on to the hose, next to the sec-
Running out of air is very easy to avoid if you frequently monitor ond stage body. Doing so leaves the purge button accessible.
your SPG or air-integrated computer throughout the dive. However, if
you find that you are out of air and are not near the surface, there are • Keep the second stage right side up, so that there is no danger of
options to get to the surface safely. the receiver putting it in the mouth upside down.
There are three ways to ascend. In order of most to least desirable • Do not shove the second stage into the receiver’s mouth, but rather
Figure 4-25 they are as follows: place the second stage in front of the receiver’s eyes and wait for
Be sure to vent air from the receiver to guide it into the mouth.
1. Normal Ascent Figure 4-26
your BCD and watch your
computer as you ascend. 2. Alternate-Air Source Ascent • Once both divers have a functioning second stage, they need to In an out-of-air emergency,
hold on to one another using their right arms. Divers can either the preferred way to ascend
3. Emergency Controlled Swimming Ascent is by using another diver’s
grasp forearms, or hold onto the other’s BCD shoulder strap. alternate air source.
Normal Ascent • At this point, the divers should signal one another that they are
both OK and agree to ascend.
A normal ascent, occurs as follows: Face your buddy or your group.
Give the “Go Up” signal. Everyone in the group should respond by • Prior to ascending, both divers need to take their BCD deflation
giving the “OK” and “Go Up” signal in return. Vent out the expanding controls in one hand and ensure that their computers are positioned
air from your BCD as you ascend while limiting your ascent rate to the where it will be easy to monitor ascent rate.
most conservative dive computer in the group (see Figure 4-25). Stop • When everything is ready, the divers can begin what is largely a
your ascent between 3-6 metres or 10-20 feet, get neutral and conduct a normal ascent, venting air from their BCDs as needed, and making
safety-stop for three to five minutes prior to surfacing. After the safety a safety stop (if the donor’s air supply permits).
stop is complete, continue your ascent to the surface. When on the sur- • Upon reaching the surface, the receiver should be prepared to in-
face, establish positive buoyancy by inflating your BCD. flate the BCD orally, as there may be insufficient air left in the
cylinder to do so.
Alternate-Air-Source Ascent
Alternate-air-source ascents offer several benefits over independent as- Emergency Controlled Swimming Ascent
cents, including: If your buddy is not close by, or the surface is substantially closer
• Both divers get to breathe normally throughout the ascent (see Fig- than he is, then your best bet may be an independent emergency as-
ure 2-26). cent. Some things you need to understand first:
• There is no anxiety over, “What became of my buddy?” You are both • There is no single independent emergency ascent scenario. Cir-
together and will be there for one another when you surface. cumstances may range from one in which a regulator is merely
breathing a little hard (resulting in a near-normal ascent), to one in
This procedure begins the instant the potential receiver discovers his which the diver begins the ascent with little or nothing to breathe
regulator is breathing hard. The receiver must immediately decide and may even need to drop some or all of his weights in order to
which he can reach faster: His buddy or the surface. reach the surface.
• If the buddy is not close by or the surface is simply closer, the out-of- • Even though your regulator may not function at depth, as you as-
air diver needs to begin an immediate emergency controlled swim- cend and the ambient pressure decreases, you may still get one or
ming ascent. more partial breaths on the way up.
• On the other hand, if the potential donor’s alternate air source re- Although you may seem to be “out of air” at depth, your lungs may
mains a viable option, the receiver needs to swim to his buddy and still contain too much air as you ascend. That air will expand on
signal I’m out of air/give me air.
 Chapter 4: Skills Development SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
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ascent and could put you at risk of a lung overexpansion injury. This
means that, when you can’t inhale, you need to be exhaling. The best
Scuba Disassembly
Once you have exited the water and you are done diving for the day,
way to ensure you are exhaling at the proper rate is to make a con- Step 1
it’s time to start breaking down and rinsing your gear.
tinuous “Ahh” sound.
• If you have maintained neutral buoyancy throughout your dive, Step 1 – Remove Accessories. Remove or unclip accessories at-
you should not need to drop any weight to make it to the surface tached to the BCD that will prevent its insertion into a tank rack
• If anything, you’ll need to vent air from your BCD during ascent. on the dive boat. Remove the lead weights from integrated BCD
Nevertheless, you need to be prepared to drop weight, if necessary. pockets. Stow weights and weight belts on the ground or boat deck,
We’ll assume that, to start, your regulator is breathing hard and your under a tank rack or seat, or somewhere out of the way so that they
buddy is either not close by or you simply think your odds of reach- are not likely to cause injury or damage.
ing the surface are better on your own.
Step 2 – Depressurize the System. Turn the cylinder valve knob
• Again, don’t delay. As soon as you realize your buddy’s alternate
completely clockwise to close the valve and turn the air off. Unless
air source is not an option, start moving toward the surface.
the BCD is positioned on the cylinder differently than described in
• As you swim, start making an “Ahh” sound to exhale at a con- the assembly section, the on/off knob will always be on the right
trolled rate. side, coinciding with the right side of the BCD, and the knob for the
Step 2
• As a precaution, either take your weight belt off and hold it in front first stage yoke will be directly behind the valve and the BCD. Next,
of you, or do the same with one of your BCD weight pockets. This depress one of the second stage purge buttons or the auto inflator
way, if you need to drop weight, all you will have to do is let go button to vent air remaining in the hoses. You should not hear any
(see Figure 4-27). airflow after the lines are depressurized, and the contents gauge
• Locate your BCD’s deflation mechanism and keep it in your hand should read zero.
so that you can vent air, as needed, to keep your ascent rate under
control. Step 3 – Regulator Removal. Detach the LP hose from the inflator
• Periodically throughout the ascent, stop and attempt a shallow in- assembly by pulling the collar back on the quick disconnect. Remove
halation. Then resume making a continuous “Ahh” sound as you a regulator with a clamp type connector by unscrewing the yoke knob
Figure 4-27 until the first stage can slip off the top of the valve. If the knob is dif-
As a precaution, either take your
swim toward the surface.
ficult to turn, the most probable explanation is that the lines are still
weight belt off and hold it in front • If for any reason, you feel you cannot make it to the surface simply
slightly pressurized. Depress the purge button to be sure the system
of you, or do the same with one of by swimming upward, drop your weight. This may lead to a dan-
your BCD weight pockets. DO NOT is depressurized. However, air pressure trapped behind the valve O-
gerously rapid ascent as you approach the surface. To slow your- Step 3
drop your weights unless absolutely ring will make the first stage very difficult to remove. You may need
self, spread your arms and legs and flare backwards.
necessary. to use a towel to get a better grip on the hand wheel and hold the first
stage body while trying to unscrew the yoke. Once the first stage is
When you reach the surface, remember that you will have to inflate removed, dry off the dust cap before placing it over the air inlet and
your BCD orally. securing it in place. (Remove a DIN first stage by unscrewing it from
the valve outlet after the system is depressurized. Do not forget to
Exits attach a dry cover on the first-stage DIN adapter.)
After enjoying a wonderful dive, exiting the water is the final skill
necessary to complete. Exits are similar to entries in that procedures Step 3
will vary depending on the point of exit. However there are a few
general procedures to follow during all exits. First, always keep ei-
ther your regulator or snorkel in your mouth (see Figure 4-28). Sec-
Figure 4-28
ond, be sure your BCD is properly inflated to provide positive buoy-
When exiting keep either your ancy. Third, always watch where you are going. Finally, signal you
regulator or snorkel in your mouth. are OK upon exiting.
 Chapter 4: Skills Development SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
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................................................................
Step 4 – BCD Removal. Position yourself so that your BCD is
Step 4 between you and the cylinder. Separate the free-end of the Velcro
cylinder band and pull the strap back toward the buckle to release Chapter 4: Knowledge Quest
the buckle. Loosen the nylon band(s) sufficiently so that you can
slide the BCD up and off the cylinder. After removing the BCD, lay 1. Describe all the steps to assemble a BCD and regulator to a scuba
the cylinder down and block it so that it cannot roll around, or secure cylinder.
it in an upright position so that it cannot fall over.
2. How should you go about checking that your BCD is attached securely to
Step 5 – Rinsing. Rinse all of your gear in clean fresh water. When your cylinder?
rinsing the regulator assembly, be sure to place the dust cap over
the first stage air inlet or orifice to prevent any water from entering. 3. What is the purpose of streamlining your hoses and accessories?
Orally inflate your BCD and then turn it upside down and depress
the manual deflation button to drain any water that may have gotten 4. Describe from start to finish the steps to disassembling your scuba system.
inside during the dive. Then depress the manual inflation/deflation
button as you run some fresh water inside the air cell through the 5. Describe two important features of a weight system.
oral inflator orifice. Inflate it again, swish the water around to rinse
the inside of the bladder, and then press the deflator button while 6. What should you do any time the second stage is out of your mouth?
holding the BCD upside down to drain all water out. Store the BCD
partially inflated and allow it to air dry. Refer to the manufacturer’s 7. Describe two ways to clear a flooded second stage.
directions for care and cleaning of each individual piece of gear.
8. What is the hand signal for out-of-air?

Step 5.1 Step 5.2 Step 5.3 9. The thumbs up signal means “OK.” True or False?

10. Describe two different ways to indicate “OK.”

11. Describe how to perform a giant stride entry off a boat.

12. Name four different water entries.

13. Describe the two emergency out-of-air ascents.

14. How do you vent air from a BCD?

. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15. A properly weighted scuba diver should float at ________________

when her BCD is deflated and lungs are fully inflated.
Skills Performance Summary 16. How do you relieve a leg cramp?
You now know how to assemble, don, and disassemble your surface
and scuba gear. You know the most common hand signals. You know 17. What is the reciprocal of a 200-degree heading?
how to perform different water entries and the most common exits.
Additional diving skills include a pre-dive bubble check, operating
the BCD ascending and descending, weight check, snorkel clearing,
recovering and clearing regulators using the second stage, breath-
ing from a free-flowing second stage, clearing a partially and fully
flooded mask, three styles of fin kicking, relieving cramps, sharing
air procedures, navigating with a compass and two emergency out-
of-air ascents. These skills will help make your dives as safe and
enjoyable as possible.
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
89
Planning Your Dive Overview
• Awareness
• Buddy System
• Dive Planning
• In-Water Emergencies
• First Aid

...........................................................................
As we’ve seen, scuba diving carries certain levels of risk. As with any activity,
you need to weigh the benefits against the risks. By taking simple and reasonable
measures, you can greatly increase personal safety while diving.
Risk management is a means of preventing problems and planning a response
to any emergency that arises. The concept of risk management involves plan-
ning ahead, employing good diving practices, and knowing what to do before an
emergency arises. Without a plan, a simple problem can quickly snowball into a
full-blown emergency.

...........................................................................

Awareness
Diving safety begins with personal awareness and self-sufficiency.
Awareness includes being able to realistically evaluate your physical
and mental abilities, being conscious of your surroundings, properly
maintaining your equipment and monitoring your depth, time and air
pressure during a dive. By virtue of the buddy system, similar awareness
is required of your dive partner.
Your level of personal awareness will develop over time as you gain
more practical diving experience. Start out slow. Set diving goals that
are easily attainable and within your level of training and experience.
Keep it simple. Always dive within your level of experience and
training to avoid unnecessary risks. For example, as an open-water diver,
you should not dive into a cavern or an overhead environment such as a
shipwreck.

Diver Fitness
Personal awareness also means achieving and maintaining a solid level of
health and fitness. As with any sport that requires physical exertion, scuba
divers should be in good physical condition and proficient in swimming.
Use common sense. On the day of a dive, stay hydrated by drinking water
before and after the dives. You should be rested and ready to go on dive
day. Good mental health is equally as important as physical readiness.
The use of alcohol and drugs greatly increases the risk of decompres-
sion sickness in divers. Do not consume alcohol and drugs prior to a dive.
Reputable dive operations will prohibit anyone under the influence of
drugs or alcohol from diving.
 Chapter 5: Planning Your Dive SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
90 91
Figure 5-1 Smoking cigarettes has undeniably detrimental effects on diving minute. In that time you should look around the bottom then ascend a few
Diving with a buddy enhances the
safety and enjoyment of diving.
as well. Smoking interferes with respiration and circulation and can feet to look for rising bubbles. Rap on your cylinder and listen for a reply. If
You should stay in close proximity hinder gas exchange in the lungs. If the habit cannot be eliminated, you are reunited underwater, check each other’s air supplies and remaining
to your buddy throughout a dive. smokers should refrain from smoking 10 to 12 hours before a dive. no-stop time to decide how to continue with the dive.
Because the effects of diving while pregnant are not well under- If you do not find your buddy after searching for one minute, begin a
stood, pregnant women should not dive under any circumstances. normal ascent to the surface. Wait on the surface until your buddy ascends.
If you both follow this procedure, you will be reunited shortly after the
separation. Remember that it is much easier to find your buddy on the sur-
Buddy System face than underwater.
Diving with at least one other person, called a dive buddy, adds to the
enjoyment and safety of your dive. Employing the buddy system be-
gins before the dive (see Figure 5-1). You and your buddy should fa- Dive Planning
miliarize yourselves with each other’s gear and help each other while Even with a dive computer to track your dive profile, you must plan your
suiting up (see Figure 5-2). Formulate your dive plan together and dive beforehand (see Figure 5-3). And then you must stick with your plan.
go over the objectives of the dive. An objective may be as simple as Plan your dive and dive your plan.
circumnavigating a shipwreck. If you both have different objectives,
compromise. You can plan the first dive to accomplish one objective Dive Planning Includes:
and the next dive to accommodate the other. • Purpose of the dive
Review underwater communications and out-of-air emergency • Notifying someone of your dive plans
plans. Then go over the dive plan one last time. Always check that • Familiarizing yourself with the dive site & conditions
your buddy’s air is turned on before the dive and vice versa. • Determining entry & exit points
With buddy teams in which one person is a stronger swimmer, • Deciding the direction in which you will travel
pace the dive according to the weaker diver. You should also designate • Reviewing hand signals
a leader beforehand so that you both agree on who will navigate the • Agreeing upon dive time, maximum depth
dive. It is best to swim side-by-side throughout the dive. You should & minimum cylinder pressure
remain within close distance of your buddy at all times underwater. •
Any diver can This will ensure that you don’t lose sight of each other and that you
Discussing lost buddy & emergency procedures

signal to end the can readily lend assistance to a buddy in need.

When you visually check your computer, look at your partner’s
dive for any reason. computer, too. If your buddy is acting unusual, try to identify the Plan your dive and dive your plan.
problem so that you can provide assistance if needed. Plan to begin
your ascent according to the lowest cylinder pressure or minimum
time remaining. In other words, if you have 100 bar (1500 psi) re- Figure 5-3
Repetitive Dives Planning your dive includes
maining and your buddy has 67 bar (1000 psi), then begin your ascent
at 67 bar (1000 psi) even though you have plenty of air left. Whether you go on vacation and sign up on a dive charter, or plan to dive a agreeing upon dive time,
nearby river with a friend, chances are that you will be making more than one maximum depth & minimum
When air supply is not an issue, you must both plan to ascend cylinder pressure.
according to the most conservative no-stop time. Even if two divers dive in a day. A repetitive dive is any dive made within 24 hours of another.
follow the exact same profile, their computers may indicate different Because of the increased nitrogen absorption on repetitive dives, you need to
no-stop times. Abide by the most conservative number. carefully plan your dive times, depths and surface intervals.
The general safety rule for the buddy system is, “Any diver can First, plan the deepest dive of the day to be your first dive. Repetitive
signal to abort the dive for any reason.” The duty of the dive partner dives must be planned as progressively shallower. This will ensure that your
is to comply with safety. Diving with a good buddy is both rewarding body has adequate time to off-gas excess nitrogen.
and comforting. After a dive, your computer will scroll depths in increments of 10 feet (3
metres) and provide the adjusted no-stop time for each depth based on the
surface interval time. The longer you remain at the surface, the longer your
Figure 5-2 Buddy Separation repetitive no-stop time will be.
You and your buddy should Buddy separation is more likely to occur in low-visibility situations. Some computers have a dive-planning mode that allows the user to input
check each other’s gear before
If you and your buddy become separated, you must both employ the the desired surface interval time to determine the adjusted time limit for a re-
each dive.
same search procedure. First, look around the immediate area for one petitive dive. The computer calculates repetitive dive limits, scrolls through
 Chapter 5: Planning Your Dive SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
92 93
each depth increment, and displays the adjusted no-stop time limit. This supervisor of your omitted decompression and begin first aid procedures
feature allows a diver to plan how long he/she must stay at the surface to for decompression sickness. Breathe oxygen for at least 30 minutes,
have the maximum no-stop time at depth. watch for signs and symptoms of decompression sickness for at least
24 hours, and seek immediate medical attention if any symptoms de-
velop. Do not dive or fly or go to higher elevations for at least 24 hours.
Safety Stop
A safety stop is a delay in your ascent prior to
surfacing. Unlike a mandatory decompression stop, Computer Failure
a safety stop is not a physiological requirement, It is rare for a computer to fail during a dive, but if it does, you should
but a precautionary measure. The safety stop gives abort the dive because the computer is the only true record of your dive
your body extra time to get rid of excess nitrogen profile. If you have enough air and were not near your no-stop time limit,
underwater (see Figure 5-4). conduct a safety stop prior to surfacing. Have the computer serviced and
A safety stop should be conducted between 3 and wait 24 hours before diving again to avoid repetitive dives.
6 metres (10 and 20 feet) for three to five minutes It is important to know that some computers will “lock out” if there
before coming up to the surface. A safety stop is is a decompression violation. For example, if a diver omits mandatory
recommended on any dive up to 30 metres (100 decompression, the computer will not provide or track any further diving
feet). For dives over 30 metres (100 feet), a safety activities for a minimum of 24 hours. In fact, some computers will lock
stop is mandatory. out during the dive if there is a violation and will only display current
It’s best to hold onto the anchor line or ascent line depth and elapsed time. Choose a computer that will provide emergency
Figure 5-4 if one is available, particularly in rough water in decompression requirements.
A safety stop is a delay in which maintaining a constant depth will be difficult. Whenever holding
ascent before surfacing. It’s
best to hold onto a line while
onto a line, keep the line loose in your hand. If you hold the line too tightly, In-Water Emergencies
a large wave on the surface can make the dive boat rise suddenly, thus
conducting a safety stop. One of the most dangerous situations to arise in the water is when a diver
pulling the anchor line up and possibly forcing you into a rapid ascent. You
panics. Panic causes people to lose control to the point where they can no
may need to shorten your safety stop if you are too low on air.
longer act rationally. Usually, a panicked diver is incapable of self-rescue
and must be saved by someone else.
Emergency Decompression Panic is brought on by feelings of anxiety when a person per-
As previously mentioned, decompression diving is beyond the range of ceives danger, whether real or imagined. Panic triggers a psycho-
logical response or coping mechanism called the “flight response.” Figure 5-5
this course. You should view mandatory decompression as an emergency A panicked diver is unable
procedure only. However, if an emergency occurs and you inadvertent- When a person panics underwater and his flight mechanism is trig- to act rationally. Signs of
ly exceed your no-stop time, you are under a physiological obligation to gered, he will have a sudden, desperate desire to swim to the sur- panic include ripping the
make a staged decompression stop or stops prior to surfacing. face. The overwhelming urge to bolt to the surface can lead to injury. mask off, wide eyes and
Most modern computers will give an audible and/or visual alarm if Panicked divers exhibit common, recognizable jerky movements.
you enter decompression. The computer will display each decompression signs. These include wide eyes, rapid jerky movements,
stop depth and time. If this happens, ascend at a normal rate and stop at accelerated breathing, ripping off the mask and
the first decompression depth. Stay at that depth for the time required. regulator, inappropriate behavior and failure to respond
Once the mandatory time at this stop has elapsed, the computer will dis- to signals (see Figure 5-5). Panic can be active or
play the next shallower stop depth and the time required. Perform all re- passive. Active panic is when a diver bolts toward
quired stops until the computer clears you to ascend to the surface. Obvi- the surface and becomes combative. Because the
ously, decompression stops can only be made if your air supply allows. behavior is completely unpredictable, approaching a
panicked diver can put you in danger. Passive panic
Omitted Decompression tends to immobilize the diver and make him totally
unresponsive. Panic can occur underwater or on the
If you go into emergency decompression but do not have enough air to
surface. It can be brought on by several factors such
make the required stops (and do not have another air source available from
as difficulty breathing, overexertion and entanglement.
a fellow diver), you must ascend to the surface before you run out of air.
As soon as you surface, establish positive buoyancy and signal for
emergency assistance. Once you are onboard the boat, advise the diving
 Chapter 5: Planning Your Dive SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
94 95

Overexertion your mouth at all times. If you have sufficient

One of the most common problems a diver experiences is overexertion. air in your tank, you can continue to breathe
This is understandable given the fact the human body is unaccustomed to from your regulator instead of the snorkel.
moving through such a dense medium and breathing through a mechani- Once you have established positive
cal device. Accelerated and/or labored breathing is the body’s natural buoyancy, signal to the surface support crew
coping mechanism to meet the increased demand for oxygen resulting so that they see you. If you are not having any
from strenuous activity. immediate, life-threatening problem, signal
The body adapts automatically to exertion by increasing the depth “OK.” Only use the danger signal in absolute
and rate of respiration. A scuba regulator adjusts by delivering additional emergencies. When you signal for help, you
air upon demand. are activating an emergency response plan
In addition to the physical stress of overexertion, divers can experi- and using up the resources of that operation.
ence a psychological reaction that compounds the problem. When breath- The cry for help should not be taken lightly.
ing becomes labored, the diver perceives his condition as more serious Keep in mind that in a commercially run dive
than it really is. operation, the captain and crew are responsible
At the first signs of overexertion, stop, relax and breathe deeply. for all divers on the boat. They have to use their Figure 5-7
Holding onto a stationary object helps reduce disorientation. Once you professional judgment in emergencies. In some cases, they might have to If your buddy is too
have regained composure, continue the dive. get all of the other divers back on the boat before picking up stray divers. exhausted to swim on the
Overexertion on the surface becomes a problem when a diver finds surface, you can use the tired
Problems at the Surface himself down current from the boat or his planned exit. Swimming against diver tow to bring him to
the current can lead to overexertion. In most cases it is easiest to swim on safety.
Surprisingly, most dive accidents occur at the surface, not underwater.
Surfacing too far from the dive boat, being over-weighted and feeling your back because your BCD provides most of its lift from behind. The
fatigued are potential dangers. Rough seas, bad weather and high-traffic more streamlined you can be, the easier it will be to swim. If the distance
areas can compound problems at the surface. is not too far and the current is not too strong, set a comfortable swim-
The first rule in any surface emergency is to establish positive buoy- ming pace so that you do not become overexerted. If you are too far away,
ancy (see Figure 5-6). deploy your surface signal and wait for the dive boat to pick you up.

Figure 5-6
The first rule in any surface
Tired Diver Tow
emergency is to establish As an open-water diver, you are not expected to have advanced rescue
positive buoyancy. skills. However, you should be able to lend basic assistance. For example,
if you and your buddy surface a long distance from the boat and your
buddy is unable to swim back, you can offer to tow him to the boat utiliz-
ing the tired diver tow (see Figure 5-7). Figure 5-8
Entanglement is not com-
First, make sure you both establish positive buoyancy. mon, but it can be a prob-
Ask your buddy to lie on his back and breathe normally. lem when diving around
Grasp his cylinder valve while also lying on your back fishing line or in kelp beds.
and kicking, or hold onto his arm just under the armpit
while kicking facedown in the water breathing from
your snorkel or second-stage. Check your location with
respect to where you want to go and adjust your heading
as needed.

The quickest way to become buoyant is to ditch your weight, be it a Entanglement

weight belt or the pockets of a weight-integrated BCD. If you are able to While entanglement is not common, it can be a prob-
help another diver who is panicked on the surface, remember that their lem when diving around fishing line, wrecks, or in kelp
weight belt will have a right-hand release. This makes the weight belt beds (see Figure 5-8). Should you or your buddy become
easy to locate and release. Keep your mask in place and your snorkel in entangled in fishing line or rope, do not struggle to free
yourself.
 Chapter 5: Planning Your Dive SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
96 97
Seasickness
Moving around generally results in further entanglement. Figure out Seasickness is quite common and can quickly
how to get untangled or carefully use your knife to cut the line away. ruin your diving experience. Like motion sick-
Always cut away from your body and gear. ness, seasickness is caused by a change in the
Kelp is a leafy aquatic plant that can grow in tall stalks. If you get en- equilibrium of the inner ear. Visual and perceptual
tangled in kelp, you can usually free yourself by staying still for a few mo- disorientation caused by the rocking of a boat on
ments as the motion of the water loosens the plant. Again, struggling usual- the waves is a contributing factor to seasickness.
ly compounds the problem. Cutting yourself free may become necessary. To avoid seasickness, you should maintain eye
contact with the horizon or any stationary, land-
Missing Diver based object. Avoid going below deck unless abso-
When a diver does not surface from a dive, notify the supervisor at the lutely necessary. Stay away from areas near the ex-
surface that you and your buddy were separated. Give the details of the haust and minimize the amount of time on the boat
dive: the last known position, dive time, and max depth. If the diver (see Figure 5-9). Often, divers feeling seasick on
does not surface within a reasonable time (for her specific air and time the boat feel much better once they’re in the water.
restraints), a search will be necessary by qualified divers, and the local Figure 5-9
If seasickness medications must be taken, do so well beforehand.
To avoid seasickness, focus
authorities will need to be notified for emergency assistance. Most medications are ineffective if taken when seasick. Transdermal on the horizon or a fixed
medications (also known as “the patch” which is applied behind the point on land. Stay away
SDI Rescue Diver Program ear) are not recommended prior to diving because of their side ef- from areas near the engine
The SDI Rescue Diver course teaches divers how to recognize and re- fects. exhaust.
duce the chances of diving accidents before they occur and how to
ultimately respond if an actual emergency were to arise. SDI requires Decompression Sickness
the SDI Advanced Adventure Diver certification (or equivalent) or 40 Recompression in a hyperbaric chamber is usually required to treat
logged dives to enter the program. A diver must be comfortable with decompression sickness. However, rapid first aid treatment has prov-
their own diving ability before enrolling in the course due the added en to be effective in preventing permanent injury.
responsibility of managing emergencies. The ability and confidence First aid for decompression sickness is to administer pure oxy-
to provide aid and assistance to another person is the true measure of a gen. Since it is virtually impossible for a medically untrained person
qualified rescue diver. to determine the exact type of DCS (such as Type I or Type II), treat
all cases of suspected DCS the same way.
First Aid
Taking an advanced rescue and basic life support course is a good idea Emergency Procedures for DCS
for anyone who does a lot of diving. Knowing CPR (cardiopulmonary 1. Move the afflicted diver out of danger.
resuscitation) can make the difference in saving another person’s life.
Diving in remote locations in which a medical facility is not easily 2. Activate the Emergency Medical System (EMS).
accessible adds a level of risk to diving. 3. Monitor life support signs (pulse and respiration) and
Knowing how to deliver basic first aid for common diving maladies provide CPR if necessary.
SDI Rescue Diver Program
is an important part of risk management. First aid, as the name implies,
is a first response to an emergency. Further medical attention must be 4. Provide 100% oxygen via demand regulator if the diver is
The ability and confidence to provide
aid and assistance to another person sought from a qualified health care provider in most situations. Having breathing.
is the true measure of a qualified a first-aid kit on hand is essential. In addition to bandages, antiseptic, 5. Evacuation if necessary.
rescue diver. ointment, scissors, tape and latex gloves, a diving first aid kit should
also include meat tenderizer or vinegar for treating stings and abra-
sions from marine animals. A tank of pure oxygen should also be ac-
First Aid and Oxygen Administration Courses
SDI’s sister agency, First Response Training International, offers
cessible.
courses for laypeople to learn CPR, First Aid, AED and Oxygen
Administration. Learning these skills will make you more confident
and competent in rendering aid during emergency situations both in
and out of the water.
 Chapter 5: Planning Your Dive SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
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. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Dive Planning Summary

Scuba diving requires a high degree of awareness and common sense.
Using simple precautions can greatly enhance your safety and the safe-
ty of other divers around you. The concept of risk management means
that you take measures to prevent problems from arising and are pre-
pared for emergencies should they occur.
Being a self-sufficient diver means maintaining personal health and
fitness and being aware of yourself and your surroundings. Always stay
within the limits of your training and experience. Furthering your dive
training will add to the safety and enjoyment of your diving experiences.

. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Chapter 5: Knowledge Quest

1. Define risk management.

2. Why should you avoid consuming drugs or alcohol prior to a

dive?

3. What elements should you and your buddy agree on before the
dive?

4. Describe what to do if you and your buddy become separated

during a dive.

5. When planning a repetitive dive, the _________ dive should be

made first.

6. Describe the procedure recommended for a safety stop.

7. Describe what to do if you exceed the no-deco time registered on

your computer.

8. What should you do if you become entangled underwater?

9. What is the emergency procedure for suspected decompression

sickness?
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
101
Continuing Your Dive Experience
...............................................................

Many other exciting diving opportunities await after successful completion of your Open
Water certification course. You will discover that diving is an adventure with so many dif-
ferent facets you can easily find activities of interest. Enrolling in specialty courses will help
you learn how to become a more proficient diver and participate in many different types of
diving.

Beyond Open Water

• Advanced Diver Development

Technical Diving
• About Technical Diving International, TDI

Public Safety Diving

• About Emergency Response Diving International, ERDI

............................................................

Beyond Open Water

Your first step in continuing your education is to enroll in the SDI Advanced Diver Develop-
ment program or one of the many other SDI specialty programs.
One extremely popular option for a new diver like yourself is the SDI Computer Nitrox Pro-
gram. This will teach you how to use nitrox on your recreational sport dives. Few advances have
had a more profound impact on divers over the past two decades than the widespread availabil-
ity of Enriched Air Nitrox (a mixture with a higher percentage of oxygen than the normal 21%
found in air) and Nitrox programmable dive computers. Graduating from an SDI Computer
Nitrox program will allow you to join the many divers who use nitrox in place of the ordinary
compressed air to extend their bottom time or to reduce the risks of decompression sickness.
SDI’s other Advanced Diver Development Programs emphasize instructor directed spe-
cialty training and self-directed experience dives to develop skills, knowledge, and personal
confidence for the new or active diver. These courses will help you to become a much stron-
ger, more confident diver under the watchful eyes of your SDI instructor.
 Chapter 6: Continuing Your Dive Experience SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
102 103

About TDI
TDI is the largest technical certification agency in the world. As one of the first agencies
to provide training in mixed gas diving and rebreathers, TDI is seen as an innovator of
new diving techniques and programs which previously were not available to the general
public. Training with TDI has provided divers with the opportunity to see such wrecks as
the Andrea Doria, Lusitania and the Prince of Wales. TDI divers have explored underwater
caves in Spain, Australia and Mexico and assisted as support divers on world record free
dives done in the Red Sea.
TDI’s professionals are held to the highest standard to ensure quality training throughout
the world. This means that as a diver taking a TDI course, your instructor will have
documented his experience and knowledge prior to achieving that rating.
TDI is committed to offering the highest quality training supported by the latest materials
with the most up to date information and techniques. TDI’s materials are written by authors
that actively conduct the type of diving they are writing about. Those same materials are
updated as technology and equipment change.

*open circuit & ccr

options available
 Chapter 6: Continuing Your Dive Experience SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
104 105

About ERDI
ERDI is the Public Safety Diving (PSD) agency that trains police, fire and other public safety
organizations in search and rescue techniques in just about every submerged environment
TENDER TESTIFYING IN COURT ICE SURFACE RESCUE known. ERDI trains departments on how to make and maintain their own PSD teams along
with being the only public safety diving training agency that has their own insurance and
endorses its own standards. All ERDI programs are OSHA and NFPA compliant. In fact,
some of the largest successful and renowned departments use ERDI Programs to conduct
their training.
ERD I Each and every day public safety divers face the challenges of swift water, black water and
a myriad of other potentially harmful situations as part of their job. ERDI offers training to
help teams accomplish these missions with the best possible training available.
Many of the ERDI programs can be taught at several levels in accordance with National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) guidelines. The level of participation in the practical
portion of the course will determine the final level of certification. The classification levels
ERD II • CONFINED SPACE OPS • CONTAMINATED are: Awareness, Operations and Technician. All ERDI programs are available to public
• U/W EXPLOSIVES OPS WATER OPS safety professionals regardless of their position within a department.
• DRY SUIT OPS
• FULL FACE MASK OPS Awareness – The Awareness level can be completed simply by doing the online academics
for the ERDI course of interest. Upon completion of any of the online ERDI Academy
ERD SUPERVISOR • HULL INSPECTION courses, an individual will receive an awareness level certificate. For additional insight and
OPS understanding of the course, the individual can audit the practical session.
• ICE DIVING OPS
• NIGHT OPS Operations – The Operations level course requires the participant to complete the online
academics and also participate in the non-diving segments of the Operations level course
ERD NONDIVING OPS • SMALL BOAT OPS taught by an ERDI Instructor. Depending on the program an individual is completing,
ERD INSTRUCTOR INSTRUCTOR this portion of the training shows how to properly perform and/or supervise non-diving
• SWIFT WATER OPS
emergency response duties.
• U/W CRIME SCENE
OPS Technician – The Technician level is the final step and requires the participant to complete
ERD INSTRUCTOR • U/W THREAT the required number of practical training sessions under the supervision of an ERDI
TRAINER ASSESSMENT OPS Instructor. Here the individual will apply what they have learned during the awareness
and skill-development sessions, while learning practical lessons that can only be gained by
performing all practical activities associated with the program.
 Chapter 6: Continuing Your Dive Experience SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
106 107
Appendix
...............................................................

• Dive Tables
• Dive Table Worksheet (US Navy Tables)
• Buhlmann Tables
• Sample Problems

...........................................................................

Dive Tables: A different way to manage your bottom time

Before the widespread use of personal dive computers, new divers had to learn
how to use dive, or decompression tables to help them plan their dives, and there
were plenty of choices. Perhaps the two most popular and well-used were the US
Navy tables and a set of closely related tables produced by the Swiss physiologist
Dr. Albert Buhlmann during the 1980s. These dive tables, and the many others
available, give no-decompression time limits for diving to depths within the
recreational sport limits (40 metres or
130 feet). They also provide guidance to a
diver on how long to remain on the surface
before conducting a repetitive dive, and
how long that repetitive dive should be at
specific depths.
As an SDI open water diver you 1102 992 1102

would only need to bother with tables

if your computer crashed for some
reason (check battery levels regularly!),
63 63

or because you are curious as to how

33 31 33

they work and have some interest in the 12

8 7
11
10
8
12

historical aspects of dive planning. In any 7

6
6
6
6
7

event, we have included this short chapter

for your interest and general knowledge.
The exercises it contains are optional, but
we think you may find them fun. As you
work through them, follow the simple
instructions we have provided and follow
the step-by-step procedures. If you have
2010-2013

any questions about dive planning with

dive tables, please ask you SDI instructor Item: 110520-01

for advice.
 Appendix SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
108 109

Dive Table Worksheet (US Navy Tables)

No-Decompression Limit (NDL)
To figure out the no-decompression limit for a certain depth, begin at the top left of the table (on oppo-
site page). Read DOWN the row of depths (starting at 10 feet/3 metres) Depth increases as you move
down the column. Directly across from each depth (starting at 25 feet/7.6 metres) is the corresponding
no-decompression limit, or NDL. For example, the NDL for 80 feet / 24.4 metres is 39 minutes.
Use the next greater number if the exact number doesn’t appear
END 1. Find the NDL for 30 feet/9.1 metres.
2. Find the NDL for 130 feet/39.6 metres.
1102 992 1102

Step 1
Now, let’s say we’re planning a dive to 80 feet/24.4 metres for 35 minutes. Begin at START and
63 63 read across to 80 feet/ 24.4 metres. Continue to read across the row until you reach 35 (or the next
higher number, in this case 36). Then read UP the column until you reach the letter I. This means that
33 31 33 upon surfacing from the first dive, you will be in dive group I.
1. Find the pressure group for a dive to 105 feet for 19 minutes.
STEP 1 12 11 12 2. Find the pressure group for a dive to 36 feet for one hour and 20 minutes.
10
8 7 8
7
6
6
6
7
Step 2
6 6
Continuing with our example, let’s plan on spending one hour and 15 minutes on the surface. In the I
row, read across until you find the box with 0:53 over 1:44. Since 1:15 falls between these two times,
this is the box we will use. Read down the column until you reach the letter H. This is your new dive
group after a surface interval of 1:15.
STEP 2 1. What’s the new repetitive dive group letter of a K diver after a surface interval of two hours?
2. A diver goes to 45 feet for 50 minutes. He spends 15 minutes on the surface. What’s his new
repetitive dive group letter?

Step 3
As an H diver, now we’re going to do a repetitive dive at 50 feet/15.2 metres for 30 minutes. Find 50
2010-2013
feet/ 15.2 metres on the chart at the bottom of the table and cross it with the H column until you come to
STEP 4 the number 57. This is our residual nitrogen time, or RNT. Before finding our new dive group, we must
add our RNT to our planned dive time, or actual bottom time (ABT) to find our total bottom time (TBT).
Item: 110520-01 RNT + ABT = TBT 57+30=87
The TBT will be used to calculate the next dive and simply takes into account the residual nitrogen
from the two previous dives.
STEP 3 1. What’s the RNT for an O diver going to 40 feet/12.2 metres?
2. Find the TBT for the following profile: An E diver goes to 70 feet/21.3 metres for 45 minutes.

Step 4
Our second dive is going to be to 50 feet/15.2 metres and we already know our TBT is 87 min-
utes. We need to find our ending dive group. Find 50 feet/15.2 metres in the depth column. Read
ACROSS the row until you find 87 minutes (remember to use the next greater number if the exact
number doesn’t appear). Read UP the row until you reach L. This is our ending dive group after both
dives.
 Appendix SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
110 111

Figure 6-1 Surface Interval Figure 6-3

Graphically, this is Between Dives
how the previous (hours : minutes) Pressure Group
Buhlmann Repetitive Letter Group Table
dive profile is written: After Surface Surface Interval Time (H:mm)
Pressure Group Interval Pressure Group
START “0” Fly
After Dive 1 After Dive 2
I 1:15 H L Hours Hours
A 2 2
B 0:20 2 2
C 0:10 0:25 3 3
80ft / 24.4M 50 ft / 15.2 M D 0:10 0:15 0:30 3 3
E 0:10 0:15 0:25 0:45 4 3
35 mins. 30 mins. F 0:20 0:30 0:45 1:15 1:20 8 4
G 0:25 0:45 1:00 1:15 1:40 2:10 12 5
Dive 1 Dive 2
H 0:50 1:05 1:35 2:10 3:00 4:00 5:40 24 7
57 30 87
G F E D C B A FINISH

.........................................................................................

Buhlmann Tables
Figure 6-4
Figure 6-2 Buhlmann Residual Nitrogen Time Table (RNT)
Buhlmann 1989 Sea Level (0-700M) Depth
G F E D C B A
No Decompression Dive Tables Meters
Depth Nitrogen Group Designation 9 154 130 105 81 55 37 25
12 137 111 82 57 37 25 19
Meters A B C D
D E F G H
9 25 37 55 81 105 130 15 59 41 29 20 16
12 19 25 37 57 82 125 18 44 33 25 17 14
15 16 20 29 41 59 75 21 28 22 15 12
18 15 17 25 33 44 51 24 24 20 13 11
21 12 15 22 28 35 27 18 12 10
START 30 11 9
24 11 13 20 25
33 10 8 16 30 46
27 10 12 18 20
30 9 11 16 36 9 7 RNT + ABT = TBT
33 8 10 14 39 8 7 46 minutes = E Diver
36 7 9 12 DO NOT MIX AND MATCH.
39 7 10

Perhaps the first thing you’ll notice about the Buhlmann no-decompression dive table
shown above is that it appears to be “more conservative” than the US Navy tables in
than maximum allowable bottom time for a corresponding depth (see Figure 6-2). A
dive to 24 metres (about 80 feet) has an NDL of 25 minutes compared to 35 minutes
on the US Navy tables.
 Appendix
112

Sample Problems
Find the ending dive groups for the following dive profiles:

1. A dive to 90 feet/25 metres for 15 minutes followed by a surface interval of 2:50. The
second dive to 50 feet/14 metres for 43 minutes followed by a surface interval of 1:20.
The third dive to 39 feet/12 metres for 30 minutes.

2. A dive to 115 feet/35 metres for 10 minutes followed by a surface interval of 1:10. The
second dive to 50 feet/15 metres for 30 minutes followed by a surface interval of 2:45.
The third dive to 25 feet/7 metres for 52 minutes.
 Chapter 3: Scuba Equipment
58
Battery Power – Your dive computer will monitor its own battery
power. This data may be displayed when it completes its diagnostic
before it enters a scroll mode, or you may be able to access a separate
display screen with the information. The battery or batteries should be
replaced before further use when they reach the minimum low level
specified by the manufacturer. Some computers have batteries that are
replaceable by the owner (or a professional scuba service technician),
while other computers must be sent back to the manufacturer when
batteries need replacing.
One additional feature that you may wish to consider if you are go-
ing to buy your own dive computer is “nitrox programmable.” Nitrox
Figure 3-20 is a form of breathing gas containing less nitrogen and more oxygen
A dive watch adds redundancy than plain air. Among other benefits, it prolongs a diver’s available
and safety to your dive. bottom time compared to air, and many new divers like yourself take
an SDI Computer Nitrox Course very soon after graduating as an SDI
open water diver. Having a dive computer that can be programmed to
take full advantage of extended bottom time may be a sound invest-
ment. Ask your instructor or SDI dive center to explain this type of
dive computer to you.

Other Instruments
Dive Watch
In any type of diving, backup equipment adds an element of safety.
For example, we have an alternate air source on the regulator, and we
carry two dive lights on night dives. While your dive computer will
keep track of your dive profile, it’s a good idea to have a redundant
timepiece in case the computer fails (see Figure 3-20).
A dive watch is like any other watch except that it is pressure tested
to withstand the elevated pressures of a scuba dive. If it is an analog
unit, it has a ratcheted, one-way rotating bezel that indicates minutes
from zero to 60. By setting the zero mark on the bezel in line with
the minute hand at the start of a dive, you can easily keep track of the
elapsed time. Digital watches have functions that track the elapsed time
as well. Either way, when relying on a dive watch, you must know your
predetermined time limit based on the preplanned maximum depth of
the dive. And you must begin your ascent before this limit is reached.
Some dive watches today are so sophisticated that they can moni-
tor depth and total time and store it in their memory location for recall
later. Some incorporate dive computers in the watch itself.

Depth Gauge
Figure 3-21 A depth gauge senses the pressure exerted by the vertical column of
A dive console will usually
have at minimum a depth
water and air above it, and is generally calibrated to read zero metres /
gauge and pressure gauge. feet at sea level. The display may be in imperial or metric units and/or
calibrated for salt water or fresh water (see Figure 3-21).
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
59

Most housings are plastic or chromed brass and have a clear lens.
The case may be filled with air or oil and have a flexible diaphragm
that moves internal mechanical components causing clockwise rota-
tion of a needle to indicate the water depth. A digital gauge has a
pressure sensor that conveys the depth reading as a numeric liquid
crystal display (LCD).
An analog gauge displays depth readings in 2-3 metre (five or ten
foot) gradations and also has a maximum depth indicator needle that
points to the deepest depth of the dive until the diver manually rotates
it back to zero. As with most instruments, the display may be backlit Figure 3-22
or have a luminescent dial. A compass is an important in-
strument on any dive. The latest
Compass technology in compasses is the
Being able to move in a three-dimensional space can be disorienting, digital compass (below).
particularly in low visibility. A submersible compass is a navigation-
al aid that a diver uses to determine his or her direction in relation to
magnetic north. A compass can be used as a guide while swimming
from one underwater location to another, to conduct a search pattern,
to map terrain, or to find the way to an exit point (see Figure 3-22).
An analog compass consists of a plastic housing filled with oil
with a free-spinning needle (or card) that points to north. The lubber
line is a stationary line of reference on the face of the compass that
should be aligned with your body. Some compasses may have index
marks on a rotating bezel which help keep the diver aligned in the
desired direction. A magnetic compass is affected by nearby ferrous
metals. Keep this in mind when trying to navigate around steel struc-
tures. The latest innovation is an electronic digital reading compass.
Some show the route the diver has traveled.
A compass is either worn around the wrist or mounted in a con-
sole. An analog compass relies on the freedom of movement of its
needle for accuracy. Therefore, it’s important to keep the compass
perfectly level when in use. Before each dive, check that the needle
moves freely and that there is no air inside the case oil that may im-
pede instrument accuracy.

Accessories
Rescue Signal
Being prepared is the best way to prevent a normal situation from
turning into an emergency. Carrying a signaling device, for example,
can help rescuers find you if you get separated from the dive boat
in the open ocean. A bright yellow or red inflatable device such as a
narrow tube or lift bag are good signaling devices. Audible signals,
such as whistles or horns, are also useful at the surface (see Figure
3-23). Some commercial diving vessels require their passengers to
carry some sort of visual signal.
 Chapter 3: Scuba Equipment
60

Knife
A dive knife can be a useful tool to cut, pry and even dig. It is most
often needed to cut away fishing line or kelp that may entangle a
diver or his gear underwater (see Figure 3-24).
Dive knives are made of sharpened stainless steel and come
with a carrying sheath that attaches via straps or snaps. A knife can
be worn on the inside of your thigh or calf, attached to your buoy-
ancy compensator device, or wherever it can be easily accessed.

Dive Lights
A dive light is necessary on night dives, but can also be a useful aid
Figure 3-23 during the day to peek into crevices or restore the color that is natu-
All divers should carry some type of
audio or visual signaling device in
rally lost underwater (see Figure 3-24).
case of an emergency. A larger light is generally the primary, while a smaller light is the
backup. One of each is necessary on a night dive.
A rubber O-ring seals the canister on the light. Use caution when
opening a flooded battery canister. The inside is likely to be pressur-
ized and can cause personal injury if the housing explodes or battery
acid is suddenly vented from the case. Place a towel over the lens
or top and point it away from you and anyone else before opening
the canister. Immediately rinse the light components in fresh water.
Damaged dive lights should be taken to a professional scuba repair
center for repair or replacement.

Figure 3-24
Dive knives are useful for cutting
away entanglements. Dive lights
restore color that is lost underwater.

Gear Bag
Showing up on the dock with your arms full of gear is a good way
to lose all of your expensive dive equipment. A gear bag keeps your
equipment together and makes it easier to transport.
Larger bags designed for travel can have a rigid frame, wheels
and a handle (see Figure 3-25). To keep your staging area minimized
(especially on a dive boat), pack your gear in the reverse order that
it will be assembled. For instance, you would put your fins and wet
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
61

suit in first, then your regulator and then your buoyancy

compensator. Fragile items (mask and dive computer)
should be protected in their case and packed at the top of
the bag.

Dive Flag
A dive flag warns passing boaters that there are divers in
the water. There are two types of dive flags: the diver-
down and the international alpha flag. The international
flag is a rigid replica of the white and blue alpha flag and
must be flown from a dive boat in international waters.
The diver-down flag is a rectangular red flag with a white
diagonal stripe from the top left to the bottom right. The
diver-down flag is the most widely recognized signal and
should be flown during all in-water activities.
While diving from shore, without an escort boat
nearby, the flag must be mounted on a float and towed by the
Figure 3-25
divers with a line reel (see Figure 3-26) . A gear bag keeps all your
equipment together.

Figure 3-26
The international flag is a rigid
replica of the white and blue
alpha flag and must be flown
from a dive boat in international
waters. The diver-down flag is a
rectangular red flag with a white
diagonal stripe from the top left
to the bottom right.

Diver Logbook

Logbook
A logbook is a personal record of your training and recreational
dives. If your dive computer does not interface with a PC to pro-
vide printouts of your dives, you should have a traditional logbook
to document your training.
The front of the logbook should have your name, address, certi-
fication level, vital medical information and emergency phone num-
bers for your family, physician and Diver’s Alert Network
Every page has entries for the details of each scuba dive, includ-
ing a place for your SDI instructor, dive master or dive partner to
sign to verify the dive. Professional dive operators may require proof
of dives to participate in commercially run dives. More advanced
diving courses require evidence of a minimum number of dives for
 Chapter 3: Scuba Equipment
62
enrollment. Keeping an accurate, up-to-date logbook will help you
plan future dives and provides proof of your diving experience.
After each dive or day of diving, recall your dives from your dive
computer and record the data in your personal logbook along with
the site location, dive partners, equipment used, weather, visibility,
interesting details and so forth.

Slate
A slate is a small rigid tablet that can be written on to communicate
with someone when underwater hand signals are inadequate (see
Figure 3-27). It also provides a means to temporarily record dive
information until you can download your dive computer and trans-
Figure 3-27
fer information not registered by your PDC to a permanent logbook.
Slates are used to communicate
when hand signals are inadequate. You can chart the time in and time out, maximum dive depth, your
compass headings, notable features of the dive site and so on (see
Figure 3-28).

. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Scuba Equipment Summary

As you can see, scuba diving is highly equipment intensive. Through-
out your training, your gear may seem overwhelming, possibly bur-
densome, and you may even feel task loaded at times. But once you
begin to gain control, confidence will follow, and soon you will real-
ize that you are the master of your scuba system.
In this chapter, you’ve learned about each component of a scuba
system. You now know that a scuba regulator reduces the air pres-
sure from your cylinder and allows you to breathe easily underwater.
An alternate air source is a backup second stage. A cylinder holds
compressed air that is delivered through a valve. A personal dive
computer will help you regulate your dive descent and ascent rate. A
compass facilitates navigation underwater. Your buoyancy compen-
sator device holds your cylinder on your back and helps you to float,
sink or remain neutrally buoyant. Each piece of equipment is neces-
sary and performs a specific function for your safety, enjoyment and
comfort underwater.
Figure 3-28
There are many advantages to owning your personal dive gear.
Your instructor will carry a set of SDI
slates during your pool or confined SCUBA equipment that has been properly fitted will increase your
water training and during your open overall comfort and enjoyment. With the advances in materials and
water training dives. technology, there are numerous options available when choosing
your diving equipment. Consult you professional SDI dive retailer to
help you select the right equipment to fit your personal diving goals.
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
63
... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 3: Knowledge Quest

1. What is the main purpose of a snorkel?

2. How do you know if a mask fits correctly?

3. Name at least one visual and one audible rescue signaling device.

4. Name two basic fin designs and describe the main features of each.

5. What is the main difference between a wet suit and a dry suit?

6. What extra attire can enhance a diver’s warmth when worn with a
wet or dry suit?

7. Name two functions of wet suit boots.

8. List four functions of a dive computer.

9. Define maximum dive depth.

10. Define no-stop time.

11. What are two ways a PDC may alert a diver that he or she is
ascending too fast?

12. How do you determine the time limit for a repetitive dive from a
PDC?

13. What are the two main modes of operation of a dive computer?

14. What are two types of weight systems?

15. What are the two types of dive flags that are commonly flown
from a dive boat?

16. Describe the function of a scuba regulator first stage and second
stage.

17. A cylinder should be visually inspected at least ____________ a

year and hydrostatically tested every _____________ years in the
United States.

18. List three components of a compass.

19. What does the abbreviation BCD stand for?

20. State the gauges that a console might hold.

 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
65
Skills Development Overview
• Setting Up
• Entries
• In-Water Skills
• Ascents and Out-of-Air Emergencies
• Scuba Disassembly

... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Soon you will be taking your first breath underwater. Now that you can
identify the components of the scuba assembly, it’s time to learn how to
use them.
Becoming comfortable with your gear will take time. Indeed, there is a
lot to remember as you descend underwater the first few times. During this
course, your task load while in the water will be high. However, to avoid
becoming mentally and physically overtaxed, the skills you will perform
take a natural progression in level of difficulty. You will be required to ad-
equately perform each skill before moving on to the next.
Once you have practiced the skills, using the equipment will seem natu-
ral and you will be able to enjoy your surroundings. The skills you learn are
designed to help you avoid or alleviate potential problems that may arise.
By the end of this chapter, you will have all of the knowledge and expe-
rience to enable you to take your first underwater plunge on scuba.

... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Setting Up Figure 4-2
Following the same technique to assemble your gear each and Before assembling
every time you dive will help avoid potential problems with your your gear, be sure
gear. For example, always checking the O-ring in your tank valve your cylinder has
before attaching your regulator will prevent a leakage problem in a current visual
the water (see Figure 4-1). inspection sticker.
Prior to the dive, be sure to do a gear check. Once the gear is as-
sembled, do another check to make absolutely certain you haven’t
forgotten anything.

Figure 4-1
Always check the O-ring
for signs of wear and tear.
 Chapter 4: Skills Development
66
Scuba Assembly
Step 1: Cylinder Check – Look at your scuba cylinder
and find its current visual inspection sticker (see Figure 4-2).
Next, remove the valve cover and look at the rubber O-ring.
It should be seated in the valve groove and should be in good
condition. If the O-ring shows signs of excessive wear, cracks
or tears, replace it with a new one.

Step 2: BCD Attachment – To attach your BCD to the

cylinder, spin the tank around so that the back of the valve is
facing you. Place the BCD band(s) over the top of the cylinder
so that the back of the BC is facing you (and the valve orifice
points toward the back of the BCD). Next, raise or lower the
BCD so that the top of it is even with the cylinder valve. This
will position the BCD high enough so that you won’t bump the
back of your head on the tank valve while swimming underwa-
ter. Fasten the buckle(s) on the BCD. If the strap is tight, you
should hear the buckle snap shut.
To check that your BCD is securely fastened around the
cylinder, grasp the BCD by the nape and lift the whole unit up
(see Figure 4-3). If the cylinder slips out of the straps, or if the
straps loosen, retighten the cylinder bands.

Figure 4-3
To attach the BCD to the cylin-
der, fasten the buckle(s). Lift the
unit up by the back of the BCD
to make sure it is secure.

Adjust the BCD so that the top

of the jacket is even with the
cylinder valve.
Step 2
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
67

Step 3: Regulator Attachment – Remove the dust cap from

Step 3
your regulator and hold the first stage in your left hand. Now, still
standing behind the cylinder, rotate the chambers until the primary
second stage sits to the right. When this is done, the low-pressure
inflator hose and the high-pressure hose will naturally fall to the left.
If a hose is bent sharply, you will need to rotate the first stage until
the hoses are free of bends.
Mate the yoke on the first stage to the valve outlet. Screw the
knob on your first stage until it is finger tight, i.e. no tighter than you
can make it with your thumb and one finger. Over tightening the first
stage will make it extremely difficult to remove after the dive.
(To install a first-stage DIN adapter, first check that it’s O-ring is
seated properly in the adapter and not worn, then screw the spin tube
completely into the DIN valve outlet until it is tight. Be sure the hoses
are positioned correctly before the adapter is tightened completely.)

Step 4: BCD Inflator Hose Attachment – Connect the low-

pressure inflator hose to the stem on the BCD’s inflator. The quick
connect/disconnect fitting at the end of the low-pressure inflator
hose is spring-loaded and snaps on by pulling the collar back, then
releasing the collar to lock the hose in place. Tug on the inflator hose
while still holding the inflator assembly to be sure that the fitting is
secure and that the hose does not come off.

Step 5: Turn on the Air – Now that the hoses are connected,
it’s time to turn on your air. First, hold the submersible pressure
Figure 4-4
gauge face down. This will prevent an injury should the pressure Once the gear is assembled,
gauge burst as the air is turned on. Slowly open the cylinder valve turn on the air and check the
by rotating the on/off knob counterclockwise until air starts to flow. pressure gauge.
Open the valve all the way. This helps to keep the cylinder valve
operating freely.

Step 4 Step 5
 Chapter 4: Skills Development
68

Now that the air is on, check your SPG (see Figure 4-4) or activate
Step 6 your air-integrated dive computer to see how much air is in your cyl-
inder. You should begin each dive with a full cylinder. (Cylinders are
filled to capacity when filled to rated pressure.)
Listen for hissing sounds near the cylinder valve. A hiss indicates
a leak in the equipment or a damaged O-ring that needs to be replaced.

Step 6: Regulator Test – Next, depress the purge button on the

primary second stage. Hold the second stage up to your nose and sniff
the air that comes out. If there is an unusual or foul odor, the air may
be contaminated. If this is the case, shut the air off, mark the tank and
do not dive with it.
You should test both second stages to make sure they are function-
ing properly. With the mouthpiece in your mouth, take a few breaths
off each second stage. Also test the auto-inflator button on your BCD
to be sure it operates correctly. Air should flow into the BCD bladder
when the button is depressed. When you release the button it should
automatically come back up and air should stop flowing. Sometimes,
Step 7
the auto inflator will not release and will continue to pump air through
the bladder. Have any faulty equipment serviced before diving with it.

Step 7: Streamline Hoses – During a dive, it is a good

idea to have your hoses and gauges close to your body for
easy access, to avoid entanglement, and to prevent damag-
ing delicate aquatic life (see Figure 4-5). Your SDI instruc-
tor can help you streamline your setup with clips and rings.

Figure 4-5 Putting on Your Scuba Equipment

Streamline your gauges
and hoses to prevent To put on your assembled scuba system when standing on land, the saf-
damaging aquatic live and est and easiest method is to have another diver, preferably your buddy,
avoiding entanglement. help you (see Figure 4-6). To begin, make sure the BCD shoulder straps
are fastened, but the straps in the front (cummerbund, waist and chest)
are not closed and are out of the way. Your buddy should lift your scu-
Both second ba unit by the cylinder while you put both arms through the arm holes.
Once you have control of the system, tell your buddy it is okay to let go.
stages should Tighten the shoulder straps and fasten the cummerbund and/or
waist and chest straps while still leaning forward with the cylinder
be on your weight balanced on your back. When the BCD harness is secure, you
right side. can stand up straight, but remember that your center of gravity will
not be directly over your feet anymore. You will be somewhat back-
All other hoses heavy. If you are unsteady standing upright, lean forward to keep the
should be on your weight over your feet.
Make sure your console, second stages and inflator hose are not
left side. tangled. Both second stages should be on your right side. All other
hoses should be on your left side.
Repeat the process by helping your buddy into his gear.
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
69

Pre-Dive Briefing
All charter dive boats will have a system for gearing
up, entering and exiting the water. The dive master or Figure 4-6
supervisor will brief the group on its safety procedures before the You and your buddy can help each
dive. other don the scuba assembly. Be
sure that all waist and chest straps
The briefing may vary greatly from one operator to an- are fastened and that no hoses are
other, but most will review boat procedures, type of entry and snagged in the equipment.
exit, maximum depth and bottom time, minimum air supply
to surface, environmental conditions, and a summary of emer-
gency procedures. Always listen to the dive briefing and fol-
low the dive master or supervisor’s instructions (see Figure 4-7).

Review the ABCDE’s

Before you enter the water, review your ABCDE’s. Make sure your
Air is on by inhaling from your primary second stage while looking
at your pressure gauge. If the needle drops significantly when you
inhale, it indicates that the valve is either closed or only partially
opened. Next, make sure your BCD is inflated enough to support
you at the surface. Use your auto-inflator button to be sure it works.
Check that your Computer is turned on and has not retreated into
a surface mode or a sleep mode. Put on the rest of your Dive gear, Figure 4-7
such as your mask, fins, and gloves. When you and your buddy have Always listen to the dive briefing
exchanged the OK signal and the dive master has cleared you, Enter and follow the dive master or
the water. supervisor’s instructions.

Review the ABCDE’s before You Go

• Air on
• BCD inflated
• Computer on
• Dive gear on
• Enter the water
 Chapter 4: Skills Development
70
There is nothing that will ruin a dive faster than forgetting a piece
of equipment. Never rely on the dive boat to have back-up equipment
for you. Always check your gear before the boat leaves the dock.
Go through a mental checklist before heading out:
Personal Equipment – Mask, fins & boots, snorkel, and wet suit.
Scuba System – BCD, regulator, weight belt, computer, and
cylinder.
Naturally, the accessory items – hood, gloves, safety items, sur-
face signals, light, and knife – are good to have. But first, make sure
you have the basics. Now that we know what gear is necessary and
how to put it together, let’s learn how to put it on and use it.
Giant Stride Entry

Entries
Starting the dive off with a smooth, safe entry will help establish the
enjoyment for your entire dive. There are several different types of
water entries – giant stride, controlled seated entry, back roll, and
surf entry. The safest water entry is determined by the type of entry
platform, environmental conditions, physical ability of the diver, and
the kind of dive.
While the procedure for each entry varies, there a couple of rules
that always apply. First, have your regulator in your mouth during the
entry. Second, always enter the water with your BCD inflated so that
you are positively buoyant on the surface. Third, always look before
you leap. In other words, make sure there are no other divers in the
way. And finally, always signal OK to the dive master once you are
on the surface.

Giant Stride Entry

The giant stride is probably the most common deep water entry, es-
pecially from large dive boats. It can be conducted from a low or
high platform and in practically any sea state. To perform the giant
stride, stand on the edge of the dive platform. Check the water below
to make sure it is clear of other divers. Put your right hand over your
mask and regulator and your left hand over your weight belt buckle.
Stand straight, look directly ahead and take a big step out off the edge
of the platform.
If everything is all right, signal OK to the dive master and clear
the area as instructed.

Controlled Seated Entry

A controlled seated entry is an easy way to enter calm water from
a low platform such as the side of a pool. To perform this entry, sit
down with your legs in the water and your regulator in your mouth.
Controlled Set both hands firmly down on your right side. Lean slightly toward
Seated Entry your right, shifting the weight of the cylinder to your arms and hands.
Push your body off and away from the platform as you swing your
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
71
back around to the right. As you swing around, kick your outside leg
down. You should be facing the platform upon entering the water.

Back Roll Entry

The back roll entry is the most common water entry from a small
boat that does not have a large dive platform. With your gear on,
sit on the gunwale (the side of the boat), with your tank suspended
behind you. Lean forward and cross your legs in front of you. Hold
your mask and regulator in place with one hand. Cross all the hoses
in front of you and hold them in place with your other hand. Perform Back Roll Entry
an equalization technique just prior to your entry because you will
probably plunge two or three feet underwater before you float up to
the surface. Tuck your chin against your chest, then lean back so that
you roll backwards into the water.
The back roll can be a little disorienting. This feeling is natural
because your head is the first part of your body to enter the water,
and it is temporarily upside-down. The most common problem divers
have on the back roll is knocking their masks off on entry. Be sure to
hold your mask tightly so it isn’t knocked off by the force of the water.

Shore Entry
A shore entry is appropriate when diving in a confined area that has
a gradual sloping bottom, such as that around a freshwater spring
or lake. To perform a shore entry, don everything except your fins.
Walk out into waist-deep water or the depth where some of the
weight of your gear is taken off your shoulders. Use your buddy for
stabilization as you don your fins. Once you both have your fins on,
swim out to deeper water and conduct a normal descent.

Surf Entry
While diving from shore in the ocean, you are likely to encounter a Shore Entry
surf line with breaking waves. This is obviously the most treacherous
type of entry and has the potential to be quite dangerous. As always,
use your judgment before entering the water. If the surf looks too
high, then find another place to dive.
Timing your entry is necessary for a comfortable
surf entry. Observe the wave action for a while before
entering. Notice how close the waves and the wave sets
are together. Generally, a wave set begins with a series
of approximately four smaller waves and ends with two
or three larger waves. Between wave sets there will be
a short lull; this is the best time period to make an entry.
The objective is to get past the surf zone into deep water
where it is usually calmer before another set rolls in.
After you have assessed the wave action and have
taken notice of currents, then don all of your dive gear.
Surf Entry
 Chapter 4: Skills Development
72

(Don your fins closer to the waterline.) The diver responsible for
towing the dive flag should unreel about eight to ten feet of line so that
the flag and float can lay on the ground. Once you and your dive buddy
are geared up, shuffle backwards while holding hands. When the water
is deep enough to swim, turn around and swim out quickly. After you
are both beyond the surf zone in calmer water, proceed with the dive
as usual.

In-Water Skills
Now it’s time to dive. This section describes the skills you will be
performing during your certification. In the pool training, your SDI
instructor will demonstrate each skill and then have you perform the
skill, one student at a time. You must perform each skill to a satisfac-
tory level before moving on to the next one.
During the open water portion of the class, your instructor will
brief you on the objective of the dive. However, your instructor will
not demonstrate the skills again in the open water before having you
Figure 4-8
demonstrate them. Since this course is performance based, you can
To deflate the BCD, hold work on a skill in the pool until you feel comfortable with it.
the inflator assembly over
your head and depress
the deflator button.
BCD Inflation/Deflation
Once the class has geared up and gathered in the shallow end of the
swimming pool, the first thing you will practice is the inflation and
deflation of your BCD.
A BCD can be inflated either automatically or manually. Manual
inflation is accomplished by placing your mouth on the oral inflator
and blowing into the orifice while depressing the deflator button. In
between breaths, release the button to close the valve so that air will
not escape when your mouth is off the mouthpiece. It will take several
breaths until the BCD is fully inflated.
Automatic inflation is achieved by depressing the power, or auto-
inflator, button. Use this time to familiarize yourself with the inflator/
deflator mechanism. When operating your power inflator, you only
need to depress your inflator button briefly to add a short blast of air.
Figure 4-9 To deflate the BCD, hold the end of the inflator hose over your head
With the BCD deflated, you should and depress the deflator button. The deflator orifice must be higher than
float at eye level when you take in the BCD bladder to enable all the air to escape (see Figure 4-8).
a full breath of air.

Weight Check
Proper weighting means having just enough weight to achieve all three
states of buoyancy with only minor adjustments in the water. To check
for proper weighting, enter the deep end of the pool wearing your scu-
ba gear, including the amount of weight you estimate to be correct
(your SDI instructor will help you estimate). With the BCD deflated,
you should float at eye level when you take in a full breath of air (see
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
73

Figure 4-9). When you exhale, you should begin to sink slightly. Figure 4-10
Add or subtract lead from your weight system until your weighting Follow the five basic steps when
feels correct. Once you have established the best amount of weight making a controlled descent.
for your particular gear configuration and exposure suit, record that
number in your logbook for future reference. Remember, you will Step 1
need to wear more weight in salt water than in fresh water. Also, as
you dive more and become more comfortable in the water, you will
probably be able to reduce the amount of weight you wear.
Overweighting and underweighting are common problems,
yet both are easily avoided with proper instruction. Wearing too
much weight will cause you to expend extra energy while swim-
ming, which can lead to fatigue. Underweighting, on the other hand,
makes it difficult to descend and to remain neutral during the dive as
your cylinder becomes more buoyant. Wearing too little weight also
Step 2
makes it difficult to control ascent rate at the end of a dive.

Descents
A descent must be controlled and deliberate. During the class, you
will make several descents in the open water using a descent line.
The line provides a fixed point during descent and helps prevent dis-
orientation underwater. On the last certification dive, however, you
will make a free descent without using a line. Step 3

A descent must be
controlled and deliberate.

To make a controlled descent, have all your equipment in

place. If you used a snorkel on the surface, replace the snorkel Step 4
with the regulator. Follow the five basic steps (See Figure
4-10):

1. Make a visual check of landmarks on the surface to orient

yourself.
2. Make a note of the time and check your dive computer.
3. Signal “OK” and “Going Down.” Both you and your buddy
Step 5
should exchange hand signs.
4. Equalize. Remember, you will need to equalize every
couple of feet as you descend, beginning on the surface.
5. Holding the inflator hose over your head, deflate the BCD
and descend.
 Chapter 4: Skills Development
74
Regulator Clearing
Sometimes you may find it necessary to take your regulator out of
your mouth underwater. This might be the case if you want to orally
inflate your BCD, or if your mouth becomes extremely dry. When-
ever the second stage is out of your mouth, it will fill up with water.
It is necessary to clear the water before breathing from it again. There
are two ways to clear a second stage – mechanically and orally. Both
methods achieve the same results.
To mechanically purge the second stage, block the mouthpiece
opening with your tongue and then depress the purge button on the
face of the second stage. This activates the demand lever which draws
air into the regulator. Blocking the opening with your tongue will
prevent water from being forced into your mouth (see Figure 4-11).
Figure 4-11
To clear the regulator
mechanically, depress
the purge button be- Breathe continuously
fore inhaling.
and NEVER hold your breath.

To orally purge the second stage, simply exhale into the mouth-
piece. Exhaling forces the water out the exhaust valve. Whenever
clearing your regulator, always take your initial breath cautiously be-
cause there may still be a small amount of water remaining in the air
chamber. It’s important to get in the habit of breathing continuously
and never holding your breath. Any time the second stage is not in
your mouth, exhale tiny bubbles.
On another note, if you get nauseous underwater, you can vomit
through your regulator. The discharge will flow out the exhaust valve
just as exhaled air does.

Regulator Recovery
Sometimes your regulator may get knocked out of your mouth ac-
cidentally. In this situation, you need to know how to find it quickly
and replace it in your mouth. There are two techniques to retrieve a
second stage – the sweep and the reach methods.

Sweep Method – To recover your second stage using the sweep

method; inhale, take the second stage out of your mouth and release
it at your side. Remember to exhale continuously when the regulator
is out of your mouth.
Lean to your right and extend your right arm straight back behind
you. In a sweeping motion, arc your arm toward the front of your body.
Your arm will hook the second stage hose. Reach over with your left
hand, pick up the second stage and put it in your mouth. Purge the reg-
ulator using either the oral or mechanical purge method. Signal “OK.
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
75
Sweep

Reach

Figure 4-12
Reach Method – To practice the reach method to recover your Use the sweep or reach
method to recover your
regulator; inhale, remove the second stage and release it at your side. regulator while underwater.
Use your left hand to reach behind you and push up on the bottom of
your cylinder. With your right hand, reach behind your head and grab
a hold of the primary hose where it attaches to the first stage. Run
your hand down the hose until you come to the second stage. Place it
back in your mouth and purge before inhaling.
As with the sweep method, remember to inhale deeply before
taking the second stage out of your mouth. Continue to exhale when-
ever the regulator is out of your mouth (see Figure 4-12).

Fin Pivot
Fine-tuning your buoyancy is an important skill in diving. Your in-
structor will have you practice a couple of different exercises to aid
in buoyancy control – the fin pivot and hovering. In addition to using
your weight belt and BCD to control buoyancy, you will soon notice
that you can use your lungs as well (see Figure 4-13).
To perform the fin pivot, lie flat on the bottom of the pool, face
down, with your BCD completely deflated. Add very short bursts of
air into your BCD using the power inflator button. Wait a moment

Figure 4-13
Keeping your body straight,
you can pivot on your fin tips
by inhaling and exhaling.
 Chapter 4: Skills Development
76

Figure 4-14 Inhal

The objective of the fin pivot skill Deep e
is to achieve neutral buoyancy
ly
by using your BCD, then making
slight variations in your buoy-
ancy by using only your lungs.

after adding each blast. Continue to add air until you feel your upper
body start to rise off the bottom of the pool. Once your upper body
is elevated off the bottom, inhale deeply and feel your body start to
rise more. Exhale and your upper body will start to sink toward the
bottom. Inhale and rise. Exhale and sink. The objective is to achieve
neutral buoyancy using your BCD, then to make slight variations in
your buoyancy using only your lungs (see Figure 4-14).
You should keep your legs straight with your fin tips on the bot-
tom of the pool throughout this exercise. Also, keep your body as
straight as possible and do not arch your back.

Hovering
Once you have mastered the fin pivot, you will move on to a more
advanced application of buoyancy control – hovering. The ability
to hover motionless is an indication of proficient buoyancy control
(see Figure 4-15). Before beginning this exercise, make sure that the
weights on your weight belt are evenly spaced. If you have more
weight on one side of your belt, you will automatically lean over dur-
ing this exercise.
To practice hovering in the deep end of the pool, begin by sit-
ting on the bottom cross-legged. If you are not flexible enough to sit
cross-legged, you can perform this skill in the kneeling position.
Add short bursts of air into your BCD with the power inflator
button, waiting a moment after each blast of air. Once you have ris-
en about 0.5 metre/1 foot off the bottom, remain in your position
motionless, rising and falling slightly as you inhale and exhale. You
should be able to hover motionlessly for one minute without touching
Figure 4-15 bottom and without breaking the surface.
The ability to hover motion-
less is an indication of profi-
cient buoyancy control.
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
77

Breathing from a Free Flow Regulator

As we saw in Chapter 3, modern regulators are designed to be fail-safe. In
other words, if the regulator malfunctions, it will release a constant flow
of air, rather than cutting off the air supply completely. If this happens,
you can breathe from the free-flowing regulator in order to have enough
air to surface. Your instructor will have you simulate a free flow in the
pool by keeping the regulator purge button depressed (see Figure 4-16).
To perform this skill, lean your head as far as you can to one side. If
you don’t lean, the flow of bubbles might dislodge your mask, causing
it to leak. Remove the regulator from your mouth, place the mouthpiece
near your partially opened lips, and depress the purge button. You will be
able to inhale off the steady stream of air just as you would when taking a
normal breath. Exhale normally.

Mask Clearing
Your dive mask allows you to see underwater by creating an airspace in
front of your eyes. However, water can enter this space during a dive, Figure 4-16
hampering your vision and decreasing your enjoyment of the dive. Some- Breathing from a
times, you may want to let water into the mask on purpose to help defog free-flowing regulator.
the inside. The ability to clear your mask of water while diving, without
coming up to the surface, is an important skill that you will use often.
During pool training, you will learn how to clear a partially-flooded
mask. To perform this skill, let some water into the mask by lifting the
mask skirt slightly away from your face. As water enters the mask, you
might want to exhale through your nose to avoid water from entering.
Fill the mask until the water rises just beneath your eye level. Next,
press the top of your mask tightly against your forehead. Continuously ex-
hale through your nose as you roll your head backward. The exhalation of
air will force the water out of the bottom of the mask. If all the water is not
removed during the first attempt, take a deep breath and exhale through Figure 4-17
your nose again as you repeat the same procedure. Once you have practiced
Some masks have a purge valve at the bottom. To clear this type of clearing a flooded mask,
mask, push the top of the frame against your forehead and exhale through you will demonstrate
how to completely
your nose as your tilt your head down (see Figure 4-17). remove and replace your
mask while underwater.

Step Step Ste

1 2 p3
 Chapter 4: Skills Development
78
Mask Removal and Replacement
Once you have mastered clearing a partially-flooded mask, you will
practice taking your mask off underwater, swimming without it, then
replacing and clearing it (see Figure 4-18).
To perform this exercise, begin by slowly flooding your mask.
If you are sensitive to the chlorine, you can keep your eyes closed
throughout this skill. When the mask is flooded, completely remove
it by pulling off the straps from around the back of your head. Be
sure to exhale through your nose when your mask is off. Next, your
instructor will guide you on a short swim. After you return to the
Figure 4-18
stationery position, replace your mask back on your face. Secure the
Mask removal and replacement. mask strap back around your head. Clear the mask using the same
procedure previously described. Finally, signal “OK.”

Swimming Techniques
The flutter kick is the most preferred swimming kick while diving.
It is similar to the kicking motion of a crawl stroke (without fins),
except that the strokes are longer and slower. To flutter kick, keep the
legs straight and make long, slow kicks from the hips. You will want
to use the quadriceps and hip flexor muscles while kicking under-
water. Be aware of the position of your legs during the kick. If your
knees are bent, you will lose efficiency.
Do not use your arms to swim underwater. Using the arms
and hands is inefficient and can quickly lead to overexertion.
Keep your arms at your sides while swimming underwater;
let your legs do the work. The idea is to keep yourself stream-
lined so that you experience less drag, or resistance, while mov-
ing through the water (see Figure 4-19). Other popular fin kicks
your instructor will review is the frog kick and helicopter turn.

Figure 4-19
To flutter kick under-
water, keep the legs
straight and make long,
slow kicks from the
hips. Keep your arms at
your sides.
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
79
Cramp Relief
It is not uncommon to experience a leg cramp while scuba diving,
especially if you have not been diving in some time. A cramp is the
involuntary and sudden contraction of a muscle from chills or strain,
but it can cause temporary paralysis of the afflicted muscle. It gener-
ally occurs in the calf, but can also affect the thigh.
To relieve a leg cramp, stop swimming, bend forward at the waist
to grasp the fin tip of the afflicted leg. Pull it toward you as you
straighten your leg. Maintain this position until the pain is relieved,
or repeat this procedure between momentary rest intervals.
You can also use your dive buddy to help relieve a leg cramp
(see Figure 4-20). If your buddy has a cramped leg, cradle the back
of their ankle with one hand and push the bottom of the fin toward
them with your other hand. Once the leg cramp is relieved it is rec-
ommended you change your style of kick in order to work different
muscle groups, thus reducing the likelihood of another leg cramp.

BCD Removal Underwater

It could become necessary for you to remove your scuba system un-
derwater if, for example, your tank comes loose from your BCD (see
Figure 4-21). To remove your BCD underwater, make sure that it is Figure 4-20
completely deflated and that you are negatively buoyant. Unhook Two cramp relief methods.
your chest and waist straps and loosen the quick-release shoulder
straps (but do not disconnect the shoulder straps). While keeping
your regulator in your mouth, slide your left arm out of the armhole.
Swing the entire scuba unit assembly around to your right side. If you
swing it to the left, your regulator hose will wrap awkwardly around
you.
When you are ready to put it back on, slip back into the BCD in
the reverse order. In other words, first insert your right arm and then
your left arm. Fasten the cummerbund, waist and chest straps. Re-
tighten the shoulder straps and make sure you don’t have any hoses
caught up in the vest.
Figure 4-21
Removing the BCD is
useful if you need to
make adjustments while
underwater.

Step Step Ste

1 2 p3
 Chapter 4: Skills Development
80

Compass Navigation
To use a wrist-mounted compass, bend your elbow so that the com-
pass is in front of your face and the lubber line is aligned with the
center of your body. Keep the other arm extended straight in front
of you and grasp the elbow of the extended arm to help keep the
compass level and steady. Compass navigation underwater is more
accurate if you combine it with natural (navigation) references.
Figure 4-22 Align the index marks on the bezel over the needle or make a men-
To navigate using a compass, tal note of the compass bearing (see Figure 4-22). Next, select a
align the index marks on the fixed object that is in the direct path of your compass bearing and
bezel over your fixed heading.
swim to it. Repeat these steps to navigate wherever you want to
go. To determine the reciprocal heading for a straight line, add or
subtract 180 degrees.
Your instructor will have you swim in a straight line underwa-
ter using your compass and then have you return on the reciprocal
heading. You should practice compass navigation on land before-
hand.

Snorkel Clearing
Water will enter the top of the snorkel barrel whenever a wave passes
over your head at the surface or when it is submerged underwater.
There are two ways to clear a snorkel – the blast method and the
displacement method.
The blast method involves forcibly blowing (exhaling) into the
mouthpiece to force the trapped water out the top of the barrel.
This procedure permits a swimmer at the surface to clear water
from his snorkel without lifting his head (see Figure 4-23).
With the displacement method, you can use expanding air to
clear your snorkel as you ascend from a breath-hold dive. First,
Figure 4-23
dive down to the bottom of the pool. On ascent, look up toward
Clearing the snorkel using the the surface, with the tip of the snorkel lower than the mouthpiece.
blast method. A few feet (metre or so) from the surface, begin exhaling into the
mouthpiece until your head breaks the surface. The exhaled air will
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
81

force the water out of the snorkel tube. Immediately assume

the natural position for snorkeling, with face in the water
and snorkel tip pointed upward. Scuba divers primarily use Figure 4-24
Hand signals are a simple and easy way
a snorkel to conserve their air supply while swimming at the
to communicate while underwater. Be-
surface before descending. fore each dive, be sure to review hand
signals with your buddy.

Communications
Underwater, we can’t talk to one another. We could write
down everything on an underwater slate, but that wouldn’t
be efficient and would detract from enjoying the dive. In-
stead, divers can communicate by using simple, universal
hand signals. The following illustrations depict the most
common underwater hand signals. Knowing these signals
will add to your safety and enjoyment (see Figure 4-24).
 Chapter 4: Skills Development
82

Ascents and Out-of-Air Emergencies

According to Boyle’s Law, air volume expands as pressure decreases.
For this reason, the ascent can be the most dangerous part of a dive. As-
cending too quickly can lead to pressure-related injuries and lung over-
expansion. Following the same procedure on every ascent will greatly
enhance your safety.
Running out of air is very easy to avoid if you frequently monitor
your SPG or air-integrated computer throughout the dive. However, if
you find that you are out of air and are not near the surface, there are
options to get to the surface safely.
There are three ways to ascend. In order of most to least desirable
Figure 4-25 they are as follows:
Be sure to vent air from
1. Normal Ascent
your BCD and watch your
computer as you ascend. 2. Alternate-Air Source Ascent
3. Emergency Controlled Swimming Ascent

Normal Ascent
A normal ascent, occurs as follows: Face your buddy or your group.
Give the “Go Up” signal. Everyone in the group should respond by
giving the “OK” and “Go Up” signal in return. Vent out the expanding
air from your BCD as you ascend while limiting your ascent rate to the
most conservative dive computer in the group (see Figure 4-25). Stop
your ascent between 3-6 metres or 10-20 feet, get neutral and conduct a
safety-stop for three to five minutes prior to surfacing. After the safety
stop is complete, continue your ascent to the surface. When on the sur-
face, establish positive buoyancy by inflating your BCD.

Alternate-Air-Source Ascent
Alternate-air-source ascents offer several benefits over independent as-
cents, including:
• Both divers get to breathe normally throughout the ascent (see Fig-
ure 2-26).
• There is no anxiety over, “What became of my buddy?” You are both
together and will be there for one another when you surface.
This procedure begins the instant the potential receiver discovers his
regulator is breathing hard. The receiver must immediately decide
which he can reach faster: His buddy or the surface.
• If the buddy is not close by or the surface is simply closer, the out-of-
air diver needs to begin an immediate emergency controlled swim-
ming ascent.
• On the other hand, if the potential donor’s alternate air source re-
mains a viable option, the receiver needs to swim to his buddy and
signal I’m out of air/give me air.
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
83

At this point, the fastest and best response is for the donor to pass the
out-of-air diver the second stage that is in his mouth or the alternate
air source, then locate and begin breathing from his remaining sec-
ond stage. When passing the second stage, the donor needs to:
• Exhale a steady stream of bubbles any time a regulator is out of the
mouth.
• Grasp the second stage by holding on to the hose, next to the sec-
ond stage body. Doing so leaves the purge button accessible.
• Keep the second stage right side up, so that there is no danger of
the receiver putting it in the mouth upside down.
• Do not shove the second stage into the receiver’s mouth, but rather
place the second stage in front of the receiver’s eyes and wait for
the receiver to guide it into the mouth. Figure 4-26
• Once both divers have a functioning second stage, they need to In an out-of-air emergency,
hold on to one another using their right arms. Divers can either the preferred way to ascend
is by using another diver’s
grasp forearms, or hold onto the other’s BCD shoulder strap. alternate air source.
• At this point, the divers should signal one another that they are
both OK and agree to ascend.
• Prior to ascending, both divers need to take their BCD deflation
controls in one hand and ensure that their computers are positioned
where it will be easy to monitor ascent rate.
• When everything is ready, the divers can begin what is largely a
normal ascent, venting air from their BCDs as needed, and making
a safety stop (if the donor’s air supply permits).
• Upon reaching the surface, the receiver should be prepared to in-
flate the BCD orally, as there may be insufficient air left in the
cylinder to do so.

Emergency Controlled Swimming Ascent

If your buddy is not close by, or the surface is substantially closer
than he is, then your best bet may be an independent emergency as-
cent. Some things you need to understand first:
• There is no single independent emergency ascent scenario. Cir-
cumstances may range from one in which a regulator is merely
breathing a little hard (resulting in a near-normal ascent), to one in
which the diver begins the ascent with little or nothing to breathe
and may even need to drop some or all of his weights in order to
reach the surface.
• Even though your regulator may not function at depth, as you as-
cend and the ambient pressure decreases, you may still get one or
more partial breaths on the way up.
Although you may seem to be “out of air” at depth, your lungs may
still contain too much air as you ascend. That air will expand on
 Chapter 4: Skills Development
84

ascent and could put you at risk of a lung overexpansion injury. This
means that, when you can’t inhale, you need to be exhaling. The best
way to ensure you are exhaling at the proper rate is to make a con-
tinuous “Ahh” sound.
• If you have maintained neutral buoyancy throughout your dive,
you should not need to drop any weight to make it to the surface
• If anything, you’ll need to vent air from your BCD during ascent.
Nevertheless, you need to be prepared to drop weight, if necessary.
We’ll assume that, to start, your regulator is breathing hard and your
buddy is either not close by or you simply think your odds of reach-
ing the surface are better on your own.
• Again, don’t delay. As soon as you realize your buddy’s alternate
air source is not an option, start moving toward the surface.
• As you swim, start making an “Ahh” sound to exhale at a con-
trolled rate.
• As a precaution, either take your weight belt off and hold it in front
of you, or do the same with one of your BCD weight pockets. This
way, if you need to drop weight, all you will have to do is let go
(see Figure 4-27).
• Locate your BCD’s deflation mechanism and keep it in your hand
so that you can vent air, as needed, to keep your ascent rate under
control.
• Periodically throughout the ascent, stop and attempt a shallow in-
halation. Then resume making a continuous “Ahh” sound as you
Figure 4-27
As a precaution, either take your
swim toward the surface.
weight belt off and hold it in front • If for any reason, you feel you cannot make it to the surface simply
of you, or do the same with one of by swimming upward, drop your weight. This may lead to a dan-
your BCD weight pockets. DO NOT gerously rapid ascent as you approach the surface. To slow your-
drop your weights unless absolutely
necessary.
self, spread your arms and legs and flare backwards.

When you reach the surface, remember that you will have to inflate
your BCD orally.

Exits
After enjoying a wonderful dive, exiting the water is the final skill
necessary to complete. Exits are similar to entries in that procedures
will vary depending on the point of exit. However there are a few
general procedures to follow during all exits. First, always keep ei-
ther your regulator or snorkel in your mouth (see Figure 4-28). Sec-
Figure 4-28
ond, be sure your BCD is properly inflated to provide positive buoy-
When exiting keep either your ancy. Third, always watch where you are going. Finally, signal you
regulator or snorkel in your mouth. are OK upon exiting.
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
85

Scuba Disassembly
Once you have exited the water and you are done diving for the day,
Step 1
it’s time to start breaking down and rinsing your gear.

Step 1 – Remove Accessories. Remove or unclip accessories at-

tached to the BCD that will prevent its insertion into a tank rack
on the dive boat. Remove the lead weights from integrated BCD
pockets. Stow weights and weight belts on the ground or boat deck,
under a tank rack or seat, or somewhere out of the way so that they
are not likely to cause injury or damage.

Step 2 – Depressurize the System. Turn the cylinder valve knob

completely clockwise to close the valve and turn the air off. Unless
the BCD is positioned on the cylinder differently than described in
the assembly section, the on/off knob will always be on the right
side, coinciding with the right side of the BCD, and the knob for the
Step 2
first stage yoke will be directly behind the valve and the BCD. Next,
depress one of the second stage purge buttons or the auto inflator
button to vent air remaining in the hoses. You should not hear any
airflow after the lines are depressurized, and the contents gauge
should read zero.

Step 3 – Regulator Removal. Detach the LP hose from the inflator

assembly by pulling the collar back on the quick disconnect. Remove
a regulator with a clamp type connector by unscrewing the yoke knob
until the first stage can slip off the top of the valve. If the knob is dif-
ficult to turn, the most probable explanation is that the lines are still
slightly pressurized. Depress the purge button to be sure the system
is depressurized. However, air pressure trapped behind the valve O-
ring will make the first stage very difficult to remove. You may need Step 3
to use a towel to get a better grip on the hand wheel and hold the first
stage body while trying to unscrew the yoke. Once the first stage is
removed, dry off the dust cap before placing it over the air inlet and
securing it in place. (Remove a DIN first stage by unscrewing it from
the valve outlet after the system is depressurized. Do not forget to
attach a dry cover on the first-stage DIN adapter.)

Step 3
 Chapter 4: Skills Development
86

Step 4 – BCD Removal. Position yourself so that your BCD is

Step 4 between you and the cylinder. Separate the free-end of the Velcro
cylinder band and pull the strap back toward the buckle to release
the buckle. Loosen the nylon band(s) sufficiently so that you can
slide the BCD up and off the cylinder. After removing the BCD, lay
the cylinder down and block it so that it cannot roll around, or secure
it in an upright position so that it cannot fall over.

Step 5 – Rinsing. Rinse all of your gear in clean fresh water. When
rinsing the regulator assembly, be sure to place the dust cap over
the first stage air inlet or orifice to prevent any water from entering.
Orally inflate your BCD and then turn it upside down and depress
the manual deflation button to drain any water that may have gotten
inside during the dive. Then depress the manual inflation/deflation
button as you run some fresh water inside the air cell through the
oral inflator orifice. Inflate it again, swish the water around to rinse
the inside of the bladder, and then press the deflator button while
holding the BCD upside down to drain all water out. Store the BCD
partially inflated and allow it to air dry. Refer to the manufacturer’s
directions for care and cleaning of each individual piece of gear.

Step 5.1 Step 5.2 Step 5.3

. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Skills Performance Summary

You now know how to assemble, don, and disassemble your surface
and scuba gear. You know the most common hand signals. You know
how to perform different water entries and the most common exits.
Additional diving skills include a pre-dive bubble check, operating
the BCD ascending and descending, weight check, snorkel clearing,
recovering and clearing regulators using the second stage, breath-
ing from a free-flowing second stage, clearing a partially and fully
flooded mask, three styles of fin kicking, relieving cramps, sharing
air procedures, navigating with a compass and two emergency out-
of-air ascents. These skills will help make your dives as safe and
enjoyable as possible.
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
87
... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 4: Knowledge Quest

1. Describe all the steps to assemble a BCD and regulator to a scuba

cylinder.

2. How should you go about checking that your BCD is attached securely to
your cylinder?

3. What is the purpose of streamlining your hoses and accessories?

4. Describe from start to finish the steps to disassembling your scuba system.

5. Describe two important features of a weight system.

6. What should you do any time the second stage is out of your mouth?

7. Describe two ways to clear a flooded second stage.

8. What is the hand signal for out-of-air?

9. The thumbs up signal means “OK.” True or False?

10. Describe two different ways to indicate “OK.”

11. Describe how to perform a giant stride entry off a boat.

12. Name four different water entries.

13. Describe the two emergency out-of-air ascents.

14. How do you vent air from a BCD?

15. A properly weighted scuba diver should float at ________________

when her BCD is deflated and lungs are fully inflated.

16. How do you relieve a leg cramp?

17. What is the reciprocal of a 200-degree heading?

 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
89
Planning Your Dive Overview
• Awareness
• Buddy System
• Dive Planning
• In-Water Emergencies
• First Aid

... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
As we’ve seen, scuba diving carries certain levels of risk. As with any activity,
you need to weigh the benefits against the risks. By taking simple and reasonable
measures, you can greatly increase personal safety while diving.
Risk management is a means of preventing problems and planning a response
to any emergency that arises. The concept of risk management involves plan-
ning ahead, employing good diving practices, and knowing what to do before an
emergency arises. Without a plan, a simple problem can quickly snowball into a
full-blown emergency.

... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Awareness
Diving safety begins with personal awareness and self-sufficiency.
Awareness includes being able to realistically evaluate your physical
and mental abilities, being conscious of your surroundings, properly
maintaining your equipment and monitoring your depth, time and air
pressure during a dive. By virtue of the buddy system, similar awareness
is required of your dive partner.
Your level of personal awareness will develop over time as you gain
more practical diving experience. Start out slow. Set diving goals that
are easily attainable and within your level of training and experience.
Keep it simple. Always dive within your level of experience and
training to avoid unnecessary risks. For example, as an open-water diver,
you should not dive into a cavern or an overhead environment such as a
shipwreck.

Diver Fitness
Personal awareness also means achieving and maintaining a solid level of
health and fitness. As with any sport that requires physical exertion, scuba
divers should be in good physical condition and proficient in swimming.
Use common sense. On the day of a dive, stay hydrated by drinking water
before and after the dives. You should be rested and ready to go on dive
day. Good mental health is equally as important as physical readiness.
The use of alcohol and drugs greatly increases the risk of
decompression sickness in divers. Do not consume alcohol and
drugs prior to a dive. Reputable dive operations will prohibit
anyone under the influence of drugs or alcohol from diving.
 Chapter 5: Planning Your Dive
90
Figure 5-1 Smoking cigarettes has undeniably detrimental effects on diving
Diving with a buddy enhances the
safety and enjoyment of diving.
as well. Smoking interferes with respiration and circulation and can
You should stay in close proximity hinder gas exchange in the lungs. If the habit cannot be eliminated,
to your buddy throughout a dive. smokers should refrain from smoking 10 to 12 hours before a dive.
Because the effects of diving while pregnant are not well under-
stood, pregnant women should not dive under any circumstances.

Buddy System
Diving with at least one other person, called a dive buddy, adds to the
enjoyment and safety of your dive. Employing the buddy system be-
gins before the dive (see Figure 5-1). You and your buddy should fa-
miliarize yourselves with each other’s gear and help each other while
suiting up (see Figure 5-2). Formulate your dive plan together and
go over the objectives of the dive. An objective may be as simple as
circumnavigating a shipwreck. If you both have different objectives,
compromise. You can plan the first dive to accomplish one objective
and the next dive to accommodate the other.
Review underwater communications and out-of-air emergency
plans. Then go over the dive plan one last time. Always check that
your buddy’s air is turned on before the dive and vice versa.
With buddy teams in which one person is a stronger swimmer,
pace the dive according to the weaker diver. You should also designate
a leader beforehand so that you both agree on who will navigate the
dive. It is best to swim side-by-side throughout the dive. You should
remain within close distance of your buddy at all times underwater.
Any diver can This will ensure that you don’t lose sight of each other and that you
signal to end the can readily lend assistance to a buddy in need.
When you visually check your computer, look at your partner’s
dive for any reason. computer, too. If your buddy is acting unusual, try to identify the
problem so that you can provide assistance if needed. Plan to begin
your ascent according to the lowest cylinder pressure or minimum
time remaining. In other words, if you have 100 bar (1500 psi) re-
maining and your buddy has 67 bar (1000 psi), then begin your ascent
at 67 bar (1000 psi) even though you have plenty of air left.
When air supply is not an issue, you must both plan to ascend
according to the most conservative no-stop time. Even if two divers
follow the exact same profile, their computers may indicate different
no-stop times. Abide by the most conservative number.
The general safety rule for the buddy system is, “Any diver can
signal to abort the dive for any reason.” The duty of the dive partner
is to comply with safety. Diving with a good buddy is both rewarding
and comforting.

Figure 5-2 Buddy Separation

You and your buddy should Buddy separation is more likely to occur in low-visibility situations.
check each other’s gear before
each dive.
If you and your buddy become separated, you must both employ the
same search procedure. First, look around the immediate area for one
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
91
minute. In that time you should look around the bottom then ascend a few
feet to look for rising bubbles. Rap on your cylinder and listen for a reply. If
you are reunited underwater, check each other’s air supplies and remaining
no-stop time to decide how to continue with the dive.
If you do not find your buddy after searching for one minute, begin a
normal ascent to the surface. Wait on the surface until your buddy ascends.
If you both follow this procedure, you will be reunited shortly after the
separation. Remember that it is much easier to find your buddy on the sur-
face than underwater.

Dive Planning
Even with a dive computer to track your dive profile, you must plan your
dive beforehand (see Figure 5-3). And then you must stick with your plan.
Plan your dive and dive your plan.

Dive Planning Includes:

• Purpose of the dive
• Notifying someone of your dive plans
• Familiarizing yourself with the dive site & conditions
• Determining entry & exit points
• Deciding the direction in which you will travel
• Reviewing hand signals
• Agreeing upon dive time, maximum depth
& minimum cylinder pressure
• Discussing lost buddy & emergency procedures

Plan your dive and dive your plan.

Figure 5-3
Repetitive Dives Planning your dive includes
Whether you go on vacation and sign up on a dive charter, or plan to dive a agreeing upon dive time,
nearby river with a friend, chances are that you will be making more than one maximum depth & minimum
cylinder pressure.
dive in a day. A repetitive dive is any dive made within 24 hours of another.
Because of the increased nitrogen absorption on repetitive dives, you need to
carefully plan your dive times, depths and surface intervals.
First, plan the deepest dive of the day to be your first dive. Repetitive
dives must be planned as progressively shallower. This will ensure that your
body has adequate time to off-gas excess nitrogen.
After a dive, your computer will scroll depths in increments of 10 feet (3
metres) and provide the adjusted no-stop time for each depth based on the
surface interval time. The longer you remain at the surface, the longer your
repetitive no-stop time will be.
Some computers have a dive-planning mode that allows the user to input
the desired surface interval time to determine the adjusted time limit for a re-
petitive dive. The computer calculates repetitive dive limits, scrolls through
 Chapter 5: Planning Your Dive
92
each depth increment, and displays the adjusted no-stop time limit. This
feature allows a diver to plan how long he/she must stay at the surface to
have the maximum no-stop time at depth.

Safety Stop
A safety stop is a delay in your ascent prior to
surfacing. Unlike a mandatory decompression stop,
a safety stop is not a physiological requirement,
but a precautionary measure. The safety stop gives
your body extra time to get rid of excess nitrogen
underwater (see Figure 5-4).
A safety stop should be conducted between 3 and
6 metres (10 and 20 feet) for three to five minutes
before coming up to the surface. A safety stop is
recommended on any dive up to 30 metres (100
feet). For dives over 30 metres (100 feet), a safety
stop is mandatory.
It’s best to hold onto the anchor line or ascent line
Figure 5-4 if one is available, particularly in rough water in
A safety stop is a delay in which maintaining a constant depth will be difficult. Whenever holding
ascent before surfacing. It’s
onto a line, keep the line loose in your hand. If you hold the line too tightly,
best to hold onto a line while
conducting a safety stop. a large wave on the surface can make the dive boat rise suddenly, thus
pulling the anchor line up and possibly forcing you into a rapid ascent. You
may need to shorten your safety stop if you are too low on air.

Emergency Decompression
As previously mentioned, decompression diving is beyond the range of
this course. You should view mandatory decompression as an emergency
procedure only. However, if an emergency occurs and you inadvertent-
ly exceed your no-stop time, you are under a physiological obligation to
make a staged decompression stop or stops prior to surfacing.
Most modern computers will give an audible and/or visual alarm if
you enter decompression. The computer will display each decompression
stop depth and time. If this happens, ascend at a normal rate and stop at
the first decompression depth. Stay at that depth for the time required.
Once the mandatory time at this stop has elapsed, the computer will dis-
play the next shallower stop depth and the time required. Perform all re-
quired stops until the computer clears you to ascend to the surface. Obvi-
ously, decompression stops can only be made if your air supply allows.

Omitted Decompression
If you go into emergency decompression but do not have enough air to
make the required stops (and do not have another air source available from
a fellow diver), you must ascend to the surface before you run out of air.
As soon as you surface, establish positive buoyancy and signal for
emergency assistance. Once you are onboard the boat, advise the diving
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
93
supervisor of your omitted decompression and begin first aid procedures
for decompression sickness. Breathe oxygen for at least 30 minutes,
watch for signs and symptoms of decompression sickness for at least
24 hours, and seek immediate medical attention if any symptoms de-
velop. Do not dive or fly or go to higher elevations for at least 24 hours.

Computer Failure
It is rare for a computer to fail during a dive, but if it does, you should
abort the dive because the computer is the only true record of your dive
profile. If you have enough air and were not near your no-stop time limit,
conduct a safety stop prior to surfacing. Have the computer serviced and
wait 24 hours before diving again to avoid repetitive dives.
It is important to know that some computers will “lock out” if there
is a decompression violation. For example, if a diver omits mandatory
decompression, the computer will not provide or track any further diving
activities for a minimum of 24 hours. In fact, some computers will lock
out during the dive if there is a violation and will only display current
depth and elapsed time. Choose a computer that will provide emergency
decompression requirements.

In-Water Emergencies
One of the most dangerous situations to arise in the water is when a diver
panics. Panic causes people to lose control to the point where they can no
longer act rationally. Usually, a panicked diver is incapable of self-rescue
and must be saved by someone else.
Panic is brought on by feelings of anxiety when a person per-
ceives danger, whether real or imagined. Panic triggers a psycho-
logical response or coping mechanism called the “flight response.” Figure 5-5
A panicked diver is unable
When a person panics underwater and his flight mechanism is trig- to act rationally. Signs of
gered, he will have a sudden, desperate desire to swim to the sur- panic include ripping the
face. The overwhelming urge to bolt to the surface can lead to injury. mask off, wide eyes and
Panicked divers exhibit common, recognizable jerky movements.
signs. These include wide eyes, rapid jerky movements,
accelerated breathing, ripping off the mask and
regulator, inappropriate behavior and failure to respond
to signals (see Figure 5-5). Panic can be active or
passive. Active panic is when a diver bolts toward
the surface and becomes combative. Because the
behavior is completely unpredictable, approaching a
panicked diver can put you in danger. Passive panic
tends to immobilize the diver and make him totally
unresponsive. Panic can occur underwater or on the
surface. It can be brought on by several factors such
as difficulty breathing, overexertion and entanglement.
 Chapter 5: Planning Your Dive
94

Overexertion
One of the most common problems a diver experiences is overexertion.
This is understandable given the fact the human body is unaccustomed to
moving through such a dense medium and breathing through a mechani-
cal device. Accelerated and/or labored breathing is the body’s natural
coping mechanism to meet the increased demand for oxygen resulting
from strenuous activity.
The body adapts automatically to exertion by increasing the depth
and rate of respiration. A scuba regulator adjusts by delivering additional
air upon demand.
In addition to the physical stress of overexertion, divers can experi-
ence a psychological reaction that compounds the problem. When breath-
ing becomes labored, the diver perceives his condition as more serious
than it really is.
At the first signs of overexertion, stop, relax and breathe deeply.
Holding onto a stationary object helps reduce disorientation. Once you
have regained composure, continue the dive.

Problems at the Surface

Surprisingly, most dive accidents occur at the surface, not underwater.
Surfacing too far from the dive boat, being over-weighted and feeling
fatigued are potential dangers. Rough seas, bad weather and high-traffic
areas can compound problems at the surface.
The first rule in any surface emergency is to establish positive buoy-
ancy (see Figure 5-6).
Figure 5-6
The first rule in any surface
emergency is to establish
positive buoyancy.

The quickest way to become buoyant is to ditch your weight, be it a

weight belt or the pockets of a weight-integrated BCD. If you are able to
help another diver who is panicked on the surface, remember that their
weight belt will have a right-hand release. This makes the weight belt
easy to locate and release. Keep your mask in place and your snorkel in
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
95

your mouth at all times. If you have sufficient

air in your tank, you can continue to breathe
from your regulator instead of the snorkel.
Once you have established positive
buoyancy, signal to the surface support crew
so that they see you. If you are not having any
immediate, life-threatening problem, signal
“OK.” Only use the danger signal in absolute
emergencies. When you signal for help, you
are activating an emergency response plan
and using up the resources of that operation.
The cry for help should not be taken lightly.
Keep in mind that in a commercially run dive
operation, the captain and crew are responsible
for all divers on the boat. They have to use their Figure 5-7
professional judgment in emergencies. In some cases, they might have to If your buddy is too
get all of the other divers back on the boat before picking up stray divers. exhausted to swim on the
Overexertion on the surface becomes a problem when a diver finds surface, you can use the tired
himself down current from the boat or his planned exit. Swimming against diver tow to bring him to
the current can lead to overexertion. In most cases it is easiest to swim on safety.
your back because your BCD provides most of its lift from behind. The
more streamlined you can be, the easier it will be to swim. If the distance
is not too far and the current is not too strong, set a comfortable swim-
ming pace so that you do not become overexerted. If you are too far away,
deploy your surface signal and wait for the dive boat to pick you up.

Tired Diver Tow

As an open-water diver, you are not expected to have advanced rescue
skills. However, you should be able to lend basic assistance. For example,
if you and your buddy surface a long distance from the boat and your
buddy is unable to swim back, you can offer to tow him to the boat utiliz-
ing the tired diver tow (see Figure 5-7). Figure 5-8
Entanglement is not com-
First, make sure you both establish positive buoyancy. mon, but it can be a prob-
Ask your buddy to lie on his back and breathe normally. lem when diving around
Grasp his cylinder valve while also lying on your back fishing line or in kelp beds.
and kicking, or hold onto his arm just under the armpit
while kicking facedown in the water breathing from
your snorkel or second-stage. Check your location with
respect to where you want to go and adjust your heading
as needed.

Entanglement
While entanglement is not common, it can be a prob-
lem when diving around fishing line, wrecks, or in kelp
beds (see Figure 5-8). Should you or your buddy become
entangled in fishing line or rope, do not struggle to free
yourself.
 Chapter 5: Planning Your Dive
96

Moving around generally results in further entanglement. Figure out

how to get untangled or carefully use your knife to cut the line away.
Always cut away from your body and gear.
Kelp is a leafy aquatic plant that can grow in tall stalks. If you get en-
tangled in kelp, you can usually free yourself by staying still for a few mo-
ments as the motion of the water loosens the plant. Again, struggling usual-
ly compounds the problem. Cutting yourself free may become necessary.

Missing Diver
When a diver does not surface from a dive, notify the supervisor at the
surface that you and your buddy were separated. Give the details of the
dive: the last known position, dive time, and max depth. If the diver
does not surface within a reasonable time (for her specific air and time
restraints), a search will be necessary by qualified divers, and the local
authorities will need to be notified for emergency assistance.

SDI Rescue Diver Program

The SDI Rescue Diver course teaches divers how to recognize and re-
duce the chances of diving accidents before they occur and how to
ultimately respond if an actual emergency were to arise. SDI requires
the SDI Advanced Adventure Diver certification (or equivalent) or 40
logged dives to enter the program. A diver must be comfortable with
their own diving ability before enrolling in the course due the added
responsibility of managing emergencies. The ability and confidence
to provide aid and assistance to another person is the true measure of a
qualified rescue diver.

First Aid
Taking an advanced rescue and basic life support course is a good idea
for anyone who does a lot of diving. Knowing CPR (cardiopulmonary
resuscitation) can make the difference in saving another person’s life.
Diving in remote locations in which a medical facility is not easily
accessible adds a level of risk to diving.
Knowing how to deliver basic first aid for common diving maladies
SDI Rescue Diver Program
is an important part of risk management. First aid, as the name implies,
The ability and confidence to provide is a first response to an emergency. Further medical attention must be
aid and assistance to another person sought from a qualified health care provider in most situations. Having
is the true measure of a qualified a first-aid kit on hand is essential. In addition to bandages, antiseptic,
rescue diver. ointment, scissors, tape and latex gloves, a diving first aid kit should
also include meat tenderizer or vinegar for treating stings and abra-
sions from marine animals. A tank of pure oxygen should also be ac-
cessible.
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
97
Seasickness
Seasickness is quite common and can quickly
ruin your diving experience. Like motion sick-
ness, seasickness is caused by a change in the
equilibrium of the inner ear. Visual and perceptual
disorientation caused by the rocking of a boat on
the waves is a contributing factor to seasickness.
To avoid seasickness, you should maintain eye
contact with the horizon or any stationary, land-
based object. Avoid going below deck unless abso-
lutely necessary. Stay away from areas near the ex-
haust and minimize the amount of time on the boat
(see Figure 5-9). Often, divers feeling seasick on
the boat feel much better once they’re in the water.
Figure 5-9
If seasickness medications must be taken, do so well beforehand.
To avoid seasickness, focus
Most medications are ineffective if taken when seasick. Transdermal on the horizon or a fixed
medications (also known as “the patch” which is applied behind the point on land. Stay away
ear) are not recommended prior to diving because of their side ef- from areas near the engine
fects. exhaust.

Decompression Sickness
Recompression in a hyperbaric chamber is usually required to treat
decompression sickness. However, rapid first aid treatment has prov-
en to be effective in preventing permanent injury.
First aid for decompression sickness is to administer pure oxy-
gen. Since it is virtually impossible for a medically untrained person
to determine the exact type of DCS (such as Type I or Type II), treat
all cases of suspected DCS the same way.

Emergency Procedures for DCS

1. Move the afflicted diver out of danger.
2. Activate the Emergency Medical System (EMS).
3. Monitor life support signs (pulse and respiration) and
provide CPR if necessary.
4. Provide 100% oxygen via demand regulator if the diver is
breathing.
5. Evacuation if necessary.

First Aid and Oxygen Administration Courses

SDI’s sister agency, First Response Training International, offers
courses for laypeople to learn CPR, First Aid, AED and Oxygen
Administration. Learning these skills will make you more confident
and competent in rendering aid during emergency situations both in
and out of the water.
 Chapter 5: Planning Your Dive
98
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Dive Planning Summary

Scuba diving requires a high degree of awareness and common sense.
Using simple precautions can greatly enhance your safety and the safe-
ty of other divers around you. The concept of risk management means
that you take measures to prevent problems from arising and are pre-
pared for emergencies should they occur.
Being a self-sufficient diver means maintaining personal health and
fitness and being aware of yourself and your surroundings. Always stay
within the limits of your training and experience. Furthering your dive
training will add to the safety and enjoyment of your diving experiences.

. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Chapter 5: Knowledge Quest

1. Define risk management.

2. Why should you avoid consuming drugs or alcohol prior to a

dive?

3. What elements should you and your buddy agree on before the
dive?

4. Describe what to do if you and your buddy become separated

during a dive.

5. When planning a repetitive dive, the _________ dive should be

made first.

6. Describe the procedure recommended for a safety stop.

7. Describe what to do if you exceed the no-deco time registered on

your computer.

8. What should you do if you become entangled underwater?

9. What is the emergency procedure for suspected decompression

sickness?
SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
99
 OW SCUBA DIVER

• SNORKELER ADVANCED DIVER RESCUE DIVER • ADVANCED

• SCUBA DISCOVERY ADVENTURE
• FUTURE BUDDIES • ADVANCED
BUOYANCY
• SHALLOW WATER CONTROL
DIVER MASTER DIVER SDI DIVEMASTER • ALTITUDE
• BOAT
• COMPUTER
INACTIVE DIVER / SDI ASSISTANT • COMPUTER NITROX
REFRESHER INSTRUCTOR SDI INSTRUCTOR • CPROX 1ST AED
• DEEP
• DIVER PROPULSION
VEHICLE
SCUBILITY SDI SCUBILITY SDI COURSE DIRECTOR
INSTRUCTOR • DRIFT
• DRY SUIT
• EQUIPMENT
SPECIALIST
SDI NONDIVING SDI INSTRUCTOR • FULL FACE MASK
SPECIALTY INSTRUCTOR TRAINER
• ICE
• MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
AWARENESS
• NIGHT/LIMITED
VISIBILITY
• RESEARCH
• SEARCH & RECOVERY
• SHORE/BEACH
• SIDEMOUNT
• SOLO
• U/W HUNTER &
COLLECTOR
• U/W NAVIGATION
• U/W PHOTOGRAPHER
• U/W VIDEOGRAPHER
• VISUAL INSPECTION
PROCEDURES
• WRECK
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
101
Continuing Your Dive Experience
... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Many other exciting diving opportunities await after successful completion of your Open
Water certification course. You will discover that diving is an adventure with so many dif-
ferent facets you can easily find activities of interest. Enrolling in specialty courses will help
you learn how to become a more proficient diver and participate in many different types of
diving.

Beyond Open Water

• Advanced Diver Development

Technical Diving
• About Technical Diving International, TDI

Public Safety Diving

• About Emergency Response Diving International, ERDI

... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Beyond Open Water

Your first step in continuing your education is to enroll in the SDI Advanced Diver Develop-
ment program or one of the many other SDI specialty programs.
One extremely popular option for a new diver like yourself is the SDI Computer Nitrox Pro-
gram. This will teach you how to use nitrox on your recreational sport dives. Few advances have
had a more profound impact on divers over the past two decades than the widespread availabil-
ity of Enriched Air Nitrox (a mixture with a higher percentage of oxygen than the normal 21%
found in air) and Nitrox programmable dive computers. Graduating from an SDI Computer
Nitrox program will allow you to join the many divers who use nitrox in place of the ordinary
compressed air to extend their bottom time or to reduce the risks of decompression sickness.
SDI’s other Advanced Diver Development Programs emphasize instructor directed spe-
cialty training and self-directed experience dives to develop skills, knowledge, and personal
confidence for the new or active diver. These courses will help you to become a much stron-
ger, more confident diver under the watchful eyes of your SDI instructor.
 Chapter 6: Continuing Your Dive Experience
102

*open circuit & ccr

options available
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
103

About TDI
TDI is the largest technical certification agency in the world. As one of the first agencies
to provide training in mixed gas diving and rebreathers, TDI is seen as an innovator of
new diving techniques and programs which previously were not available to the general
public. Training with TDI has provided divers with the opportunity to see such wrecks as
the Andrea Doria, Lusitania and the Prince of Wales. TDI divers have explored underwater
caves in Spain, Australia and Mexico and assisted as support divers on world record free
dives done in the Red Sea.
TDI’s professionals are held to the highest standard to ensure quality training throughout
the world. This means that as a diver taking a TDI course, your instructor will have
documented his experience and knowledge prior to achieving that rating.
TDI is committed to offering the highest quality training supported by the latest materials
with the most up to date information and techniques. TDI’s materials are written by authors
that actively conduct the type of diving they are writing about. Those same materials are
updated as technology and equipment change.
 Chapter 6: Continuing Your Dive Experience
104

TENDER TESTIFYING IN COURT ICE SURFACE RESCUE

ERD I

ERD II • CONFINED SPACE OPS • CONTAMINATED

• U/W EXPLOSIVES OPS WATER OPS
• DRY SUIT OPS
• FULL FACE MASK OPS
ERD SUPERVISOR • HULL INSPECTION
OPS
• ICE DIVING OPS
• NIGHT OPS
ERD NONDIVING OPS • SMALL BOAT OPS
ERD INSTRUCTOR INSTRUCTOR • SWIFT WATER OPS
• U/W CRIME SCENE
OPS
ERD INSTRUCTOR • U/W THREAT
TRAINER ASSESSMENT OPS
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
105

About ERDI
ERDI is the Public Safety Diving (PSD) agency that trains police, fire and other public safety
organizations in search and rescue techniques in just about every submerged environment
known. ERDI trains departments on how to make and maintain their own PSD teams along
with being the only public safety diving training agency that has their own insurance and
endorses its own standards. All ERDI programs are OSHA and NFPA compliant. In fact,
some of the largest successful and renowned departments use ERDI Programs to conduct
their training.
Each and every day public safety divers face the challenges of swift water, black water and
a myriad of other potentially harmful situations as part of their job. ERDI offers training to
help teams accomplish these missions with the best possible training available.
Many of the ERDI programs can be taught at several levels in accordance with National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) guidelines. The level of participation in the practical
portion of the course will determine the final level of certification. The classification levels
are: Awareness, Operations and Technician. All ERDI programs are available to public
safety professionals regardless of their position within a department.

Awareness – The Awareness level can be completed simply by doing the online academics
for the ERDI course of interest. Upon completion of any of the online ERDI Academy
courses, an individual will receive an awareness level certificate. For additional insight and
understanding of the course, the individual can audit the practical session.

Operations – The Operations level course requires the participant to complete the online
academics and also participate in the non-diving segments of the Operations level course
taught by an ERDI Instructor. Depending on the program an individual is completing,
this portion of the training shows how to properly perform and/or supervise non-diving
emergency response duties.

Technician – The Technician level is the final step and requires the participant to complete
the required number of practical training sessions under the supervision of an ERDI
Instructor. Here the individual will apply what they have learned during the awareness
and skill-development sessions, while learning practical lessons that can only be gained by
performing all practical activities associated with the program.
 Chapter 6: Continuing Your Dive Experience
106
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
107
Appendix
... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

• Dive Tables
• Dive Table Worksheet (US Navy Tables)
• Buhlmann Tables
• Sample Problems

... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dive Tables: A different way to manage your bottom time

Before the widespread use of personal dive computers, new divers had to learn
how to use dive, or decompression tables to help them plan their dives, and there
were plenty of choices. Perhaps the two most popular and well-used were the US
Navy tables and a set of closely related tables produced by the Swiss physiologist
Dr. Albert Buhlmann during the 1980s. These dive tables, and the many others
available, give no-decompression time limits for diving to depths within the
recreational sport limits (40 metres or
130 feet). They also provide guidance to a
diver on how long to remain on the surface
before conducting a repetitive dive, and
how long that repetitive dive should be at
specific depths.
As an SDI open water diver you 1102 992 1102

would only need to bother with tables

if your computer crashed for some
reason (check battery levels regularly!),
63 63

or because you are curious as to how

33 31 33

they work and have some interest in the 12

8 7
11
10
8
12

historical aspects of dive planning. In any 7

6
6
6
6
7

event, we have included this short chapter

for your interest and general knowledge.
The exercises it contains are optional, but
we think you may find them fun. As you
work through them, follow the simple
instructions we have provided and follow
the step-by-step procedures. If you have
2010-2013

any questions about dive planning with

dive tables, please ask you SDI instructor Item: 110520-01

for advice.
 Appendix
108

END
1102 992 1102

63 63

33 31 33

STEP 1 12 11 12
10
8 7 8
7 6 7
6 6
6 6

STEP 2

2010-2013

STEP 4

Item: 110520-01

STEP 3
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
109

Dive Table Worksheet (US Navy Tables)

No-Decompression Limit (NDL)
To figure out the no-decompression limit for a certain depth, begin at the top left of the table (on oppo-
site page). Read DOWN the row of depths (starting at 10 feet/3 metres) Depth increases as you move
down the column. Directly across from each depth (starting at 25 feet/7.6 metres) is the corresponding
no-decompression limit, or NDL. For example, the NDL for 80 feet / 24.4 metres is 39 minutes.
Use the next greater number if the exact number doesn’t appear
1. Find the NDL for 30 feet/9.1 metres.
2. Find the NDL for 130 feet/39.6 metres.

Step 1
Now, let’s say we’re planning a dive to 80 feet/24.4 metres for 35 minutes. Begin at START and
read across to 80 feet/ 24.4 metres. Continue to read across the row until you reach 35 (or the next
higher number, in this case 36). Then read UP the column until you reach the letter I. This means that
upon surfacing from the first dive, you will be in dive group I.
1. Find the pressure group for a dive to 105 feet for 19 minutes.
2. Find the pressure group for a dive to 36 feet for one hour and 20 minutes.

Step 2
Continuing with our example, let’s plan on spending one hour and 15 minutes on the surface. In the I
row, read across until you find the box with 0:53 over 1:44. Since 1:15 falls between these two times,
this is the box we will use. Read down the column until you reach the letter H. This is your new dive
group after a surface interval of 1:15.
1. What’s the new repetitive dive group letter of a K diver after a surface interval of two hours?
2. A diver goes to 45 feet for 50 minutes. He spends 15 minutes on the surface. What’s his new
repetitive dive group letter?

Step 3
As an H diver, now we’re going to do a repetitive dive at 50 feet/15.2 metres for 30 minutes. Find 50
feet/ 15.2 metres on the chart at the bottom of the table and cross it with the H column until you come to
the number 57. This is our residual nitrogen time, or RNT. Before finding our new dive group, we must
add our RNT to our planned dive time, or actual bottom time (ABT) to find our total bottom time (TBT).
RNT + ABT = TBT 57+30=87
The TBT will be used to calculate the next dive and simply takes into account the residual nitrogen
from the two previous dives.
1. What’s the RNT for an O diver going to 40 feet/12.2 metres?
2. Find the TBT for the following profile: An E diver goes to 70 feet/21.3 metres for 45 minutes.

Step 4
Our second dive is going to be to 50 feet/15.2 metres and we already know our TBT is 87 min-
utes. We need to find our ending dive group. Find 50 feet/15.2 metres in the depth column. Read
ACROSS the row until you find 87 minutes (remember to use the next greater number if the exact
number doesn’t appear). Read UP the row until you reach L. This is our ending dive group after both
dives.
 Appendix
110

Figure 6-1 Surface Interval

Graphically, this is Between Dives
how the previous (hours : minutes) Pressure Group
dive profile is written: After Surface
Pressure Group Interval Pressure Group
After Dive 1 After Dive 2
I 1:15 H L

80ft / 24.4M 50 ft / 15.2 M

35 mins. 30 mins.

Dive 1 Dive 2
57 30 87

.........................................................................................

Buhlmann Tables
Figure 6-2

Buhlmann 1989 Sea Level (0-700M)

No Decompression Dive Tables
Depth Nitrogen Group Designation
Meters A B C D
D E F G H
9 25 37 55 81 105 130
12 19 25 37 57 82 125
15 16 20 29 41 59 75
18 15 17 25 33 44 51
21 12 15 22 28 35
START 24 11 13 20 25
27 10 12 18 20
30 9 11 16
33 8 10 14
36 7 9 12
39 7 10

Perhaps the first thing you’ll notice about the Buhlmann no-decompression dive table
shown above is that it appears to be “more conservative” than the US Navy tables in
than maximum allowable bottom time for a corresponding depth (see Figure 6-2). A
dive to 24 metres (about 80 feet) has an NDL of 25 minutes compared to 35 minutes
on the US Navy tables.
 SDI Open Water Scuba Diver Student Manual
111

Figure 6-3

Buhlmann Repetitive Letter Group Table

Surface Interval Time (H:mm)
START “0” Fly
Hours Hours
A 2 2
B 0:20 2 2
C 0:10 0:25 3 3
D 0:10 0:15 0:30 3 3
E 0:10 0:15 0:25 0:45 4 3
F 0:20 0:30 0:45 1:15 1:20 8 4
G 0:25 0:45 1:00 1:15 1:40 2:10 12 5
H 0:50 1:05 1:35 2:10 3:00 4:00 5:40 24 7
G F E D C B A FINISH

Figure 6-4

Buhlmann Residual Nitrogen Time Table (RNT)

Depth
G F E D C B A
Meters
9 154 130 105 81 55 37 25
12 137 111 82 57 37 25 19
15 59 41 29 20 16
18 44 33 25 17 14
21 28 22 15 12
24 24 20 13 11
27 18 12 10
30 11 9
33 10 8 16 30 46
36 9 7 RNT + ABT = TBT
39 8 7 46 minutes = E Diver
DO NOT MIX AND MATCH.
 Appendix
112

Sample Problems
Find the ending dive groups for the following dive profiles:

1. A dive to 90 feet/25 metres for 15 minutes followed by a surface interval of 2:50. The
second dive to 50 feet/14 metres for 43 minutes followed by a surface interval of 1:20.
The third dive to 39 feet/12 metres for 30 minutes.

2. A dive to 115 feet/35 metres for 10 minutes followed by a surface interval of 1:10. The
second dive to 50 feet/15 metres for 30 minutes followed by a surface interval of 2:45.
The third dive to 25 feet/7 metres for 52 minutes.
210000-01 *210000-01* ISBN: 1-931451-08-7