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Statanalysis C2a

Chapter 2, Part A covers descriptive statistics, focusing on summarizing categorical and quantitative data through various methods such as frequency distributions, relative frequencies, and graphical displays like bar charts, pie charts, and histograms. It outlines the steps for creating frequency distributions, including determining class limits and widths, and introduces cumulative distributions and stem-and-leaf displays for data visualization. The chapter emphasizes the importance of these techniques in providing insights and understanding data patterns.

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15 views6 pages

Statanalysis C2a

Chapter 2, Part A covers descriptive statistics, focusing on summarizing categorical and quantitative data through various methods such as frequency distributions, relative frequencies, and graphical displays like bar charts, pie charts, and histograms. It outlines the steps for creating frequency distributions, including determining class limits and widths, and introduces cumulative distributions and stem-and-leaf displays for data visualization. The chapter emphasizes the importance of these techniques in providing insights and understanding data patterns.

Uploaded by

henryamora03
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chapter 2, Part A -

Descriptive Statistics: Tabular and Graphical Displays


 Summarizing Data for a Categorical Variable
• Categorical data use labels or names to identify categories of
like items.
 Summarizing Data for a Quantitative Variable
• Quantitative data are numerical values that indicate how much
or how many.
Frequency distribution
- is a tabular summary of data showing the number (frequency) of observations in
each of several non-overlapping categories or classes.
- The objective is to provide insights about the data that cannot be quickly obtained
by looking only at the original data.
Relative Frequency
- of a class is the fraction or proportion of the total number of data items belonging
to a class.
Relative Frequency distribution
- is a tabular summary of a set of data showing the relative frequency for each
class.
Percent Frequency
- of a class is the relative frequency multiplied by 100.
Percent Frequency Distribution
- is a tabular summary of a set of data showing the percent frequency for each
class.
Bar Chart
- is a graphical display for depicting qualitative data.
- On one axis (usually the horizontal axis), we specify the labels that are used for
each of the classes.
- A frequency, relative frequency, or percent frequency scale can be used for the
other axis (usually the vertical axis).
- Using a bar of fixed width drawn above each class label, we extend the height
appropriately.
-The bars are separated to emphasize the fact that each class is separate.
Pareto Diagram
- When the bars are arranged in descending order of height from left to right (with
the most frequently occurring cause appearing first) the bar chart is called a Pareto
diagram.
- This diagram is named for its founder, Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian economist
- In quality control, bar charts are used to identify the most important causes of
problems.
Pie Chart
- The pie chart is a commonly used graphical display for presenting relative
frequency and percent frequency distributions for categorical data.
- First draw a circle; then use the relative frequencies to subdivide the circle into
sectors that correspond to the relative frequency for each class.
- Since there are 360 degrees in a circle, a class with a relative frequency of .25
would consume .25(360) = 90 degrees of the circle
Example
Inferences from the Pie Chart
 Almost one-half of the customers surveyed preferred Pepsi (looking at
the left side of the pie).
 The second preference is for Dr. Pepper with 25% of the customers
opting for it.
 Only 5% of the customers opted for Sprite.
Summarizing Quantitative Data
 Frequency Distribution
 Relative Frequency and Percent Frequency Distributions
 Dot Plot
 Histogram
 Cumulative Distributions
 Stem-and-Leaf Display
Frequency Distribution
The three steps necessary to define the classes for a frequency distribution with
quantitative data are:
 Step 1 - Determine the number of non-
overlapping classes.
 Step 2 - Determine the width of each class.
 Step 3 - Determine the class limits.

Guidelines for Determining the Width of Each Class


 Use classes of equal width.

Largest data value−Smallest data value


 Approximate Class Width =
Number of classes
 Making the classes the same width reduces the chance of inappropriate
interpretations.
Note on Number of Classes and Class Width
 In practice, the number of classes and the appropriate class width are
determined by trial and error.
 Once a possible number of classes is chosen, the appropriate class width is
found.
 The process can be repeated for a different number of classes.
 Ultimately, the analyst uses judgment to determine the combination of the
number of classes and class width that provides the best frequency
distribution for summarizing the data.
Guidelines for Determining the Class Limits
 Class limits must be chosen so that each data item belongs to one and only
one class.
 The lower class limit identifies the smallest possible data value assigned to
the class.
 The upper class limit identifies the largest possible data value assigned to the
class.
 The appropriate values for the class limits depend on the level of accuracy of
the data.
 An open-end class requires only a lower class limit or an upper class limit.
The class midpoint is the value halfway between the lower and upper class limits.

Dot Plot
 One of the simplest graphical summaries of data is a dot plot.
 A horizontal axis shows the range of data values.
 Then each data value is represented by a dot placed above the axis.

Histogram
 Another common graphical display of quantitative data is a histogram.
 The variable of interest is placed on the horizontal axis.
 A rectangle is drawn above each class interval with its height corresponding
to the interval’s frequency, relative frequency, or percent frequency.
 Unlike a bar graph, a histogram has no natural separation between rectangles
of adjacent classes.
Histograms Showing Skewness
Symmetric
- Left tail is the mirror image of the right tail
Example: Heights of People
Moderately Skewed Left
- A longer tail to the left
Example: Exam Scores
Moderately Right Skewed
- A Longer tail to the right
Example: Housing Values
Highly Skewed Right
- A very long tail to the right
Example: Executive Salaries
Cumulative Distributions
 Cumulative frequency distribution - shows the number of items with values
less than or equal to the upper limit of each class.
 Cumulative relative frequency distribution – shows the proportion of items
with values less than or equal to the upper limit of each class.
 Cumulative percent frequency distribution – shows the percentage of items
with values less than or equal to the upper limit of each class.
 The last entry in a cumulative frequency distribution always equals the total
number of observations.
 The last entry in a cumulative relative frequency distribution always equals
1.00.
 The last entry in a cumulative percent frequency distribution always equals
100.

Stem-and-Leaf Display
 A stem-and-leaf display shows both the rank order and shape of the
distribution of the data.
 It is similar to a histogram on its side, but it has the advantage of showing the
actual data values.
 The first digits of each data item are arranged to the left of a vertical line.
 To the right of the vertical line we record the last digit for each item in rank
order.
 Each line (row) in the display is referred to as a stem.
 Each digit on a stem is a leaf.
Stretched Stem-and-Leaf Display
 If we believe the original stem-and-leaf display has condensed the data too
much, we can stretch the display vertically by using two stems for each
leading digit(s).
 Whenever a stem value is stated twice, the first value corresponds to leaf
values of 0 - 4, and the second value corresponds to leaf values of 5 - 9.
Leaf Units
 A single digit is used to define each leaf.
 In the preceding example, the leaf unit was 1.
 Leaf units may be 100, 10, 1, 0.1, and so on.
 Where the leaf unit is not shown, it is assumed to equal 1.
 The leaf unit indicates how to multiply the stem-and-leaf numbers in order to
approximate the original data.

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