Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering, Bangalore

Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering

(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL &ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

UNIT-01
INTRODUCTION

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Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering, Bangalore

INTRODUCTION
CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES
The ability of a body to perform work is known as energy. In our daily life, we use a number of
sources of energy for doing work.
Energy is one of the most important components of economic infrastructure. In a developing
economy, the energy demand is high from sectors like agriculture, industry, residential and
economical. Energy resources are very much necessary for the existence of mankind.

Energy sources are broadly classified into two categories viz.

• Conventional Energy Sources
• Non-Conventional Energy Sources

Conventional Energy Sources

The sources of energy that are being used for many years and are available in nature are
called conventional energy sources. Conventional energy sources are accepted as fuel to produce
electricity, light, heat, etc.
Generally, the conventional energy sources are non-renewable sources of energy which means
they are present in limited quantity in the nature and their formation need long time (many
years). As the conventional sources of energy are used on a large scale, thus their reserves have
been depleting day by day.
Some common examples of conventional energy sources are coal, petroleum, natural gas
firewood, and other fossil fuels, etc.

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Non-Conventional Energy Sources

The non-conventional energy sources are the sources of energy which are new and used as the
alternative of conventional energy sources. The non-renewable energy sources achieved
popularity in recent years and nowadays, these are being used on a large scale.

The two most significant advantages of non-conventional energy sources are that they
are renewable and pollution free. These are renewable because present in abundance in nature
and being regularly generated in short time.
Some common examples of non-conventional energy sources are sun, wind, biogas, biomass,
etc.

Difference between Conventional and Non-Conventional Energy Sources

Both conventional and non-conventional energy sources are extensively used for producing
light, heat, electricity, etc. Some of the differences between conventional and non-conventional
sources of energy that are listed in the following table −

Basis of Conventional Energy Non-Conventional Energy

Difference
Definition The sources of energy that have been Those energy sources whose
used all around the world for a long evolution has been done the recent
time are called conventional energy years are known as non-conventional
sources. energy sources.
Existence Conventional energy sources exist for The non-conventional energy sources
many years. are relatively new sources of energy.
Renewability Conventional sources of energy are Non-conventional sources are
generally non-renewable sources. renewable sources of energy.
Availability Conventional sources of energy Since non-conventional sources are
available in limited quantity in nature. renewable, hence they available in
abundance in nature.
Formation Conventional energy sources require Non-conventional energy sources can
many year (or long period of time) for be formed in short period of time.
formation.
Exhaustible Conventional energy sources shall Non-conventional energy sources
exhaust one day. shall not exhaust because they are
renewable.
Examples The common examples of The examples of non-conventional
conventional sources of energy are energy sources are sun, wind, tides,
coal, petroleum, natural gas, firewood, water, biofuels, etc.
etc
Safety concerns There are many safety concerns With non-conventional energy

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surrounding the conventional sources sources, no such safety concerns

such as fire in coal mines, explosion associated.
on oil platforms, burst of gas
cylinders, etc.
Energy density Conventional sources of energy have The energy density of non-
high energy density. conventional energy sources is less.
Obtained from Conventional sources are generally Non-conventional energy sources are
obtained from the earth crest. present in the environment such sun,
wind, water, biomass, etc.
Environmental Most of the conventional energy Non-conventional energy sources are
impact sources pollute the environment and environment friendly and do not cause
cause global warming. pollution
Cost Conventional energy sources are Non-conventional are relatively less
expensive. expensive.
Applications Conventional energy sources are Non-conventional sources are used at
mainly used at large scale in small scale in domestic and specific
commercial and industrial commercial and industrial
applications such in thermal power applications such as solar power for
plants, fuel in vehicles, etc. houses, offices, etc.

GENERAL STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

USING SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM APPROACH

Definition: A single-line diagram (SLD), also sometimes called one-line diagram. Single line
diagram is the representation of a power system using the simple symbol for each
component. The single line diagram of a power system is the network which shows the main
connections and arrangement of the system components along with their data (such as
output rating, voltage, resistance and reactance, etc.).

In the single line diagram, the system component is usually drawn in the form of their symbols.
Generator and transformer connections, star, delta and neutral earthing are indicated by symbols
drawn by the side of the representation of these elements.

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Circuit breakers are represented by rectangular blocks. The figure shown represents the single
line diagram of a typical block system

The electrical energy is produced at generating stations, and through the transmission
network, it is transmitted to the consumers. Between the generating stations and the
distribution stations, three different levels of voltage (transmission, sub-transmission and
distribution level of voltage) are used.

The high voltage is required for long distance transmission and, the low voltage is required for
utility purposes. The voltage level is going on decreasing from the transmission system to the
distribution system.

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POWER GENERATION
HYDEL POWER GENERATION

Generation of electricity by hydropower (potential energy in stored water) is one of the cleanest
methods of producing electric power. In 2012, hydroelectric power plants contributed about 16%
of total electricity generation of the world. Hydroelectricity is the most widely used form of
renewable energy. It is a flexible source of electricity and also the cost of electricity generation is
relatively low

Hydroelectric Power Plant is a system in dams and works by obstructing the river flow which
causes to increase and store water in the Dams. This is Potential Energy. The water is made to
fall from a height which constitutes Kinetic Energy. This Kinetic Energy is then converted to
Mechanical Energy by the Turbines. Generator is responsible in converting this Mechanical
Energy from the Turbine into Electrical Energy.

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Basic components of hydro power plants are

Dam and Reservoir: The dam is constructed on a large river in hilly areas to ensure sufficient
water storage at height. The dam forms a large reservoir behind it. The height of water level
(called as water head) in the reservoir determines how much of potential energy is stored in it.

Control Gate: Water from the reservoir is allowed to flow through the penstock to the turbine.
The amount of water which is to be released in the penstock can be controlled by a control gate.
When the control gate is fully opened, maximum amount of water is released through the
penstock.

Penstock: A penstock is a huge steel pipe which carries water from the reservoir to the turbine.
Potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy as it flows down through the
penstock due to gravity.

Water Turbine: Water from the penstock is taken into the water turbine. The turbine is
mechanically coupled to an electric generator. Kinetic energy of the water drives the turbine and
consequently the generator gets driven. There are two main types of water turbine; (i) Impulse
turbine and (ii) Reaction turbine. Impulse turbines are used for large heads and reaction turbines
are used for low and medium heads.

Generator: A generator is mounted in the power house and it is mechanically coupled to the
turbine shaft. When the turbine blades are rotated, it drives the generator and electricity is
generated which is then stepped up with the help of a transformer for the transmission purpose.

Surge Tank: Surge tanks are usually provided in high or medium head power plants when
considerably long penstock is required. A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank which is open at
the top. It is fitted between the reservoir and the power house. The water level in the surge tank
rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings in the penstock. When there is sudden reduction in
load on the turbine, the governor closes the gates of the turbine to reduce the water flow. This
causes pressure to increase abnormally in the penstock. This is prevented by using a surge tank,
in which the water level rises to reduce the pressure. On the other hand, the surge tank provides
excess water needed when the gates are suddenly opened to meet the increased load demand.

Applications of Hydro Electric Power Plant

• Unlike other source of energy, Hydroelectric Power Plant helps in generating Eco
Friendly Energy.
• They help in creating Recreational Facilities.
• It also helps in Flood Risk Management.
• The water from the dam is used for Agricultural Irrigation Facility.
• It helps in generating revenue as the location of the Plant creates a tourist spot.

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The advantages of Hydroelectric Power Plant are:

• Supply of electric power is maintained consistently.

• The water can be stored and used when the demand is high.
• The longevity of the dams is high which helps in generating electricity at lower cost.
• While constructing the dam, a lake is formed from the reserve water. This can be
converted into a tourist attraction or for water sports.
• The Hydroelectric Power generation is renewable and is eco-friendly.
•
The disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power Plant are:

• The constructions of dams are very expensive since it’s in a large scale and has to be
well protected. Any slight damage will create a huge destruction not just in the dam
but also around its vicinity.
• The returns on the cost invested on the dams can only be got after a long time. Hence
the dam has to be operational for many years to be profitable.
• At the time of building a hydroelectric power dam, the habitants in and around the
area are moved out of their houses and the business. This creates a disturbance.
• Construction of these dams creates geological damages. Eg, During the construction
of Hoover Dam in USA, there was a lot of damages through earthquake and
depression on the earth’s surface.
• Dams create a kind of disturbance with neighboring states or countries which connects
the rivers. Since the dams are created by blocking the river which creates an irregular
supply of water.

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WIND POWER PLANT

Wind energy is a natural form of energy that is capable of producing electrical or mechanical
forces. Windmills or wind turbines are devices that are capable of converting the kinetic energy
of wind into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is further converted into electrical
energy.

Parts of Wind Turbine

Following are the different parts of the wind turbine:

1. Blades
2. The rotor
3. Nacelle
4. A gearbox and coupling (transmission system)
5. Aeroturbine
6. Controller
7. Electrical generator
8. Supporting structure.

Working of Wind Power Plant

The wind turbines or wind generators use the power of the wind which they turn into electricity.
The speed of the wind turns the blades of a rotor (between 10 and 25 turns per minute), a source
of mechanical energy. The rotor then turns on a generator that converts mechanical energy into
electricity.

As the wind blows, a wind turbine converts the kinetic energy of the wind’s motion into
mechanical energy by the rotation of the rotor and this mechanical energy is transmitted by the

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shaft to the generator through the gear train. The generator converts this mechanical energy into
electrical energy, thereby generating the electricity.

An electric motor orientates the nacelle so that its rotor is placed facing into the wind. Each
turbine is made up of a mast between 20 m and 100 m according to the power of the machines.
The mast supports the rotor usually equipped with three blades, and the nacelle which contains
the generator with electrical and mechanical back-up.

Wind turbines are designed for wind speeds of between 14 and 90 km/hour. Above that, the
braking mechanism automatically stops the turbine for the safety of the equipment and to
minimize wear and tear. Modern wind turbines supply their normal power at around 50 km/h.

A wind turbine is connected to the electricity network via a transformer located at the base of the
mast. The electricity produced is generally stepped up to the voltage of the network (20 kV), then
it passes through a delivery substation before being fed into the distribution or electrical transport
network.

Factors Affecting the Distribution of Wind Energy

The power output of the wind turbines can be increased by turning the head in such a way that
the blades face the wind, this can be done with a wind direction sensor connected with a
motorized head moving mechanism (or yaw).

Following are some factors which affect the distribution of wind energy:

1. Wind speed.
2. Good road access to the site.
3. Suitable region and geology for onsite access.
4. Low pollution density.
5. Minimum risk of agroforestry operations.
6. Nearness to the electrical grid.
7. Supportive landholders.
8. Privately owned freehold land.
9. Good industrial support for construction and ongoing operation.
10. High annual average wind speed.
11. Height of the windmill.
12. The altitude of the site.
13. A smooth steady wind speed that should blow all the time.
14. Government policy.
15. Demand for electricity.
16. Icing problems, salt spray or blowing dust should present at the site.
17. Blade aerodynamics.
18. Obstructions
19. Air temperature.

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20. Performance of wind turbine.

Applications of Wind Power

Following are the applications of wind energy:

1. It is used for pumping the water.

2. It is used for generating electricity.
3. Used for running the floor mill.
4. It is used to lift the water for irrigation purpose.
5. It is used for milling and grinding applications.
Advantages of Wind Energy or Wind Power Plant

Following are the advantages of wind power plant:

1. Wind energy is a renewable energy source.

2. It does not require any fuels and avoids transportation.
3. Free from pollution helps in maintaining ecological balance.
4. It is very economical and competitive.
5. High altitude areas which are isolated from public use can be utilized for setting the
windmill.
6. The small plot of land is required.
7. It does not require water.
8. Free from risks associated with volatile fossil fuel.

Disadvantages of Wind Power Plant

Following are the disadvantages of wind power plant:

1. Continuous power generation is not possible due to fluctuation

2. Noisy in operation during the conversion of energy.
3. It requires a larger area.
4. It needs high storage capacity due to its irregularity.
5. Wind energy systems have a high overall weight
6. These systems require proper maintenance.

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SOLAR POWER GENERATION

Solar energy is the most abundant, renewable energy source in the world. Solar energy systems
refer to technologies that convert the sun’s heat or light to another form of energy for use

There are two categories of technologies that harness solar energy, Solar Photovoltaics and Solar
Thermal.

As sunlight falls over a solar cell, a large number of photons strike the p-type region of silicon.
Electron and hole pair will get separated after absorbing the energy of photon. The electron
travels from p-type region to n-type region due to the action of electric field at p-n junction.
Further the diode is reversed biased to increase this electric field. So this current starts flowing in
the circuit for individual solar cell. We combine the current of all the solar cells of a solar panel,
to get a significant output.

Solar power plant has a large number of solar panels connected to each other to get a large
voltage output. The electrical energy coming from the combined effort of solar panels is stored in
the Lithium ion batteries to be supplied at night time, when there is no sunlight.

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Advantages of Solar Energy

• Most clean and renewable source of energy.

• It is available in abundance and endless.
• It provides electricity at low cost, as fuel is free.
• With new research in this sector we now have a good power storage solution.
• Keeping in mind the pollution and cost of fossil fuel, it’s becoming the most reliable
source of clean energy.

Disadvantages of Solar Power Plant

• It requires a lot of land to be captured forever.

• Initial cost of installation is too high.
• The energy storage options are not efficient and moreover costly if efficient.
• Power production is quite low as compared to nuclear or other resources to produce
power.
• There is a problem if it is cloudy for few days.
• Their production causes pollution.

Applications

• Solar power plant is powering cities in most efficient manner.

• Solar panels could be used to generate electricity individually for each house especially
in remote areas.

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NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

A nuclear power plant is a facility that converts atomic energy into usable power. Nuclear power
plants are responsible for generating electricity. Nuclear energy now provides about 11% of the
world’s electricity from about 450 power reactors. The heat produced by a reactor is generally
used to drive a turbine which in turn drives an electric generator. The nuclear power plant
provides the energy that can be successfully employed for producing low-cost electrical energy
on a large scale to meet the growing commercial and industrial demands.

Nuclear power plant consists of the following main parts, which are mentioned below:

o Nuclear reactor
o Heat exchanger
o Steam turbine
o Alternator
o Condenser and cooling tower
o Feedwater heater

Nuclear power plant operation

The nuclear reactor’s function is to produce heat at high temperatures. For producing heat the reactor
uses, nuclear fuel which is uranium or thorium, when the slowly moving neutrons hit the nuclear fuel
it produces heat. This heat passes to the heat exchanger; another input to this heat exchanger is
heated water. The water is heated with the help of the feed water heater. The main function of the

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heat exchanger is to produce steam at high pressure. As the nuclear power plant diagram shows, this
high-pressure steam passes to the steam turbine.

When this steam flows towards the turbine it starts rotating, the turbine and alternator are coupled
mechanically. By using a transformer, the electricity which is produced can be increased to use in
long-distance communication. Simultaneously alternator starts rotating and producing electricity that
flows out to the power grid, and our homes, shops, offices, and factories. The exhaust hot steam is
passed to the condenser, where it is condensed by using the cooling tower, and it is again passing to
the heat exchanger through the feed water heater. This process is continued. This is a very
basic nuclear power plant working principle.

THE NUCLEAR POWER PLANT USES

The applications of nuclear power plants include the following.

1. Generating electric energy

2. Desalination of ocean water
3. Production of hydrogen
4. District cooling/heating
5. Remove the tertiary oil resources
6. Heat process applications like cogeneration, conversion of coal to liquids
7. Helping the chemical feedstock synthesis

ADVANTAGES:
1. It produces a large amount of energy
2. It produces low pollution

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Radioactive waste that results from nuclear power plans and nuclear reactions is a
big threat to the environment.
2. It involves huge investment and is not economical.
3. Requires skilled laborers to construct, maintain and monitor the nuclear plant
4. It is not a form of renewable energy.
5. It causes ill effect on human health and cause huge damage when nuclear
accidents take place

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OHMS LAW

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. Introducing the constant of
proportionality, the resistance

where I is the current through the conductor, V is the voltage measured across the conductor
and R is the resistance of the conductor. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this
relation is constant, independent of the current

OHMS LAW TRIANGLE

Ohm’s law Limitations

There are some limitations to Ohm’s law. They are as follows:

• Ohm’s law is an empirical law which is found true for maximum experiments but not for
all.
• Some materials are non-ohmic under a weak electric field.
• Ohm’s law holds true only for a conductor at a constant temperature. Resistivity changes
with temperature.
• Ohm’s law is not applicable to in-network circuits.
• Ohm’s does not apply directly to capacitor circuits and Inductor circuits.

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Applications of Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law is very useful and has several applications. Here are some.

• It is widely used in circuit analysis.

• It is used in ammeter, multimeter etc.
• It is used to design resistors.
• It is used to get the desired circuit drop in circuit design.
• Advanced laws such as Kirchhoff’s Norton’s law, Thevenin’s law are based on ohm’s
law.
• Electric heaters, kettles and other types of equipment working principle follow ohm’s
law.
• A laptop and mobile charger using DC power supply in operation and working principle
of DC power supply depend on ohm’s law.

SERIES CIRCUIT
The circuit in which resistances are connected end-to-end, so that there is only one path for current flow,
is called a series circuit.

Figure shows a circuit, where resistors, R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series, and a voltage of
V volts is applied at the extreme ends A and B, to cause a current of I amperes to flow through
all these resistors. Analysis of Series Circuit: i. The same current flows through all the
resistances. ii. There will be a voltage drop across each resistance. The sum of the voltage drops
is equal to the applied voltage. iii. Total Power dissipated by the circuit is equal to the sum of the
power dissipated by each resistor.
Let V1, V2 and V3 be the voltage drops across R1, R2 and R3 respectively
Now, V = V1+V2+V3

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= IR1 + IR2 + IR3

= I (R1+R2+R3) ………(using ohm‟s law)

V/I = R1 + R2 +R3

According to ohm‟s law, V/I is the total circuit resistance R.

Therefore, R = R1 + R2 +R3 i.e.,

Total resistance = sum of individual resistances.

Thus, when a number of resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance (total circuit
resistance) is given by the arithmetic sum of their individual resistances.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

When a number of resistors are connected in such a way that one end of each of them is joined to
a common point, and the other end of each of them is joined to another common point, then the
resistors are said to be connected in parallel and such circuits are known as parallel circuits. Let
I1, I2 and I3 be the currents in resistors R1, R2 and R3 respectively.

Now, I = I1 +I2 + I3

= V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3

= V {1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3} I/V

= 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3 By Ohm‟s Law,

V/I = R,

1/R = 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3

Analysis of Parallel Circuit:

i. The same voltage appears across all the resistances.
ii. The current is distributed in each resistance.
iii. The sum of the branch current is equal to the applied current.
iv. Total Power dissipated by the circuit is equal to the sum of the power dissipated by each
resistor.

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Problems:

1.A resistor of 12Ω is connected in series with a combination of 15Ω and 20Ω resistors in
parallel. A voltage of 120 V is applied across the whole circuit. Find (i) Current taken from
the supply. (ii) Voltage across the 12Ω resistor.

Solution: i) Net resistance of the parallel branch AB is

RAB = 15 x 20 / (15 + 20)

= 300 / 35 = 8.57Ω

Series resistance RBC = 12 Ω

Therefore, total circuit resistance = 12 + 8.57 = 20.57

Current drawn from the supply I = 120 / 20.57 = 5.83 A

ii) Voltage across 12 resistor, VBC = RBC x I = 12 x 5.83 = 70 V

(2) If the total power dissipated in the network shown in figure is 16 watts, find the value of
R and the total current?

Solution: Given : V = 8 volts Total power dissipated, P = 16 watts

Power, P = V 2 / Req

Where Req = combined or equivalent resistance of the circuit.

Therefore, 16 = 8 2 / Req or Req = 4

Also Req = [4R / (4 + R)] + [(8 x 2)/(8 + 2)]

3. Find the current in all branches of the network shown in figure.

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Solution: The various branch currents are:

Branch AB: I + 50 = 11 + 50 = 39 Amps from A to B
Branch BC: I 10 = 11 10 = 21 Amps or 21 Amp from C to B
Branch CD: I + 50 = 11 + 50 = 39 Amps from C to D Branch
DE: I 70 = 11 70 = 81 Amps or 81 Amps from E to D Branch
EF: I = 11 Amps or 11 Amps from F to E Branch
FA: I 30 = 11 30 = 41 Amps or 41 Amps from A to F
7. What is the difference of potential between the points X and Y in the network
shown?

Solution: Consider the loop including AX Total resistance = 2 + 3 = 5 ohms.

Current through AX = 2/5 = 0.4 A (from A to X)
Drop across 3 ohms resistor = 0.4 x 3 = 1.2 V
Consider the other loop Total resistance = 5 + 3 = 8 ohms.
Current through ZY = 4/8 =0.5 A. (from Z to Y) .
Drop across 3 ohms resistor = 0.5 x 3 = 1.5 V
Drop between X and Y is = drop across 3 ohms (XA) + drop across AZ + drop across 3
ohms (ZY) 1.2 + 4 1.5 = 3.7 V

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KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
In 1847, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, a German physicist was developed these laws to describe the
voltage and current relationship in an electric circuit. These laws are: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
(KVL) and Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)

This is also called as the law of conservation of charge because charge or current cannot be
created or destroyed at the junction or node. It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any
node is zero. Thus the current entering at a node must be equal to the sum of the current living
the node.

In the above figure, currents I1 and I2 are entering to the node while the currents I3 and I4 are
leaving from the node. By applying KCL at the node, assume that entering currents are positive
and leaving currents are negative, we can write as

I1 +(- I2) + (-I3) + I4 +I5= 0

I1 + I4+I5 = I2 + I3

KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed path is equal to
zero that is the sum of source voltages is equal to the sum of voltage drops in a circuit. If the
current flows from higher potential to lower in an element, then we consider it as a voltage drop.

If the current flows from lower potential to higher potential, then we consider it as a voltage rise.
Thus, the energy dissipated by the current must be equal to the energy given by the power supply
in an electric circuit.

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Consider above circuit where the direction of current flow is taken clockwise. Various voltage
drops in the above circuit are V1 is positive, IR1is negative (drop in voltage), IR2 is negative
(drop in voltage), V2 is negative, IR3 is negative (drop in voltage), IR4 is negative (drop in
voltage), V3 is positive, IR5 is negative and V4 is negative. By applying KVL, we get

V1 + (-IR1) + (-IR2) + (-V2) + (-IR3) + (-IR4) + V3 + (-IR5) + (-V4) = 0

V1 – IR1 – IR2 – V2 – IR3 – IR4 + V3 – IR5 – V4 = 0

V1 – V2 + V3 – V4 = IR1+ IR2 +IR3 + IR4 + IR5

Hence the KVL is also known as the law of conservation of electrical energy because the sum of
voltage drops (product of resistance and current) is equal to the sum of voltage sources in a
closed path.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Example

1. Let us consider the single loop circuit which is shown below and assume the current flow
direction as DEABCD closed path. In this circuit, by using KVL we have to find the voltage V1.

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By applying KVL to this closed loop, we can write as

VED + VAE + VBA + VCB + VDC = 0
Where
Voltage of point E with respect to point D, VED = -50 V
Voltage of point D with respect to point C, VDC = -50 V
Voltage of point A with respect to point E. VAE = I * R
VAE = 500m* 200
VAE = 100 V
Similarly Voltage at point C with respect to pint B, VCB = 350m*100
VCB = 35V
Consider voltage at point A with respect to point B, VAB = V1
VBA= -V1
Then by using KVL
-50 + 100 – V1 + 35 – 50 = 0
V1 = 35 Volts

2. Consider the below typical two loop circuit where we have to find the currents I1 and I2 by
applying the Kirchhoff’s laws.

There are two loops inside the circuit and consider the loop paths as shown in figure.
By applying KVL to these loops we get
For first loop,
2 (I1 + I2) + 4I1 – 28 = 0
6I1 + 2I2 = 28 ——— (1)
For second loop,
-2(I1 + I2) – 1I2 + 7 = 0
-2I1 – 3I2 = -7 ——– (2)
By solving the above 1 and 2 equations we get,
I1 = 5A and I2 = -1 A

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