Introduction

Math 151: Systems of Linear Equations

Dr. B. O. Bainson
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

March 30, 2021

Introduction

Outline

Introduction
Introduction

Introduction

In scientific investigations, some relationship between

quantities tends out to be linear. Linearity in this case in
symbolism implies the variables appear in powers not more
than one nor the variables multiply each other. For example

a 1 x1 + a 2 x2 + a 3 x3 + · · · a n xn = b

is a linear equation in n variables. For example, the voltage V

across a resistor R is given by

V = IR
Introduction

Introduction
We note that physical situations are complex and is are
described by coupled equations. For example, consider the
circuit

Figure: Figure A
Introduction

Introduction

By Kirchoff
1. (Conservation of charge) The total current or charge
entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the charge
leaving the node.
2. ( Conservation of Energy)The sum of the IR terms in
any direction around a closed path is equal to the total
voltage in the path in that direction
Introduction

Introduction

Remark from Figure A

At junction A, I1 + I2 = I3 and at junction C , I2 + I1 = I3 .
Therefore,
I1 + I2 − I3 = 0
Write equations for the conservation of energy.
Introduction

We will thus consider in this section coupled linear equations.

These are called systems of linear equations. A typical
system of k equations in n unknowns is

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
.. .
. = ..
ak1 x1 + ak2 x2 + ak3 x3 + · · · + akn xn = bk

If bi = 0 for all i, then the system is said to be homogeneous.

Introduction

We will investigate such systems by addressing questions such

as.
Introduction

We will investigate such systems by addressing questions such

as.
1. Does the system have a solution?
Introduction

We will investigate such systems by addressing questions such

as.
1. Does the system have a solution?
2. How many solutions are there to the system?
Introduction

We will investigate such systems by addressing questions such

as.
1. Does the system have a solution?
2. How many solutions are there to the system?
3. What are the necessary conditions on aij ’s and bj ’s so
that the system will have a solution?
Introduction

We will investigate such systems by addressing questions such

as.
1. Does the system have a solution?
2. How many solutions are there to the system?
3. What are the necessary conditions on aij ’s and bj ’s so
that the system will have a solution?
4. How do we find the solutions?
Introduction

Describe the solution of the problem

ax = b .
Introduction

Describe the solution of the problem

ax = b .

We obtain the following situation

1. If a 6= 0,
Introduction

Describe the solution of the problem

ax = b .

We obtain the following situation

1. If a 6= 0,then the equation has a unique solution x = b/a
Introduction

Describe the solution of the problem

ax = b .

We obtain the following situation

1. If a 6= 0,then the equation has a unique solution x = b/a
2. If a = 0 and b 6= 0,
Introduction

Describe the solution of the problem

ax = b .

We obtain the following situation

1. If a 6= 0,then the equation has a unique solution x = b/a
2. If a = 0 and b 6= 0,then we have 0 · x = b and so since
b 6= 0, no value of x will make the equation true. Thus
there is no solution.
Introduction

Describe the solution of the problem

ax = b .

We obtain the following situation

1. If a 6= 0,then the equation has a unique solution x = b/a
2. If a = 0 and b 6= 0,then we have 0 · x = b and so since
b 6= 0, no value of x will make the equation true. Thus
there is no solution.
3. If a = 0 and b = 0,
Introduction

Describe the solution of the problem

ax = b .

We obtain the following situation

1. If a 6= 0,then the equation has a unique solution x = b/a
2. If a = 0 and b 6= 0,then we have 0 · x = b and so since
b 6= 0, no value of x will make the equation true. Thus
there is no solution.
3. If a = 0 and b = 0, then we obtain 0 · x = 0 which is true
for all values of x. Thus the equation has infinitely many
solutions.
Introduction

We seek to address systems of higher dimensions in a similar

fashion.
Augmented matrix
Given the system

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
.. .
. = ..
ak1 x1 + ak2 x2 + ak3 x3 + · · · + akn xn = bk
Introduction

We seek to address systems of higher dimensions in a similar

fashion.
Augmented matrix
Given the system

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
.. .
. = ..
ak1 x1 + ak2 x2 + ak3 x3 + · · · + akn xn = bk
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
then  ... .. 

. 
ak1 ak2 · · · akn
Introduction

We seek to address systems of higher dimensions in a similar

fashion.
Augmented matrix
Given the system

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
.. .
. = ..
ak1 x1 + ak2 x2 + ak3 x3 + · · · + akn xn = bk
   
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
 .. .
.. and  ... 
then  .
 

ak1 ak2 · · · akn bk
Introduction

We seek to address systems of higher dimensions in a similar

fashion.
Augmented matrix
Given the system

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
.. .
. = ..
ak1 x1 + ak2 x2 + ak3 x3 + · · · + akn xn = bk
   
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
 .. .
.. and  ... 
then  . are the coefficient
 
ak1 ak2 · · · akn bk
matrix and matrix of the constant terms respectively.
Introduction

Augmented matrix
The augmented matrix is
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
 .. .. 
 . . 
ak1 ak2 · · · akn bk
Introduction

Augmented matrix
The augmented matrix is
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
 .. .. 
 . . 
ak1 ak2 · · · akn bk

To solve the system of equations, we apply the Gaussian

elimination to the augmented matrix to obtain a matrix of the
form  
1 0 0 · · · 0 τ1
 0 1 0 · · · 0 τ2 
 
 .. .. 
 . . 
0 0 0 · · · 1 τk
Introduction

Augmented matrix
The augmented matrix is
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
 .. .. 
 . . 
ak1 ak2 · · · akn bk

To solve the system of equations, we apply the Gaussian

elimination to the augmented matrix to obtain a matrix of the
form  
1 0 0 · · · 0 τ1
 0 1 0 · · · 0 τ2 
 
 .. .. 
 . . 
0 0 0 · · · 1 τk
and read off the solution as xi = τi .
Introduction

Example
Solve
x + 2y + z = 3
2x + 5y − z = −4
3x − 2y − z = 5

Example
Solve
3x + 4y − z = 2
−2x + y − z = 8
x +y +z =1
Introduction

Solve
1.
x + y − 2z + 3w = 4
2x + 3y + 3z − w = 3
5x + 7y + 4z + w = 5
2.
x + 2y − 3z = 6
2x − y + 4z = 2
4x + 3y − z = 14
Introduction

Definition
A matrix is said to be in echelon form if
1. Any all-zero rows are below all other rows; and
2. The first non-zero entry of any row (called the pivot
entry) is strictly further right than the first non-zero entry
of any row above it

Definition
A matrix is said to be in reduced echelon form if all the
following are true
1. It is in echelon form.
2. The first non-zero entry of any row is 1. This is called a
pivotal 1.
3. All entries above a pivotal 1 are 0.
Introduction

Example
Solve
1.
x + y − 2z + 4w = 5
2x + 2y − 3z + w = 3
3x + 3y − 4z − 2w = 1
2.
x + 2y − 3z = 1
2x + 5y − 8z = 4
3x + 8y − 13z = 7
Introduction

The number of non-zero rows in the echelon form of matrix A

is called the rank of A, and is denoted by rank(A).

Suppose the coefficient matrix of a system of m equations of n

unknowns is A and [A|b] is the augmented matrix. Then
1. if rank(A) < rank([A|b]), then there is no solution to the
system (the system is inconsistent).
2. if rank(A) = rank([A|b]) = n, then there is a unique
solution to the system.
3. if rank(A) = rank([A|b]) < n, then there is infinitely
many solution to the system.
Introduction

Solve
1.
2x − 3y − 6z − 5w + 2u = 7
z + 3w − 7u = 6
w − 2u = 1
2.
2x + 2y − 3z = −1
−3x + y − 2z = −7
5x + 3y − 4z = 2
3.
x + y + 3z = 1
2x + 3y − z = 3
5x + 7y + z = 7
Introduction

Geometric Interpretation
Introduction

1. In some statistics technique called principal component

analysis for image processing, a researcher needed to
discard the eigenvector corresponding to  the lowest
1 0 0
eigenvalue of the covariance matrix A = 0 2 0.

0 0 3
Determine the significant eigenvectors.
Introduction

Solve the system of differential equation

dx1
= x2
dt
dx2
= 5x2 − 6x1
dt
 
x
given that the solution is of the form x = 1 = vλ e λt
x2
Introduction

Questions
 
1 0 0
1. Diagonalise the matrix 0 α 0
0 2 ε
Introduction

Questions
 
1 0 0
1. Diagonalise the matrix 0 α 0
0 2 ε
2. Write 1 + i in exponential form.
Introduction

Questions
 
1 0 0
1. Diagonalise the matrix 0 α 0
0 2 ε
2. Write 1 + i in exponential form.
3. The system corresponding to the augmented matrix
" 1 2 3 a #
2 5 4 b will have a solution provided.
1 3 1 c
Introduction

Questions
 
1 0 0
1. Diagonalise the matrix 0 α 0
0 2 ε
2. Write 1 + i in exponential form.
3. The system corresponding to the augmented matrix
" 1 2 3 a #
2 5 4 b will have a solution provided.
1 3 1 c
 
0 1
4. Find a matrix P which diagonalises the A = .
1 0
Introduction

Questions
 
1 0 0
1. Diagonalise the matrix 0 α 0
0 2 ε
2. Write 1 + i in exponential form.
3. The system corresponding to the augmented matrix
" 1 2 3 a #
2 5 4 b will have a solution provided.
1 3 1 c
 
0 1
4. Find a matrix P which diagonalises the A = .
1 0
 
8 0 1
5. Evaluate A if A =
1 0