Mapping Techniques and Report Writing

(Geol-3061)
Module

By Tewabe Melkamu

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1. INTRODUCTION TO MAPS AND MAPPING TECHNIQUES
Term Definitions

Map- it can be defined as a diagrammatic representation of the earth‟s surface, or part of it

showing the geographic positions of features such as- Towns, Roads, Relief (topography),
Rocks/lithology/, soils,Vegetation, Precipitation, Water bodies, Wildlife and many other natural
and cultural resources.
Topography- Refers to the shape of the physical features of the land

Topographic map- is a representation of the shape, size, position, and relation of the physical
features of an area (e.g. mountains, hills, valleys, and rivers). Most topographic maps also show
the culture of a region- i.e., political boundary, towns, houses, roads, and similar features.
Geologic map- a map that shows the distribution of Earth's materials on the surface. In
addition, it indicates the relative age of these materials and suggests their arrangement beneath
the surface → in the form of a cross-section.
Aerial photo- is a photographic picture of the ground taken from a high altitude &, usually, with
the camera pointing vertically down.
Satellite image- is an image produced from satellites that have remote sensing devices. The
devices are designed to detect various radiations coming from the earth.
Mapping Technique- is a practical method, skill, or art of mapping. It is to develop geological
mapping skills including: Field application of geological principles, Field measurement and
interpretation of geological features, Field compilation of data, Construction and interpretation of
geological maps, Report and scientific paper writing

Basic Elements of Map

The main element one map should have: Grid coordinate system, North arrow, Scale, Inset location
map (not for all maps), Contour line, Formation, geologic contact, outcrop (for geological map), Cross-
section (for geological map), Legend and symbols

Grid Coordinates of Latitude and Longitude.

Coordinate: A set of numbers that designate a location in a given reference system, such as x,y
in a planar coordinate system or x,y,z in a three-dimensional coordinate system. Coordinate pairs
represent a location on the earth's surface relative to other locations.
A Coordinate System is a reference system used to measure horizontal and vertical distances on

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a planimetric map. A coordinate system is usually defined by a map projection, a spheroid of
reference, a datum, one or more standard parallels, a central meridian, and possible shifts in the
x- and y-directions to locate x, y positions of point, line, and area features. There are two major
types of coordinate systems in use today, namely geographic and projected coordinate systems,
which are covered in the following sections.

Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)

GCS uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define locations on the earth. A GCS is often
incorrectly called a datum, but a datum is only one part of a GCS. A GCS includes an angular
unit of measure, a prime meridian, and a datum (based on a spheroid). A point is referenced by
its longitude and latitude values. Longitude and latitude are angles measured from the earth‟s
center to a point on the earth‟s surface.In the spherical system, „horizontal lines‟, east–west lines,
are lines of equal latitude, or parallels. „Vertical lines‟, north–south lines, are lines of equal
longitude, or meridians.

Projected coordinate system

Spherical coordinate systems such as GCS are not convenient for most GIS applications.
Whether we treat the earth as a sphere or a spheroid, we must transform its three-dimensional
surface to create a flat map sheet. This mathematical transformation is commonly referred to as a
map projection. One easy way to understand how map projections alter spatial properties is to
visualize shining a light through the earth onto a surface, called the projection surface. Imagine
the earth‟s surface is clear with the graticule drawn on it. Wrap a piece of paper around the earth.
A light at the center of the earth will cast the shadows of the graticule onto the piece of paper.
You can now unwrap the paper and lay it flat. The shape of the graticule on the flat paper is very
different than on the earth. The map projection has distorted the graticule.

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system

Developed in the late 1940s by the US Army, The projection is the „Gauss-Kruger‟ version of the
Transverse Mercator-equidistant cylindrical projection, Intended for mapping areas: 840N – 800S,
The unit of measure is a meter, The world is divided into 60 zones of 60 of longitude in width,
Zone 1 starts at 1800 W and Each zone has its own coordinate system, Second zoning is made
along the latitudes following 80 intervals (except the northernmost zone-120)- they are given
letters from C, D, E, …

North Arrow

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Almost all maps include a line that shows the direction of the geographic north pole (a
rotational pole) as a reference line. [NB. The needle in a compass normally shows the direction
of the magnetic north pole which may be slightly different from the geographic north pole- this
angular difference is called declination.]

Scale
The ratio on a map of the distance between two points on the ground and the same two points on
the map. It may be expressed in three ways: Verbal and Fractional scale- If two points are 1 km
apart in the field, they may be represented on the map as separated by some fraction of that
distance, say, 1 cm. In this case, the scale is 1 cm to 1 km, which is the same as 1: 100,000.
Graphic scale- this scale is a line printed on the map and divided into units that are equivalent to
some distance.

Inset location map.

A small map of a well-known region or country within which the location of the mapped area is
indicated. However, all thematic maps don‟t have an inset map.

Contour line
A map line connecting points representing places on the Earth‟s surface that have the same
elevation. Contours represent the vertical, third, dimension on a map, which has only two
dimensions.

Formation, geologic contact, outcrop (for geological map)

Formation- a rock unit with upper and lower boundaries that can be recognized easily in the
field and that is large enough to be shown on the map. A formation receives a distinctive
designation made up of two parts: the first part is geographic and refers to the place or general
area where the formation is first described; the second refers to the nature of the rock. E.g. the
Antalo Limestone in Ethiopia.
Geological contact- is the plane separating two rock units. It is shown on the geologic map as a
line that is the intersection of the plane between the rock units and the surface of the ground.
Outcrop- is rock material that is exposed at the surface through the cover of soil and weathered
material.

Cross-section
A geological cross-section is a diagram that shows a side view of a block of the Earth‟s crust as it
would look if we could lift it to view.

Legend and symbols

A legend is an explanation of the various symbols used on the map. It is often printed along the
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margin of the sheet.

Conventional Symbols and Representations Used in Maps

There is no universally accepted set of standard symbols, but some that are widely used are
described below. In topographic maps, in general, the common practices are: Culture (man-made
works) is shown in black, Water features, such as streams, swamps & glaciers are shown in blue,
Relief is shown by contours in brown, Highways and roads are indicated by red, Woods,
orchards, vineyards, scrub, etc represented by green
In geologic maps, there are widely used symbols representing superficial deposits, igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks as well as structural elements.

Measurements of the attitude of planar and linear features

Attitude - a general term for the orientation of a plane or line in space, usually related to
geographic coordinates and the horizontal. Trend and Inclination are components of attitude.
Trend - the direction of a line in a horizontal plane, commonly specified by its bearing and
azimuth.
Bearing - a horizontal angle measured E or W of true N or S; Azimuth – a horizontal angle
measured clockwise from true N.
Strike – a trend of a horizontal line on an inclined plane.
Inclination – a vertical angle from the horizontal to a plane (=dip) or line (=plunge)
Dip – the inclination of a plane. The true dip is measured along a line of the greatest slope on the
inclined plane; the apparent dip is measured in a direction different from the greatest slope. Dip
and strike together constitute a statement of the attitude of a planar structure. Conventional
representation
Example :- N30E, 60SE = 60/120 or 60→120.
Plunge- a vertical angle between a line and the horizontal. Conventional representation, e.g.
60→120.
Pitch (or Rake)- an angle between a line and the horizontal measured in a specified plane. E.g.
30º in 60→120.

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2. PREPARATION AND INTERPRETATION OF TOPO-MAPS
Topographic map
shows the size, shape, and distribution of features of the earth‟s surface. These features are:
Relief: including hills, valleys, plains, cliffs, etc. Drainage: including seas, lakes, streams, etc.
Culture: including many of the works of man, such as towns, cities, roads, etc. Contour
interval- is the vertical distance separating successive contours Elevation or Altitude: the
vertical distance between a given point and the datum plane. Datum plane: the reference surface
from which all altitudes on a map are measured. This usually means sea level. Height: the
vertical difference in elevation between an object and its immediate surroundings.

Contour line and Rules in contouring

There are a few rules that topographic contours must obey, Because contours are not ordinary
lines, however, and once you understand these rules the map becomes extremely useful and easy
to use. These are:
1. All points on one contour line have the same elevation
2. Contour lines always separate points of higher elevation (uphill) from points of lower
elevation (downhill). You must determine which direction on the map is higher and which is
lower, relative to the contour line in question, by checking adjacent elevations.
3. The elevation represented by a contour line is always a simple multiple of the contour
interval. Contour interval is the elevation difference between two adjacent contour lines on a
topographic map.
4. Contours never cross or intersect one another; they also do not split or branch. They may
become merged in a vertical or overhanging cliff. Hence, you can‟t have two different
elevations at the same point, each contour line represents a different ground elevation
measured from the mean sea level.
5. Every contour line must eventually close on itself to form an irregular circle. But sometimes
you cannot see the entire circle because part of the contour line may extend beyond the
mapped area.
6. Closely spaced contour lines indicate a steep slope; and, widely spaced contour lines indicate
a gentle slope.
7. Evenly-spaced contour lines indicate constant slope/uniform slope/; and irregularly-spaced
contour lines indicate changing slope.
8. A series of closed contours represents a hill. If the closed contours are hatched it indicates a
closed depression.

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9. Contour lines crossing a stream valley will form a "V" shape pointing in the uphill (and
upstream) direction. If it points in the downhill direction, it will be a ridge, not a valley.
10. Contour lines repeat themselves (or occur in pairs) on opposite sides of ridges and valleys or
depressions.

Major factors determine the contour interval

Two major factors determine the contour interval. These are the terrain type and scale of the map.
In general, large-scale maps has a small counter-interval than a small-scale map. In a similar
context, flat land has a small counter-interval compared to slopy land. The table below
generalizes this concept.

Topographic profile section

A profile- or cross-section is a diagram showing the shape of the land as it would appear in a
vertical cross-section. It shows the change in elevation of the land surface along any given line.

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3. SIMPLE GEOLOGICAL MAP AND CROSS-SECTIONS
Geologic Map
A geologic map shows the distribution of various rock units as they crop out at the surface of the
ground, as they would appear if there were no cover of vegetation and soil. Each rock unit is
represented on the map by a particular symbolic pattern or color or a combination of both pattern
and color. Symbols to show the dip and strike of sedimentary strata and the presence of faults and
folds are also shown on most geologic maps. All maps are accompanied by legends or
explanations defining the meaning of the various symbols shown. Of special importance in the
legend are notations regarding the ages of rock units because many structural and stratigraphic
relationships between rock units are understandable only when the relative ages of the units are
known.
The basic idea of geologic mapping is simple. We are interested first in showing the distribution
of the rocks at the Earth‟s surface. Theoretically, all we need to do is plot the occurrence of the
different rocks on a base map, and then we have a geologic map. Unfortunately, the process is
not quite so simple.
In most areas, the bedrock is more or less obscured in one way or another, and only a small
amount of outcrop is available for observation, study, and sampling. From the few exposures
available, the geologist must extrapolate the general distribution of rock types. In this
extrapolation, the field data are obviously of prime importance.
But one will also be guided by changes in soil, vegetation, and landscape as well as by patterns
that can be detected in aerial photographs. Furthermore, one may be aided by laboratory
examination of field samples and by the records of both deep and shallow wells. One may also
have available geophysical data that help determine the nature of obscured bedrock. Eventually,
when one has marshaled as much data as possible, one draws the boundaries delineating the
various rock types.
In addition to the distribution of rock types, the geologist is also concerned with depicting the age
of the various rocks and their arrangement beneath the surface. These goals will also be realized
in part through direct observations in the field and in part through other lines of evidence (e.g.
rock dating). The preparation of an accurate, meaningful, geologic map demands experience,
patience, and judgment.

Basic rules to understand or prepare geologic maps

Fundamental to an understanding of geologic maps and the information contained there on is

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 recognition of the complications of certain basic rules regarding the relationships between
geologic bodies and structure. Some of these rules are:
1. The law of superposition
2. The law of cross-cutting relationship
3. The law of inclusion(or included fragments)
4. The law of original horizontality and lateral continuity
5. The principle of faunal succession

The law of superposition: States that if a series of sedimentary rocks has not been overturned,
the topmost layer is always the youngest and the lowermost layer is the oldest.
The law of cross-cutting relationship: States that rock is younger than any rock that it cuts
across.
The law of inclusion(or included fragments: The law of inclusion (or included fragments)-
states that a fragment of a rock incorporated or included in another is older than the host rock.
The law of original horizontality and lateral continuity:The law of original horizontality and
continuity- states that layers were essentially horizontal and continuous when they were
deposited
The principle of faunal succession
States that groups of fossil animals and plants occur in the geologic record in a definite and
determinable order and that a period of geologic time can be recognized by its characteristic
fossils. That is, rocks containing the same fossil assemblages are similar in age.
Unconformities
A surface between successive strata representing a missing interval in the geologic record of
time.

Geologic Cross Section

A geologic cross-section shows the pattern and relationships of rock units, as they would be
exposed on the vertical face of a slice made in the crust of the Earth. Because natural exposures
of vertical faces are rare and to a small extent, the data shown on cross-sections are almost
entirely inferred from observations made at the surface of the ground.
To construct a geologic cross-section from information provided on a geologic map, a
topographic profile is first drawn along the chosen line of section. [If no contours are shown on
the geologic map, assume that the land surface is horizontal.] The locations of all contacts
between rock units are then marked on this profile. Then the locations of all dip and strike
symbols either on or close to the line of the section are placed on the profile and the angles of the

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dip are projected a short distance into the subsurface area beneath the profile. It is then necessary
to further project and connect strata and contacts in a manner that can be logically inferred from
the data available.

Types of Geological Maps

Geological maps fall into four main groups. These are reconnaissance maps, maps of regional
geology, large-scale maps of limited areas, and maps made for specialist purposes.
Geological reconnaissance maps. A reconnaissance map is made to find out as much as
possible about the geology of an unknown area as quickly as possible. It is usually made at a
scale of 1:250,000 or less. Some reconnaissance maps are made by photogeology, that is, by
interpreting geology from aerial photographs with only a minimum amount of work done on the
ground to identify rock types.
Regional geological maps. Reconnaissance has given the outline of rock distribution and general
structure, now the geology must be studied in more detail, most commonly at a scale of 1:25,000
or 1:50,000. Regional maps should be plotted on a reliable base. Regional geological mapping
done on the ground may be supported by systematic photogeology. Some geological features
seen in aerial photographs cannot even be detected on the ground while others can be more
conveniently followed in photographs than in surface exposures. Regional geological mapping
should incorporate any techniques which can help in plotting geology and that the budget will
allow, including geophysics, pitting, augering, and drilling.
Detailed geological maps. Here, scale is anything from 1:10,000 upwards and they are usually
made to investigate a specific geological problem, perhaps resulting in discoveries made during
regional mapping, or perhaps with an economic objective, such as a dam site or mineral
investigation.
Specialized maps. Specialized maps are many and varied. They include large-scale maps made
in great detail of small areas to record specific geological features. Many are made for economic
purposes, such as open pit mine plans at scales from 1: 1,000 to 1: 2,500; underground
geological plans at 1: 500 and even larger; and engineering site investigations at similar scales.
There are many other types of maps with geological affiliations too. They include geophysical
and geochemical maps, foliation and joint maps, sampling plans with outline geology, maps of
drift coverage, and maps of the sub-surface. Many are prepared as transparent overlays to be
superimposed on a normal geological map at the same scale.

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4. Descriptive Geometry and Geologic Maps

Structure contour
Structure contours are curves that connect points of equal height above a datum level that are
contained within a structure (bedding, unconformity, fold, fault...).
Structure contours and topographic contours are similar, in the sense that they are curves joining
points of equal height above a datum level. But in the case of structure, we use the geologic
structure. Notice: that the structure contours are: Straight lines, Strike direction, Parallel to each
other, Equally spaced.

Plotting of inclined beds in profile section

1. When dips of beds are known
2. When dips of beds are not know

1. When dips of beds are known:

Plot the inclined beds on the profile section; inclination amount and direction same as the dip values
2. When dips of beds are not known
When dips of beds are not known: dip amount and direction can be determined from the
intersection between the contacts and contours. Once dip is determined it can be plotted in the
profile section.

‘Three-point’ Problems
If the height of a bed is known at three or more points, it is possible to find the direction of strike
and to calculate the dip of the bed, provided dip is uniform. This principle has many applications
to mining, opencast and borehole problems encountered by applied geologists and engineers

True And Apparent Dip

If the slope of a geological boundary or bedding plane is measured in any direction between the
strike direction and the direction of maximum dip, the angle of dip in that direction is known as
an apparent dip.Its value will lie between 0º and the value of the maximum or true dip.
Naturally occurring or man-made sections through geological strata (cliffs, quarry faces, road
and rail cuttings) are unlikely to be parallel to the direction of the true dip of the strata. What
may be observed in these sections, therefore, is the dip of the strata in the direction of the section,
i.e. an apparent dip (somewhat less than the true dip in angle).
The trigonometric relationship is:

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Tangent (apparent dip) = Tangent (true dip) * Cosine β,
Where β is the angle between the line of the section (i.e., the direction along which the apparent
dip is sought) and the direction of the true dip.
Example
If a bed has the following orientation: 050° /60° /SE, what is its apparent dip along the 110°
direction?
tan(A.D.) = tan60° * cos30°
=1.73*0.866
=1.5
-1
tan (1.5) =56.3°

The thickness of a Layer

The thickness of a layer- the perpendicular distance between two parallel planes bounding a
tabular body of rock. (~True thickness). Depth of an outcrop - the vertical distance (~vertical
thickness) from a specified level (commonly the earth‟s surface) downward to a point, line, or
plane. Width of an outcrop- the exposure of a rock the extent of which varies with the dip and
thickness of the rock layer (see Fig below).
On a horizontal and flat outcrop:
T= ωsin α
where T is the true thickness of a bed, ω is the width of the outcrop and α= dip of the bed
On a non-horizontal surface outcrop
When ω is measured on the non-flat surface (i.e on a surface whose slope is σ), then
T = ω sin (α + σ)
If the dip and surface slope are in opposite directions
T = ω sin (α - σ)
If the dip and surface slope is in the same direction and the slope is less than the dip
T = ω sin (σ - α)

If the dip and surface slope is in the same direction & the dip angle is less than the slope

Calculation of true thickness from a vertical thickness

When beds are inclined, the vertical thickness penetrated by a borehole is greater than the true
thickness measured perpendicular to the geological boundaries. The angle α between VT
(vertical thickness) and T (true thickness) is equal to the angle of the dip.
Now Cosine α = T/VT
T = VT * Cosine α
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The true thickness of a bed is equal to the vertical thickness multiplied by the cosine of the angle
of dip. Where the dip is low (less than 5˚) the cosine is high (over 0.99) and true and vertical
thicknesses are approximately the same.

5. INTERPRETATION OF GEOLOGIC MAPS

Components of Geological maps

A geological map includes: Lithological units, Contacts, Geological structures, Bedding
structures and other elements like topographic contour, hydrographic features, and cultural
features.
Lithological units: Each lithological unit is indicated on geologic maps by polygonal areas with
distinctive fill colors and patterns.
Contacts: The boundary lines between the map unit polygons represent the surface traces of
geologic contacts. In many places, contacts may be obscured by soil cover or younger sediment,
so different line styles are used to indicate the geologist‟s degree of confidence in the contact
location. Typically a solid line represents an exposed contact, a dashed line indicates an obscured
(approximately located) contact, and a dotted line shows a contact covered by surficial
sediments.
Geological structures: Mappable geological structures such as folds and faults are shown by
line symbols on geologic maps. Different symbols are used for different varieties of folds
(anticlines and synclines) and faults (normal, reverse, thrust, and strike-slip). Measurements of
the attitude of rock layers or other outcrop-scale structures can be shown on large-scale maps by
special point symbols. The symbol indicates the type of structure and its orientation and the
numerical label shows the measured attitude.

Initial Steps in Geological map Interpretation

Given an unfamiliar geologic map, one should begin interpretation by examining the
information given around the margins of the map. This will generally include the following:
1. Location: A small inset map showing the location of the map may be present. Otherwise, the
name of the area and the longitude & latitude will indicate its location. From its location, those
familiar with regional geology will know what age rocks & surficial materials to expect and what
types of major structural features may be present.
2. Scale: The size of the area and its important features are indicated by scale
3. Map Units: A stratigraphic column is always shown on geologic maps, and it is the most

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important source of information about the type of map you are examining. Generally, the
stratigraphic column is arranged with the youngest material or rock unit shown at the top; other
units are arranged in order of increasing age. The geologic period during which the map unit
was formed is indicated; and the color, map pattern, and abbreviation used to identify each
map unit on the map are shown.
3. Intersections of Geologic contacts
The place where two different geological units are found next to each other is called the the
intersection of geological contacts. The geological contact can be represented on the map by
different lines. The three main types of geological contacts that show on most geological maps
are: Depositional contact, Structural contact Igneous intrusive contact.

Depositional contact: Sedimentary or volcanic rocks deposited in stratigraphic succession

according to the laws of layer-cake geology. Conformable Contact: no evidence of erosion or
break in stratigraphic succession (i.e. each successive layer becomes sequentially younger in
age). Unconformities: Successive layers show evidence for significant erosion or non-
deposition (i.e. there is a significant break in the stratigraphic record = "missing time").

Types of Unconformities: Nonconformities: are formed when the sedimentary rocks deposited
on crystalline rocks (e.g. igneous, metamorphic). Angular Unconformities: are formed when the
sedimentary layers deposited on deformed and eroded older sedimentary layers. Disconformities
:are formed when the sedimentary layers deposited on undeformed, but eroded older sedimentary
layers
Structural contact: Fault Contacts: structural discontinuity between rock and bedding planes.
Igneous Intrusive Contacts: igneous rocks cross-cut younger sedimentary beds. Dikes =
transverse to bedding planes at some angle, Sills = parallel to bedding planes at some angle,
Stocks, batholiths
5. Symbols.
- A great variety of symbols is used on geologic maps. After the initial inspection,
interpretation of the map will generally proceed in different ways…
Standard geologic maps (illustrating unconsolidated materials and bedrocks) can be used by
geologists, engineers, planners etc.

Geologic Maps of Surficial Materials & Bedrock

A Geologic Map shows the aerial distribution of sediments and/or rocks exposed at the ground
surface.
1. Some geologic maps depict the distribution of surficial deposits;

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2. Some are interpretations of the location of bedrock;

1. Maps of Surficial Geology

Surficial geologic maps depict the distribution of natural materials that lie on top of bedrock, or,
in some areas, on top of regionally extensive layers of semi-consolidated sediment. For example,
in coastal plains, surficial materials, such as stream deposits, lie on marine strata that remain
semi-consolidated even after many millions of years.

2. Maps of Bedrock Geology

Bedrock maps show the mapper‟s interpretation of the distribution of bedrock map units
beneath surficial materials, as well as where they are exposed at the ground surface.
Maps that depict both bedrock and surficial materials are much easier to interpret if the surficial
materials are removed from the map and considered separately.

6. METHODS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

Phases of Field Geology
Planning/Research: The objective and Scope of the project will be determined, Field location
will be determined, Previous studies in the area will be researched and information for the aimed
project will be gathered.
Field observation: actual fieldwork/study, Observation on outcrops, Lithology identification,
Structural measurement, Sampling, and Recording information on a map, and note taking is very
important in this stage.
Reporting: post field work, completing the field project, Lab analysis, Compilation of the report,
and interpretation and presentation.

Fieldwork Planning and instruments for field mapping

Main points we should consider for fieldwork planning and instruments for field mapping:

 Field Preparation, Site Selection, and Camping Strategy; Ethical and Safety
Issues; Field Equipment and their use.
Field Preparation
The objective of the trip: we define the objective of the trip, define the scientific or any specific
problem we want to address by the trip, and the possible outcome of the trip.
Mapping sedimentary Terrain, Mapping Igneous Terrain, Mapping Metamorphic

Terrain Mineral exploration

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Scope of the trip: we define the extent or the depth of the study we are going to conduct (is it
going to be intensive, extensive? Or is it reconnaissance?)
Survey Methodology: we define and formulate a scientific methodology through which we can
be able to address the primary objective.

Desk study
Review of previous studies: gather as much information as possible.
Preparation of field materials: make ready adequate field equipment.
Preparation of maps: prepare topographic base maps of the study area.
Design a work plan: how you conduct, the number of days, and personnel.
Site Selection: Where are we going to conduct our field expedition? Is there any place that suits
our purpose? Is it accessible? Is it safe? Are there good and accessible geologic exposures?
Camping Strategy: Where are we going to settle? Camping area? Is it safe? Is it in proximity to
the Hospital or clinic? Other infrastructures: such as power, water, network, and road……
Ethical and Safety Issues: Safety First must be the primary principle in fieldwork. Assess and
monitor potential hazards: Falling rocks Mudslides, unconsolidated rocks, Slippery rocks,
Uneven surfaces and surfaces covered by boulders, Unpredictable weather, Dangerous/poisonous
insects and plants, Working machinery and toxic substances, Fatigue, Knowing what to do in an
emergency, Make sure that you have emergency numbers and know who to contact, Make sure to
have first-aid kits, Be able to perform first aid services

Field equipment and their uses

Geologists need several items for the field. These are topographic Maps, Aerial photographs,
stereoscope, Compass, GPS(Geographic Positioning System), Geological hammer and Chisel,
Handheld lenses, Acid Bottles, Sample bags, Measuring tape, Altimeters, Field notebooks,
masking tape, marker pens, Pencils, Erasers, Field camera, Map Cases and Safety clothing.
Geological hammer and Chisel: this is basic equipment for any geologist as it is the tool used
for collecting samples. Any geologist going into the field needs at least one hammer with which
to break rock.
Compasses: A compass is an instrument used for determining the direction/orientation of
geological structures (faults, folds, and joints) and the bedding nature of rocks (dip amount,
strike, and dip direction).
Handheld lens: is used to make the first analysis of rock samples in the field before further
analysis is performed in the laboratories. The analysis needs to be detailed and descriptive giving

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all properties of the sample: rock type, color, texture, identifiable mineralogy, alteration as well
as the physical properties such as folding, foliation, intrusions, layering, etc.
Measuring tape: is important for taking actual measurements of lithologies and structures. For
instance, in lithologies that exhibit layering, it is necessary to measure the thickness of each layer
precisely, as this can be used as a correlation tool with other similar sequences that may be
encountered.
Map Cases: A map case is essential where work may have to be done in the rain or moist; but
even in warmer climates, protection from both the sun and sweaty hands is still needed. A map
case must have a rigid base so that you can plot and write on the map easily; it must protect the
map; and it must open easily.
Field notebook, masking tape, and marker pens: All important observations must be written
down in a concise, orderly, and legible manner. The field notebook should be hardcover for ease
when writing and should easily fit into a pocket. Masking tape and marker pens are used for
labeling samples before they are put into the sample bags.
Pencils and Erasers: Pencils are needed for mapping in the field to plot geological structures,
and lithological contacts and to write notes on the map.
Acid Bottles: Always carry an acid bottle in your bag. It should contain a small amount of 10%
hydrochloric acid. This helps to differentiate carbonate rocks from non-carbonate rocks.
Altimeters: an instrument used to measure elevation.
Sample bags: to collect samples.
GPS (Geographic Positioning System): to locate different geological features.

Methods of recording field data and geological mapping

Geological mapping is the process of making observations of geology in the field and recording
them so that one of the several different types of geological maps described in Chapter 3 can be
produced. The information recorded must be factual and based on an objective examination of
the rocks and exposures. The geological data can be collected from the field using different
methods.

Traversing, Following contact

1. Traversing
It is also a method of covering the ground in the detail required by your employer. A traverse is
made by walking a more or less predetermined route from one point on the map to another,
plotting the geology on the way. Traverses are an excellent way of controlling the density of your
observations. This method of mapping is the most common in practice. They should be planned

~ 17 ~
to cross the general geological grain of the part of the region you are working in, and in
reconnaissance work, which is its main use, several roughly parallel traverses may be walked
across an area at widely spaced intervals. Contacts and other geological features are extrapolated
between them. The traverse lines should be perpendicular to the strike of rocks.

I. Controlling traverses

This method of traverses is a circular path. A traverse started at A and passed through turning
points B, C, D, and E, and finished back at the starting point A again as shown below. Plot the
traverse legs from turning point to turning point lightly on your map, but record the details in
your notebook as a sketch on an exaggerated scale. This method of traverses is mostly common
in flat terrain.

A C

D
E

II. Cross-section traverses

Whatever mapping method you do use, it can be useful where succession is doubtful or
structurally complex to traverse across the geological grain, plotting a cross-section as you go.
Draw it in your notebook or on squared paper (kept in your map case for that purpose), but also
show the traverse line on your field map.
III. Stream and ridge traverses

Streams often give excellent semi-continuous exposures and in some mountain areas may be so
well spaced that a major part of the geology of that area can be mapped by traversing them,
especially where slopes are partly covered by colluviums. Position finding on streams is often
relatively easy from the shape and direction of bends, and the position of islands and stream
junctions. In dense mountain rainforests, streams and rivers may be the only places where you
can locate yourself, providing of course, the base map itself is accurate, or you are lucky enough
to have photographs. Remember GPS is no good in forests.
Ridges may make excellent traverse locations. They can usually be identified easily on a map.
Even in dense forests, ridges may be relatively open, allowing taking bearings to distant points.
Exposures are usually good. Most ridges are there because they are the more erosion-resistant
rock, and sedimentary rocks tend to follow the strike. Traverses down ridges provide information

~ 18 ~
on succession.

IV. Road traverses

A rapid reconnaissance of an unmapped area can often be made along tracks and roads and by
following paths between them. Roads in mountainous regions, in particular, usually exhibit
excellent and sometimes almost continuous exposures in cuttings. In some places, roads zigzag
down mountainsides are helpful for repeat exposures of several different stratigraphic levels. A
rapid traverse of all roads is an excellent way of introducing yourself to any new area you intend
to map in detail.

2. Following Contacts

A primary object of mapping geology is to trace contacts between different rock formations,
groups, and types, and to show on a map where they occur. One way of doing this is to follow a
contact on the ground as far as it is possible to do so. In some regions and with some types of
geology this is easy; elsewhere it is often impossible because contacts are not continuously
exposed. The continuation of contacts beneath drift and other superficial deposits can often be
located by plotting structure (or stratum) contours. Sometimes contacts can be followed more
easily and more accurately in aerial photographs, using even just a pocket stereoscope, than on
the ground. The photographs show small changes in topography and in vegetation which cannot
be detected on the ground but indicate the position of the contact even when it is concealed by
colluviums or drift. Once traced on the photographs, check the position of the contact in the field
at its more accessible points.Wherever rocks are seen in contact, show the boundary as a
continuous line on the map and mark each side of the line with the colored pencil appropriate to
those rocks. Where contacts are inferred, or interpolated by geometric methods, show the
boundary with a broken line. Where a contract is concealed, perhaps by alluvium, but is certainly
there, show it by a dotted line.

Recording data in the field

When you have mapped a rock unit for long enough to be familiar with it and its variations,
describe it fully and systematically in your notebook. Rock descriptions are essential when you
come to write your report later. A rock description made from memory, perhaps weeks later, is
unlikely to be accurate or complete. One made in the field describes the rock as seen, with
measurements of specific features, and factual comments on those subtle characteristics that are
impossible to remember properly later. It also ensures that you record all the details needed.
Systematically describe each rock unit shown on your map in turn. Preferably work from the
general to the particular. Describe first the appearance of the ground it covers its topography, its
~ 19 ~
vegetation, land use, and any economic activity associated with it. Next describe the rock
exposures themselves: jagged ridges, hills, valleys, gentle scarps, or cliffs. Describe the
properties of rock units and measure the different geological structures (joints, faults, and folds),
sedimentary structures (bedding, lamination, etc), textures, cleavage, and foliation. Support your
observations with measurements. Describe the color of the rock on both weathered and freshly
broken surfaces. Finally describe the features seen in a hand specimen, both with and without a
hand lens. Note texture, grain size, and the relationship between grains. Identify the minerals and
estimate their relative quantities.
The following is a recommended outline of the description of rock exposures:
 Name of the exposure (eg. location, station number, date, elevation, etc)
 Exposure type (eg. hill, valley, river bed, ridge, road cut, quarry, etc)
 At the exposure scale
- the thickness of the exposure, lateral variation in thickness
- number and nature of intercalated units; vertical and lateral variation of each intercalated
units
- nature of contact among the major rock units (depositional, tectonic)
- orientation of rock units (dip and strike)
- description and measurement of orientation structural features
 At hand specimen scale
- rock texture (grain size distribution)
- rock color (fresh color)
- structures features
- mineralogical compositions
- fossil
• The strike and dip of bedding or other structural features that are present
• Your judgment regarding the identification of the rock unit exposed (if you are uncertain, be
sure to record that)
• Structural and stratigraphic relationships that are present
• be sure to note any evidence indicating whether the strata are right-side up or upside down

Sampling and sample collection

Sampling is a process of collecting a representative specimen of observed geology for further

analysis in the laboratory. Sampling can be a crucial part of a field program because the samples,
your field notes, and photographs are all that you will have when you return from the field.

~ 20 ~
Having samples help us to do further analysis, gather more information and enhance our
understanding of the study area and observed geology. Sampling can be of various types, and
various methods can be used to collect samples depending on our objective.
It‟s often advised to collect representative specimens of every formation and rock type you show
on your map. The size of the specimen you collect must depend on the purpose, not on what you
think you can carry.
For Geological mapping purposes, hand specimens (rocks samples) are the most common
samples. To collect such rock samples, we need to make sure that the sample is fresh and
representative of the geology of a given area. The collected samples have to be labeled and all
aspects of that sample have to be recorded in a notebook. Location of the sample, Description of
the sample, Condition of the sample Orientation of the sample (if necessary), And has to be
labeled.
In addition to the common rock samples, different types of samples can be taken from the field
depending on the objective of the study. These samples can be hard rock or soft sediment
samples.
Geological samples: commonly rock samples (rock chip, core sample, fossil samples,
Paleomagnetic core plug sample…).
Geochemical samples: can be soft sediment samples or fluid samples (either liquid or gas).
Rock sample: to prepare thin sections for petrographic analysis and study a mineral composition
of a given rock. To prepare polished sections for ore microscopy, and to study ore minerals Soft
sediment samples are usually for grain size analysis, soil property analysis, and elemental
analysis (geochemical analysis).
Fossil sample: Since fossil samples are so delicate and can be fragile, special attention and care
must be given to safely extract the samples

Completing geological maps and making cross-sections

Field data initially recorded as key points on the field maps should be transferred to base maps
that are the same scale and type as the final product. Each point where data have been collected
in the field should be identified on the base map. Many geologists prefer to use two overlay
sheets on the base map: one contains points that identify observations; the second shows the type
of data collected there. Generally, a strike and dip symbol is placed at the observation point, and
a symbol for the rock unit is placed beside it. Use a hard, sharp pencil to record data on the
compilation sheets

Field Checking
~ 21 ~
Formulate ideas about the type of structural configuration of the mapped area. Try to think of
ways to test the formulated idea, e.g. predict what to find in a particular place & then field check
to see if observation confirms the hypothesis

7. TECHNIQUES OF GEOLOGIC REPORT WRITING AND PRESENTATION

Geological report writing

Production of a sensible and scientific geological report comes after the completion of geological
field works. Since geological field work is a scientific investigation, its Finding should be laid
out in the manner of scientific publication.
This involves, first explaining what was done, then stating what observations were made, and
finally what conclusions were reached. The objective of writing a report or a paper or a thesis is
to communicate ideas with others. As Geologists should strive to improve their mapping
techniques, and they should also work hard to improve their ability to produce a readable report.
To accomplish a well-written geological report we need:
Preparation: plan the layout, section by section, then draft each section using all field notes,
maps, lab results and references gathered include all your thoughts without too much grammar
and literacy regard Sections can be rearranged and edited later
Revising and Editing: it‟s done to develop earlier ideas, the first step is to revise the draft ideas
Earlier ideas may need to be changed, and new ideas may emerge. After revision and including
new ideas, then the next step is to edit the draft. Here grammar, spelling, and order will be edited
revision, and the edition of the draft can be done many times to get a good result.
Make a final check of the whole report for punctuation, annex anything that doesn‟t contribute a
meaning, avoid and substitute repetitions (geologists soft spot repetition!!! e.g. „„...the Falmouth
area was part of the area mapped and covered 10 km2 in the area‟).
Geologic report Layout
Title page, Abstract, Acknowledgment page
(contents Table of Contents, List of Tables, List of Figures
Introduction
Background, location, Objective, Methodology, Previous work
Main body
Regional Geology
Local Geology- Geology of the Study area

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 Lithologies
Structures
Discussion, Conclusions, References, Appendices
Title Page
this page shows what the report is about, who wrote it, and when it is written. Lay it out
carefully, it‟s the first thing your reader will see, and first impressions are always important. List
of contents: any report longer than 20 pages needs a list of contents to show readers how the
subject has been covered and to help them locate the information they may wish to refer to again.
Abstract
(used in many books) it is the summary of the whole report (from introduction to conclusion) to
give readers the general and overall impression of the report it‟s presented immediately after the
title page (including contents list, if any, acknowledgment), but it is written at last after the
author formulated his/her idea and conclusions. It should be written concisely, preferably, should
not exceed 200 words, and in short reports, very much fewer.
Introduction
this part of the report introduces the readers to what is done, why it is done, how it is done when
it is done, and where it is done. it includes a small index map to show where the area of
investigation is concerning the region around it. Show and describe the general geography,
topography, and accessibility and the main place names in and near the study. Area Gives a brief
review of the vegetation, land use, population, climate condition, and economy of the region,
emphasizing aspects that are geologically related. The introduction might include a summary of
the geological context, without going into detail, usually organized: Introduction, Background,
Objective, Methodology, and Previous studies.
Main Body of the report
This part of the report consists of:
Regional Geology: Before embarking on a detailed account of the geology mapped, it helps the
reader if the main features of the area are outlined first. In very short reports, general geology can
be included in the Introduction, together with regional geology. In longer reports, a separate
section is needed, supported by at least one text figure showing the base outlines of the main
Geological units on a small-scale map, preferably with some indication of structure and place
names.
Local Geology: this part of the report concentrates on the work done by the given project, and it
explains the lithologies and structural features found in the area.
Stratigraphy: describes lithologies in the area: if the relative age of the lithologies is determined,

~ 23 ~
the order of the sub-sections will be governed by that… older unit comes first and the order
continues from older units to younger ones.
Local Geology: The description required for the given rock units/formations. Its distribution
across the area. Its lithological characteristics, and their variation laterally across the area and
from base to top of the formation. Formation thickness and its variation across the area. Contact
relationships between formations. Topographic expression. Internal lithologic structures
(sedimentary structures). fossil content, presence of index minerals.
Structures: Regional structure has already been introduced under the „Regional Geology‟
section. Under this section, more specific structural details of the area mapped will be described
based on field evidence. Usually, the following are described:
The minor geological structures. As usual, describe the structural features, for example, bedding,
cleavages, faults, joints, and so on, that were directly observed in the field, before mentioning
broader conclusions. The evidence of age relationships between the different structures (for
sedimentary terrain including structures related to the sedimentation). The evidence for any
major structures is deduced from map patterns and analysis of minor structures, for example,
parasitic folding, and cleavage. A structural summary map included as a text figure is useful.
Discussion:
Geological Processes: this section discusses the geological process which is responsible for the
result of the observed geological units and structures in the area. This includes:
Sedimentation: analysis of the depositional environment.
Metamorphism: analysis and discussion of the geological process which resulted from the
metamorphic units in the area. The metamorphism process is closely linked with structure and
tectonics, so it might be discussed under the structure section.
Igneous activity: analysis and discussion of geological processes resulting in the observed
igneous bodies
Conclusion and Recommendations:
Results are brought together and conclusions are drawn from them. Controversial ideas should be
explained with the mention of evidence in support and against them. And most of the time
includes recommendations.
References
Any reference you make in the text to previous work done by anyone must be acknowledged,
whether the information is from published work, an unpublished report, or merely by word of
mouth. This is a matter of scientific ethics.
There are accepted forms of referencing: In-text referencing and Referencing in the reference list

~ 24 ~
Briefly, a reference is acknowledged in the text by the name of the author And the year in which
it was published… this is called text referencing.

~ 25 ~
 Structural Geology module
prepared by: Akebom Teame

1. Introduction
• STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY is the study of the architecture of rocks and regions that
have been developed from DEFORMATION.
• Structural Geology can be defined as a branch of geology concerned with
✓ shapes,
✓ arrangements, and
✓ inter - relationships of bedrock units and the forces that cause them.

• Structural geology is concerned with deciphering three important problems:

– What is structure or deformation?
– How does deformation (or deformation movements) take place?
– What is the cause of deformation? Under what physical conditions did the structure
form?
What is structure or deformation?
• In answering this question it requires:
Recognizing and Descrbing the geometrical aspects of the structure (primary, secondary, and
geologic contact) through;
– Remote sensing (Aerial photo and satellite image) data interpretation
– Direct observation in the field
– Micro-fabric study in thin-section
– Drilling into the subsurface
– Geophysical monitoring and probing of the subsurface
– Laboratory study of experimentally deformed rocks etc.
Measuring and Recording the orientation of structural/geometric elements), e.g. angles between
lines and between planes.
• This may include careful recording of data in notebook, making sketches, taking pictures
etc.
• This is the descriptive or geometric aspect of the structural analysis.
How does deformation take place?
How do rocks behave during deformation?
✓ This is to examine and understand the deformational behaviour of rock (rock rheology)
(e.g. brittle, ductile, elastic, viscous behaviour etc.) and the type of deformational movements and
changes (including distortion, dilation, rotation, translation of the deforming body)
✓ To evaluate and determine the structural change in terms of extension, stretch, angular
shear, shear strain etc. (=STRAIN ANALYSIS).

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• This is kinematic analysis of structures
What is the cause of deformation?
Under what physical conditions did the structure form?
• This involves:
• Explaining and Analysing the type of stress field responsible for the deformation
• e.g. The values of principal stress axes (normal and shear stresses etc.)
• Interpreting and Reconstructing the physical conditions prevailed during deformation
(e.g. P-T conditions, pore-fluid conditions, relation to PLATE TECTONICS etc.).

• This is the dynamic analysis of structure. The basis for dynamic analysis is theoretical and
experimental research.

• For successful results of the above studies, emphasis is placed upon:

– Systematic field observation (recognition and description)
– Accurate measurements of the orientation of structural elements
– Careful recording of the data in the field note book, and make sketches and taking
photos of structures.

– Continuous analysis and interpretation in the field (also using stereonet).

1.2 Definitions and terminologies

– Joints: - are planar cracks formed in response to tectonic and thermal stresses. E.g.
longitudinal joints.
– Shear fractures: - are cracks with slight sliding or shearing parallel to the plane of
fractures.
– Faults: - are discrete fracture surfaces along which rocks have been offset by
movement parallel to the fracture surfaces.
– Folds: - are structures that form when beds and layers are transformed in to curved
bent and crumbled shapes.
– Foliations: - are very closely spaced parallel planar alignments of features.
– Lineations: - preferred linear alignments of features that pervade rock bodies.
– Shear zones: - a tabular to sheet like planar or curvy-planar zone composed of rocks
that are highly strained than rocks adjacent to the zone.
– Plane: a flat surface; it has the property that a line joining any two points lies wholly
on its surface. Two intersecting lines define a plane.

~ 27 ~
 – Attitude: the general term for the orientation of a plane or line in space, usually
related to geographical coordinates and the horizontal (see Fig. 1.1). Both trend and
inclination are components of attitude.
– Trend: the direction of a horizontal line specified by its bearing or azimuth.
– Bearing: the horizontal angle measured east or west from true north or south.
– Azimuth: the horizontal angle measured clockwise from true north.
– Strike: the trend of a horizontal line on an inclined plane. It is marked by the line of
intersection with a horizontal plane.
– Structural bearing: the horizontal angle measured from the strike direction to the
line of interest.
– Inclination: the vertical angle, usually measured downward, from the horizontal to a
sloping plane or line.
– True dip: the inclination of the steepest line on a plane; it is measured perpendicular
to the strike direction.
– Apparent dip: the inclination of an oblique line on a plane; it is always less than
true dip.

Figure1.1 StrikeS,true dip δ(delta), apparent dipα(alpha) and structural bearing β(beta).

1.3 Dip and strike

The terms dip and strike apply to any structural plane and together constitute a statement of its
attitude. The planar structure most frequently encountered is the bedding plane. Others include
cleavage, schistosity, foliation and fractures including joints and faults. For inclined planes there
are special dip and strike map symbols; in general each has three parts. The only exception is the
special case of a horizontal plane which requires a special symbol.

1. A strike line plotted long enough so that its trend can be accurately measured on the map.

~ 28 ~
2. A short dip mark at the midpoint of one side of the strike line to indicate the direction of
downward inclination of the plane.

3. A dip angle written near the dip mark and on the same side of the strike line.

The most common symbols are shown in Fig. 1.2 and their usage is fairly well established by
convention. However, it is sometimes necessary to use these or other symbols in special
circumstances, so that the exact meaning of all symbols must be explained in the map legend.

Figure 1.2: Map symbols for structural planes.

Attitude angles are also often referred to in text, although the usage is considerably less standard.
There are two basic approaches. One involves the trend of the strike of the plane and the other
the trend of the dip direction. Each of the four following forms refers to exactly the same attitude
(for other examples see Fig. 1.3).

1. Strike notation

(a) N 65 W, 25 S: the bearing of the strike direction is 65◦ west of north and the dip is 25◦ in a
southerly direction. For a given strike, there are only two possible dip directions, one on
each side of the strike line, hence it is necessary only to identify which side by one or two
~ 29 ~
 letters. If the strike direction is nearly N-S or E-W then a single letter is appropriate; if the
strike direction is close to the 45◦ directions (NE or NW) then two letters are preferred
(see Fig. 1.3 for examples).

(b) 295, 25 S: the azimuth of the strike direction is 295◦ measured clockwise from north and
the dip is 25◦ in a southerly direction. Usually the trend of the northern most end of the
strike line is given, but the azimuth of the opposite end of the line may also be used, as in
115, 25 S.

Figure 1.3 Examples of the strike and dip notations.

2. Dip notation

(a) 25, S 25 W: the dip is 25◦ and the trend of the dip direction has a bearing of 25◦ west of
south.

(b) 25/205:the dip is 25◦and the trend of the dip direction has an azimuth of 205◦measured
clockwise from north. The order of the two angles is sometimes reversed, as in 205/25.
To avoid confusion, dip angles should always be given with two digits and the trend with
three, even if this requires leading zeros.

As these dip and trend angles are written here, the degree symbol is not included and this is a
common practice. However, this is entirely a matter of individual preference and taste.

The two forms of the strike notation are the most common, with the difference usually depending
on whether the compass used to make the measurements is divided into quadrants or a full 360◦
and on personal preference. The advantage of the quadrant method of presentation is that most
people find it easier to grasp a mental image of a trend more quickly with it.

~ 30 ~
The forms of the dip notation are more generally reserved for the inclination and trend of lines
rather than planes, although when the line marks the direction of true dip, it may apply to both.
The last method gives the attitude unambiguously without the need for letters and, therefore, is
particularly useful for the computerized treatment of orientation data. For this reason it is
becoming increasingly common to see the attitudes of planes written in this way.

Figure 1.4: Examples of the strike and dip notations.

1.4 Lines and intersecting planes

Line: the geometrical element generated by a moving point; it has only extension along the path
of the point. Lines may be rectilinear (straight) or curvilinear (curved). Only straight lines are
treated here.

Plunge: the vertical angle measured downward from the horizontal to a line. Pitch: the angle
between the strike direction and a line in a specified plane. Rake is synonymous.

Trend: the horizontal direction of the vertical plane containing the line, specified by its bearing
or azimuth.

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Figure 1.5: Inclination of a line: (a) plunge p; (b) pitch r.

1.4.1: Linear structures

There are two types of structural lines. They may exist in their own right, such as the long axes of
mineral grains or streaks of mineral aggregates; elongate rock bodies and drill holes may also be
considered linear for some purposes. Other lines occur in conjunction with structural planes;
examples include striations on fault surfaces, mineral lineation on foliation planes and lines
formed by the intersection of planes.

The orientation of a line in space is specified by its trend and plunge. As with planes, there is a
set of map symbols for structural lines, also with three parts.

1. A trend line.

2. An arrow head giving the direction of downward inclination.

3. A plunge angle written near the arrowhead.

The arrow should be uniform in length and long enough so that its trend can be accurately
measured on the map. Because its length is not scaled, this symbol is not a vector.

The most common symbols are shown in Fig.1.6. Special symbols may be invented when
needed, and all symbols used must be explained in the map legend.

Figure 1.6: Map symbols for structural lines.

The plunge and trend of a line may also be written out. The notation has two forms depending on
whether the trend is expressed as a bearing or an azimuth.

~ 32 ~
1. The plunge angle is followed by the trend expressed as a bearing, as in 30, S 45 W, meaning
that the line plunges 30◦ toward S 45 W.

2. The trend is given as an azimuth, as in 30/225. The order is sometimes reversed as 225/30 and
expressing the azimuth with three digits even if this requires leading zeros avoids any possible
confusion.

Again, the difference depends of the type of compass used and on personal preference. The
azimuth form is particularly useful for computer processing of orientational data.

1.5 MECHANISM OF DEFORMATION

✓ Since rocks consist of aggregates of individual crystal grains (different mineral species), the
way that they deform depends partly on the properties of individual crystals and partly on
the texture of the rock as a whole.
✓ Geological structures can be large in size (mega-structures) or small (microstructures).
✓ Similarly deformation processes can be seen as large scale as well as small scale operated
in cm-scale or thin-section scale (mm-scale) or crystal and atomic scale (μm scale).
➢ All large-scale deformations are aggregate results of deformations that operate at the
microscopic and atomic scales, these are called DEFORMATION MECHANISMS /
PROCESS.
1.5.1 The Main deformation Mechanisms
– Cataclasis, micro fracturing and frictional sliding
– Mechanical twinning and kinking (intracrystalline)
– Diffusion Creep
– Dissolution creep
– Dislocation creep
– + recovery or re-crystallization
• Each deformational mechanism seems to be favored by a particular range of conditions of
lithological controls and external factors

1.5.2 CONTROLLING FACTORS OF DEFORMATION PROCESSES

– LITHOLOGICAL CONTROLS such as;

~ 33 ~
• Mineralogy,
• Composition of the intergranular fluid,
• Grain size, Lattice-preferred orientation,
• Porosity & Permeability
– EXTERNAL CONTROLS such as;
• Temperature,
• Lithostatic pressure,
• Differential stress,
• Fluid pressure,
• Externally imposed strain rate
A. Micro-fracturing, Cataclasis and Frictional Sliding
✓ Occur usually in faults and fault zones, and it involves:
Micro fracturing:- the formation, propagation, lengthening and inter-connecting of micro-cracks
Cataclasis:- The formation and flow of pervasively fractured, brecciated and comminuted (i.e.
ground down) rock and crystal fragment in a matrix of even smaller, crushed grains.
Frictional sliding:- frictional sliding along micro-cracks and grain boundaries
B. Micro-cracks
✓ Individual grains and crystals with in a rock become fractured and cracked at a
microscopic scale.
✓ This allows a tiny domain of rock to change size and/or shape.

✓ Most micro-cracks are produced by stresses that build at points of concentration such as:
– grain boundaries -twins
– inclusions -dislocations
– pores-earlier formed cracks

The stress that causes micro cracks may Type to enter text
result from tectonic, gravitational, or thermal
loading:
– Micro-cracks are commonly sub-
divided in to three types:
• Intra-granular: - occurring
most commonly within a
single grain
• Inter-granular: - exploite
grain boundaries, propagate
around
• Trans-granular: - cut across
~ 34 ~
adjacent grains and their
mature grain boundaries
✓ At the atomic scale, the initiation and growth of micro-cracks involves the severing of
bonds called crystal defect.

✓ Is imperfection in the regular geometrical arrangement of the atoms in a crystalline solid.

✓ There are Four types of crystal defects;
– Interstitial atom
– Interstitial impurity atom
– Substitutional impurity atom
– Vacancy

C. Cataclasis and granular flow

• Cataclasis: - is the pervasive brittle fracturing and

granulation of rocks generally along faults or fault zones.

✓ Cataclastic flow: - is somewhat analogous to granular flow which involves the frictional
sliding and rolling of particles in relatively unlithified sediments.

✓ Granular flow: - can occur only where grain boundaries are much weaker than the
individual grains. In granular flow most grains remain intact rather than being repeatedly
fractured as in cataclastic flow
D. Mechanical Twining and Kinking
Mechanical Twining is less aggressive deformational mechanism than micro-fracturing, and
frictional sliding.

• Strain is achieved by bending rather than a breaking of a crystal lattice.

• The crystalline lattice on one side of the twin plane is sheared by a constant angle of
rotation with respect to the lattice on the other side.
Two conditions are necessary for twinning to occur

– There must be a vulnerable twin plane, across which shearing or rotation can take
place.

– The plane must be oriented such that shear stress along the twin plane is sufficient to
distort the lattice process that permit rocks to deform at the microscopic and atomic
scales are called deformation mechanism.
Mechanical twining is common in calcite and plagioclase feldspar minerals that posses a
suitable crystalline structure for twinning.
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• Kinking, like twinning, involves the bending of a lattice, utilizing planes of weakness.
– Kinking commonly takes place within a discrete band through a crystal.
– Kink bands usually display a crystallographic orientation or angle of extinction that
is different from the rest of the mineral. They show up microscopically as extinction bands.
– Micas and other platy minerals are especially prone to kinking, when shortened in a
direction parallel to cleavage.

– Amount of lattice rotation is not limited to a specified angle as in mechanical

twinning
E. Diffusion Creep

• Under many geologic conditions, rocks accommodate deformation by creep, rather than by
fracturing….

• Creep is a slow time dependent strain, it occurs at differential stress well below the rupture
strength of rocks.

•
✓ Diffusion involves the movement of atoms through grain interiors, along grain boundaries,
and across pore fluids.

• It is thermally activated.

• Diffusion is a relatively slow and inefficient process in a crystalline solid.

• Because diffusion through crystalline solid relies on the presence of vacancies and other
defects.

❖ It is much faster and much more efficient in a fluid.

• Diffusion is more rapid in lattices with abundant impurities or deformation-related

imperfections.

• It is most effective in fine-grained rocks, where the distance that the atoms must cover is
relatively short.

❖ There are several ways of diffusion creep:

i. Volume diffusion Creep

• At high temperature and in the presence of directed stress, diffusion with in mineral grains
can be fast enough to permit the grains to change their shape.

• The presence of vacancies makes this possible.

• The site changes the shape of the mineral as atoms and ions move away from sites.
ii. Grain boundary Diffusion Creep

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• Minerals can also creep by diffusion of materials along grain boundaries, a process
known as grain boundary diffusion creep or coble creep.

• As in the case of volume diffusion, materials migrate from surface (sites) of high
compression stress and accumulate on surface of low compression stress.

• The migration path may be longer because…

• However, the rate of travel of atoms and vacancies is faster along grain boundaries
than directly through the crystal.

✓ Therefore, grain-boundary diffusion creep tends to be more efficient than volume-

diffusion creep and can occur at lower temperatures.
F. Dissolution creep

• Dissolution creep or pressure solution involves the selective removal, transport and re-
precipitation of materials through fluid films along grain boundaries or pore fluids
between grains.

• The presence of a fluid phase along grain boundaries and in pores between grains greatly
increase the efficiency with which material can be removed from sites of high compression
stress and transported to those of lower stress.

• When subjected to differential stress, grains can change shape by selective dissolution,
transport, and re-precipitation of material via the fluid phase.

• Dissolution creep differs from the various types of diffusion creep in that it involves
transport of material through intergranular fluid.

• Dissolution creep depends on their interconnected processes:

• Dissolution at the source

• Diffusion or migration of the dissolved materials along some path ways and

• Re-precipitation (deposition)

• Dissolution may take place in either of the following ways

• Preferential dissolution along boundaries of impinging grains

• Dissolution along stylolites

• Dissolution along fractures

G. Dislocation creep

• A mineral grain in a rock can also change shape by dislocation creep.

• The shape change is achieved by a combination of very localized, temporary distortion of

the lattices and shearing of the lattice along a favorable crystallographic plane.

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• Dislocation creep is the production motion and destruction through crystals and grains
accommodated by recovery and re-crystallization.

• Dislocation in crystals form and propagate in several ways, depending on the orientation
of the dislocation relative to the direction of slip.

• We can illustrate the physical conditions, under which each mechanism dominates
deformation by use of a deformation map, which generally plots temperature vs. differential
stress or some other variable.

G. Recovery and Recrystallization

• Recovery and recrystallization cause a healing of the crystalline structure by eliminating as
many defects as possible, and by depleting leftover stored energy in the lattice.
✓ Recovery promotes healing through the rearrangement and destruction of dislocations.
✓ Recrystallization and Neomineralisation promotes healing by transforming the ‘old’
defective grains into brand-new grains or new configurations of grains.
[Ordinary recrystallization takes place within a single grain or within adjacent grains of
common mineralogy.
Neomineralisation, on the other hand, forms new minerals or changes the boundary
between two different minerals that were in contact.
• Any crystal can be imagined to posses a certain amount of ‘internal strain energy’.
– which is at its minimum when the crystal lattice is free of dislocations.
• If we deform a crystal and induce dislocations, we increase this internal energy
– by local changes in the distance between atoms; the increase in internal energy is
proportional to the increase in total length of dislocations per volume of crystalline material, also
known as the dislocation density.

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 • Other processes tend to shorten, order or destroy the dislocations.
• During deformation, disordering and ordering mechanisms will compete while after
deformation stops.
– ordering mechanisms progress towards an equilibrium situation with the shortest
possible length of dislocations in the crystal lattice.

– The general term recovery is used to cover these ordering mechanisms.

1.7 Joints and Shear Fractures

1.7.2 JOINTS
➢ Fractures with no measurable shear displacement
• represent Mode I fractures (tensile stress features)
• They could be systematic vs. non-systematic joint arrays

1.7.1 Modes of Fracture Development:

Three basic fracture modes representing “end members” can describe any
combination of joint and shear fracture

Mode I: Tensile cracks-

Tensile Fractures (Mode I) may occur under 3 conditions:

1. Tensile stress- Axial Stretching

2. Axial Compression with low confining pressure

Mode II: Shear Fracture

Shear by horizontal sliding- rocks on one side of crack surface move slightly
parallel to fracture surface
Mode III: Shear by scissor motion; Tearing mode

• Non-Systematic Joints- -irregularly oriented joints and no obvious

spatial relationship.
• Systematic Joints- group of parallel to sub-parallel joints and evenly
spaced to one another
• Joint Sets- a group of systematic joints
• Joint System- defined by two or more joint sets in which joint sets
intersect at constant angles.
• Dihedral Angle- angle between two joint sets in a joint system
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 -Orthogonal System- mutually perpendicular joint sets
(dihedral angle =900)
-Conjugate System- dihedral angle ~ 300-600.
1.7.2.1 Joint Analysis
Points to consider & data to collect in the analysis of joints:
Are the joints systematic or non-systematic?
Determine the orientation of joints present
How many different joint sets are present?
Determine cross-cutting relationships
Describe the appearance of the joints.
Describe the dimensions of the joints
Describe joint spacing and density
Describe relationship of joints & lithology
Do joints vary with changes in lithology.
Are joints isolated or connected to regional network?
How do joints relate to geologic structures?
In general, in studying fractures, we give emphasis to the:
1) Distribution and geometry
❖ a) Fractures orientation
✓ To identify fracture sets and infer orientation and extent of tectonic forces
❖ b) Scale and shape
Scale could be microscopic to kilometric because fractures terminate
-By dying out
-By curving and dying out
-By curving into pre-existing fractures
-By segmenting into en echelon sets of small extension fractures
2) Spacing:
❖ average perpendicular distance between fractures.
❖ Spacing tends to be consistent and depends on rock type and bed thickness (thick layers
form greater spacing)
3) Relation to rock type and bed thickness
❖ Stronger, "stiffer", or more brittle rocks have more closely spaced joints.
1.7.3 Viens
• Vein: A fracture that has filled with minerals precipitated from water solutions that passed
through the fracture.
• Vein array; A group of veins in a body of rock.
– Vein Formation
• Elevated fluid pressures can explain the formation of joints at substantial
depths
• As joints open, they may be filled with vein material to form crystal fiber
veins, which may preserve a record of the veins opening.
• crystals grow in opening direction (direction of least principal stress)

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– antitaxial veins - add material along the vein wall
– syntaxial veins - add material along the center of the vein
– crack-seal veins - preserve inclusions indicating repeated fracturing
Study of fractures is applicable in:
Hydrogeology-Petroleum Geology: Directional permeability. Cracks can make a huge
difference. Directionality of cracks also important in connectivity and in designing a well to cross
as many as possible
Engineering site selection: fractures should be investigated in detail prior to erecting
engineering structures like dams, roads, buildings
Ore Deposits: mineral like gold can be concentrated in fractures forming veins
Quarrying: Fracture frequency determines the ease of quarrying
Academic purposes: to understand stress orientations and understanding tectonics

1.8 Fault Systems

Faults: are fractures that have appreciable movement parallel to their plane. They produced
usually by earth quakes.

• Faults may be hundreds of kms or a few centimeters in length.

• Their outcrop may have as knife-sharp edges or fault shear zone.

• Understanding faults is useful in

– design for long-term stability of dams, bridges, buildings and power plants.

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 • Fault shear zones may consist of a serious of interleaving anastomosing brittle faults and
crushed rock or of ductile shear zones composed of mylonitic rocks.
1.8.1 Parts of the Fault

• Fault plane: Surface that the

movement has taken place within
the fault.

• Hanging wall: The rock mass

resting on the fault plane.

• Footwall: The rock mass beneath

the fault plane.
• Heave: The horizontal component of dip
separation measured perpendicular to strike of the
fault.

• Throw: The vertical component measured in

vertical plane containing the dip.
1.9 Folds
Folds:- are wave like structures that result from deformation
of bedding, foliation, or other originally planar surfaces in
rocks.

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1.8.2 Classification of faults orTypes of faults

• Faults are classified in terms of the attitude of the fault surface as

High angle > 45° dip

Low angle < 45° dip

• In terms of orientation of relative displacement or slip faults are:

Dip slip faults –slip parallel to the fault dip

Strike slip- slip parallel to the strike of the fault

Oblique slip- slip inclined obliquely to the fault surface

Rotational faults –Due to curved fault surface (rotation axis parallel to
We further subdivide faults in terms of relative movement along them.

• Dip slip faults:-

Normal faults- hanging wall block moves down with respect to
footwall

Reverse fault- hanging wall moves up with respect to footwall

• Strike slip faults

Right lateral (dextral)- fault block across the fault from the
observer moves to the right

Left lateral (sinistral)- fault block across the fault from the
observer moves to the left

Oblique slip faults

:- are expressions of a ductile type of deformation that produced more gradual and more
continuous changes in a rock layer.
:- It is very important at this point to reintroduce the concept of scale:
Folds that require magnification-
microscopic. Hand specimen to out crop scale-
mesoscopic, and those of map scale or larger-
megascopic/ macroscopic.

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 ■ Hinge line- is the line joining points of greatest curvature on a folded surface
■ Fold limb- the straighter or least curved segment of a fold
■ Inflection point- is a point on a folded
1.9.1 FOLD ANATOMY surface that separates concave curvature in one
Fold Hinge
Fold Limb
Inflection Point
Fold Axis/Hinge Line
Fold Axial Plane
Fold Axial Surface
Fold Profile
Fold Median Surface
Fold Enveloping Surface
Fold Amplitude
Fold Wavelength
Fold Crest/Trough
Interlimb Angle
direction from convex curvature in the opposite direction.
■ Fold axis- is the line that is moved parallel to itself to generate the folded surface/ an
imaginary line along the fold hinge
■ Axial surface/ Axial plane (if the surface is planar) - a plane that passes through the hinge
lines of successive layers
■ Median surface- a surface defined by joining adjacent inflection points
■ Fold amplitude- the height measured from the point to the median surface
■ Fold wavelength- the distance between adjacent hinge lines
■ Fold crest- the highest point of a fold
■ Fold trough- the lowest point of a fold
■ Interlimb angle- the smallest angle between two limbs

1.10 FOLIATIONS AND LINEATIONS

Rock fabric is the complete spatial and geometrical configurations of all components that make
up the rock.
Include many samples of each feature (fabric elements)

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➢ It covers terms such as:
Texture- the geometrical aspects of the grains such as size, shape, arrangement and boundary
relationships of the grains.
Microstructure- refers to the small scale structures: primary layering, folds, foliations, lineation,
deformation lamellae, intra-crystalline deformation etc.
Lattice Preferred Orientation- the arrangement of atoms, ions etc in a crystal.
❖ In the vast majority of deformed metamorphic rocks parallel alignment of
elongate (or platy) grains is visible in hand specimen and in thin section. They may define:
foliation and/or lineation.
Foliation - Planar rock Fabric
– compositional layering (Due to compositional layering in low grade metamorphosed
rock sequences and due to metamorphic segregation in high-grade)
– grain size variation
– parallel discontinuities
– preferred orientation of in-equant minerals
– Preferred orientation of platy minerals or lenticular mineral aggregates.
– Crystallographic preferred orientation (alignment of crystal structures)
– Some combination of these fabrics
Lineation – Linear rock Fabric
– preferred orientation of linear bodies
– preferred orientation of elongated tabular bodies
– common axes of intersection of variably oriented tabular bodies
– penetrative folding (crenulation folding)
– intersection of two foliations
1.11 SHEAR ZONES AND PROGRESSIVE DEFORMATION

A shear zone is a tabular band of definable width in which there is considerably higher strain
than in the surrounding rock.
-microscopic to regional scale domains across which displacement has occurred.
-form in a wide variety of tectonic setting
1.11.1 SHEAR SENSE INDICATORS

Shear-sense indicators are features that reveal the sense of shear for a deformation.
The most common shear-sense indicators:
➢ Offset markers (amount and sense of displacement).
➢ Deflection of markers
➢ Folliation pattern

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 Geochemistry ( Geol 3081) (By Ms. Brhane Girum)

Module

1. Basic principles of Geochemistry and Thermodynamic

Geochemistry is a branch of geology that deals with the chemical composition and chemical
changes in the earth and other planet. It is a Sub discipline of earth science (geology +
chemistry). Geochemistry uses the tools of chemistry to solve geological problems. That is we
use chemistry to understand earth and how it works.

Geochemistry is a tool of geology. It is applied in igneous petrology; to study the genesis and
evolution of magma,in Sedimentary petrology; to study the provenance of sedimentary rocks, in
Hydrogeology; to understand the hydro-chemical evolution and to determine the water quality, in
Hydrocarbon exploration; to determine the maturity level of the deposit and in Environmental
aspects; to study the environmental pollution and to trace the contaminants.

Branch of Geochemistry

Isotope geochemistry- involves the determination of the relative and absolute concentrations of
the elements and their isotopes in the earth and on earth‟s surface.

Biogeochemistry- is the field of study focusing on the effect of life on the chemistry of the earth.
Organic geochemistry- involves the study of the role of processes and compounds that are
derived from living or once living organisms.

Aqueous geochemistry- Understanding the role of various elements in various watersheds.

Historical background of Geochemistry

The name “geochemistry” was first introduced by Schonbein in 1838. Clark, who was a chief
chemist of the US. Geological Survey from 1884 to 1925, has contributed very much to the
science "geochemistry". The modern science of geochemistry can be dated back to Clark who
published a very large number of chemical analyses of the various rocks in the earth's crust.
Victor Goldschmidt (1888-1947, the father of Modern Geochemistry) defined the study of
geochemistry as: “the laws governing the distribution of the chemical elements and their isotopes
throughout the earth”.

Goldschmidt‟s classification of elements

1. Lithophile elements (from the Greek lithos, meaning “rock”) are those that readily form
compounds with oxygen. The most common oxygen-based minerals in the Earth are silicates, but
lithophile elements also dominate in oxides and other “stony” minerals.
~ 46 ~
2. Chalcophile elements are those that most easily form sulfides. The Greek root for the name of
this group is chalcos, meaning “copper,” a prominent element in this category.

3. Siderophile elements prefer to form metallic alloys .The most abundant siderophile element is
iron (in Greek, sideros), for which this group is named. Concentrate in the earth‟s core.

4. Atmophile elements are commonly found as gases, whether in the atmosphere or in the
Earth.

Thermodynamics

The word "thermodynamics" comes from Greek. Thermo – heat, Dynamics – change or
movement. Thermodynamics is basically concerned with the energy changes that accompany
chemical and physical processes. So, Thermodynamics is really just the study of heat and
energy, and how it relates to the matter in our universe. It is the science of energy
transformations.

Law of thermodynamics

1. Zeroth law of Thermodynamics stating that thermodynamic equilibrium is an equivalence

relation. If two thermodynamic systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third, they
are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

2. First law of Thermodynamics : States about the conservation of energy. The change in the
internal energy of a closed thermodynamic system is equal to the sum of the amount of heat
energy supplied to the system and the work done on the system.

3. Second law of Thermodynamics: about entropy. The total entropy of any isolated
thermodynamic system tends to increase over time, approaching a maximum value. The degree
of randomness in a system is represented by a thermodynamic quantity called the entropy.

4. Third law of Thermodynamics, about absolute zero temperature.As a system asymptotically

approaches absolute zero of temperature , the entropy of the system asymptotically approaches a
minimum value; also stated as: the entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is zero at
absolute zero.

Gibbs free energy is a measure of chemical energy. It expresses the amount of energy capable
of doing work during a reaction at constant temperature and pressure. Gibbs free energy for a
phase: G = H - TS Where: G = Gibbs Free Energy H = Enthalpy (heat content) T = Temperature
in Kelvins S = Entropy (can think of as randomness)

The electronic structure of atoms and the periodic table

The electronic structure of atoms: the arrangement of electrons in an atom is called its
electronic structure. The electron configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atom or
molecule (or other physical structure) in atomic or molecular orbitals. The electronic structure of

~ 47 ~
an atom refers not only to the number of electrons that an atom possesses but also to their
distribution around the nucleus and to their energies.

The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, organized on the basis of
their atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus), electron configurations, and recurring
chemical properties.

Atomic number (Z): The atomic number represents the number of unit positive charges on the
nucleus and is equal to the number of protons within the nucleus, since each proton carries unit
positive charge. In electrically neutral atoms, it also represents the number of electrons, which
carry unit negative charge.

Mass number (A): The mass number is equal to the total number of nucleons, which is the sum
of the number of protons and neutrons. The number of neutrons is defined as the A – Z.

2,Introduction to the Solar System

Solar Systems consist of Sun and everything orbiting on it. It composed of a set of different
types of planets and moons.Centuries of studying Earth, its neighboring planets, and meteorites
have enabled the development of models of the birth of the Solar System. Solar system consists
of the Sun and the planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and
Pluto.

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Its includes: a comet, asteroids and meteoroids.The sun is the richest source of electromagnetic
energy (mostly in the form of heat and light) in the solar system. The nine major planets
including our earth and their moons are revolving around the sun-anticlockwise rotation. The Sun
contains 99.85% of all the matter in the solar system. The planets, which condensed out of the
same disk of material that formed the Sun, contain only 0.135% of the mass of the solar system.

Elements and the Structure of the Solar System

The elements of the solar system are; the Sun, the 9 Planets and their Moons, Asteroids, Comets,
Meteors. When we say the structure, it is the arrangement of these elements in the solar system.
To get an idea of the true scale of the solar system, you would have to put a football on the
ground to represent the sun, place a pea 33 meters from it to represent the Earth, place an orange
175 meters from it to represent Jupiter, and put a pin head 1.5 kilometer to represent Pluto.

Structure of Solar System

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The Origin of the Universe
There are many theories about the origin of the Universe:

The Big Bang Theory

It is the most popular theory, this theory states that 12 to 15 billion years ago, there existed a
fireball in which all matter and energy were concentrated At this moment space and time did not
exist. The fireball exploded (space and time started) due to which matter and energy spread
outwards in all directions, and then the material cooled and condensed in to hydrogen clouds
which were later changed in to the present day galaxies.

The Big Bang theory drawbacks which include: This theory cannot fully explain all observed
phenomena in the Universe. The scientists who have worked on its description cannot be certain
about the moment it occurred.

Steady state hypothesis

This hypothesis which explain the origin of the solar system. These are grouped into two as:-
Gradualistic Theories: State that both the sun and the planets are formed together. An example
of such theories Nebular Hypothesis.

Catastrophic Theories (Collision theory): This group of theories states that the sun and the
planets have a bi-parental origin; they are not formed at the same time.

The nebular hypothesis: It State that there was a slowly rotating H-clouds called Nebula.The
gravitational force contracts the H-cloud. B/c of contraction accelerates the rotation as a result it
has disk shape. B/c of gravitational force the matter is drifted toward the center.the center is
denser. The mass is accumulated into a proto-sun. These rocky bodies would become the
terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars).

PLANETS
Planet can be classified in to Rocky and gas giant planet

I. Inner/terrestrial planets :The four inner or terrestrial planets have dense, rocky compositions.
Mercury,Venus, Earth and Mars. They are composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the
silicates, which form their crusts and mantles, and metals such as iron and nickel, which form
their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars) have atmospheres substantial
enough to generate weather.

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1, Mercury – It is the smallest of the terrestrial planets and the nearest to the sun composed
almost entirely of metals and has a very thin atmosphere of Helium. This planet is made up of
rock and metal, is dead planet, has no natural satellites, has large iron core and thin mantle.

Fig .1.1 Mercury

2, Venus: It is earth„s nearest planetary neighbor. Because of its almost identical size and
density, it is often referred to as Earth„s twin. Similar to the Earth in shape & size,Covered in
heavy poisonous & hot atmosphere composed of CO2 & H2SO4 ,Also called Hell ,Is the hottest
planet, with surface temperatures over 400 C and has no natural satellites.

Fig 1.2 Venus

3, Earth :is composed of metal core and rock layers. The earth is also a planet and is the only
place we know in the universe which can harbor life , it is a unique planet in the solar system that
contains atmosphere of O2 , N2 , water vapor, and it's the only planet where liquid water and life
exists so far known,It is called a fortunate planet that seems just right in many ways, its distance
from the sun, size, atmospheric composition, and daily rotation provide optimum conditions for
the development and continuation of life.

Fig1.3 Earth

4, Mars: Mars Similar to Earth in composition. Its atmosphere is CO2 with small amount of O2
& N2 , water vapour).Mars has two tiny natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos) thought to be
captured asteroids. Its iron rusted surface has made this planet look red.

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 Fig 1.4 Mars

II. Gas Giants planets: The four non terrestrial planet are made of gasses like hydrogen and
methane and are huge compared to the rocky planets. These planets are called gas giants.
include ice, H, He: They formed in cool outer region Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are
known as the Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets .They are all gigantic compared with Earth, and they
have a gaseous nature like Jupiter„s.

A) Jupiter: This planet is made up of mostly gasses and has a giant red circle called the Great
Red Spot.
B) Saturn: This planet is very cold. It has 24 moons. Its rings are made up of dust, chunks of
rock, and ice
C) Uranus: is about four times larger than the Earth. It consists also a thick cloud layer of
hydrogen and helium. It has about 10 rings orbiting around it. It has 15 moons orbiting
the plane
D) Neptune:This planet has blue clouds because of its gasses in the atmosphere. It has a blue
Great Dark Spot One year takes 164 years on Earth
E) Pluto - is considered to be by some people as a tiny planet of these group. • It resembles
the outer planets in composition and location
Sun which is similar to many stars, is composed chiefly of hydrogen and helium and is about 5
billion years old. All planets orbit around this star. Three other types of bodies exist in the solar
system: Asteroids, Comets, and Meteoroids.

3.Crystal and Mineral Chemistry

Chemical bonds, ionic radii and crystals Chemical bond :an electrical force linking atoms
together. There are different types of bonds, the most common ones are:

– Metallic bond: results between two metals where electrons are not bounded to any atom but are
free to move. (e.g. native gold).

– Ionic bond: positive and negative ions are attract each other by electrostatic forces (e.g. NaCl).
– Covalent bond: occurs when electrons are equally shared between atoms (e.g. Diamond).

– Van der Waals bond: results due to a weak electrostatic attraction between neutral molecules.
Ionic radius is a measure of the size of an atom's ion in a crystal lattice.

Some Common Structures

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 A) Isostructuralism – minerals having different chemical compositions show the same crystal
form, internal structure or morphology. – referred as isostructuralism. – examples are
spinel and garnet group minerals.
B) Polymorphism – minerals having similar chemical composition show different crystal
forms, internal structure or morphology.
C) Pseudomorphism – mineral that has the crystalline form of another mineral rather than
the form normally characteristic of its own composition
Mineral Chemistry

A) Solid Solution • In many rock-forming minerals, both silicates and nonsilicates, very
often show deviation from their expected fixed chemical composition.
B) Exsolution : is process through which an initially homogeneous solid solution separates
into at least two different crystalline minerals without the addition or removal of any
materials.
4.Geochemical structure of the Earth
Early Earth was composed of Si, Fe, Mg, O2 , Al, and smaller amounts of other chemical
elements. When the Earth underwent heating, this homogeneous composition disappeared; the
result was differentiated planet, consisting of concentric layers of differing composition and
density. Differentiation also responsible for the emission of gasses from the interior of the Earth
that eventually led to formation of the oceans and the atmosphere.

Geochemical composition of the Earth

Earth, being a dynamic system, it is continuously undergoing change in – Mechanical (plate

tectonic-strength, elasticity, and, viscosity). Chemical properties. These properties do depend on
Pressure, Temperature, State of stress, Nature of the chemistry of the material. • Chemical
composition and mechanical properties vary widely within the Earth.

Division of the Earth

The Earth can be divided into two main parts: 1) Atmosphere: measured from the surface of the
Earth upwards to 150 km (anything above this called space). 2) Solid Earth: measured from the
surface of the Earth down wards to the core.

Internal structure of the Earth is studied with the help of seismic waves, their movement
through the Earth. Seismology:- is the study of the origin and propagation of elastic waves
through planetary bodies.

Two types of seismic waves:

1) Primary (P) or compressional waves. Fastest wave, Have velocities-5 km/s at the top of the
crust, can travel through solids and liquids (so they can travel through the Earth‟s core (the outer
core is liquid).

2) Shear (S) or transverse waves. Have slower speed than P-waves, Can only travel through
solids (so they do not travel the earth‟s core).

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Chemical subdivision of the Earth

The Earth consists of three concentric layers: Crust, Mantle and Core.

A) Crust : is much thinner under oceans than under continents, makes up only 0.5% of the
Earth‟s total mass and it can be divided into two main parts, continental and oceanic.
B) Mantle: is a thick layer between the Earth‟s crust and core, comprises about 83% of the
Earth‟s volume ,extends from 70 or 35 km to 2,900 km of depth and it is less dense than
the core (3.3-5.7 g/cm3 ).
C) Core : is believed to be composed primarily of a nickel-iron alloy (along with abundant
platinum-group elements). • is divided into two types
1. Liquid outer core (2900 - 5000 km)
2. Solid inner core (5000 - 6370 km) has density of 10 to 13 g/cm3 , occupies about 16%
of the Earth‟s total volume.

Mechanical Subdivisions
The Earth has been divided into four different spheres on the basis of the physical properties of
the layers.

 Lithosphere: The outer part of the solid Earth, containing the uppermost 50 km of the
mantle under the oceans and 90 km under the continents, plus the crust.
 Asthenosphere: is the upper, plastic portion of the mantle. 100 km in thickness, with its
upper surface at a depth of 60 km beneath the oceans and 120 km beneath the continents.
 Mesosphere: A layer below the Asthenosphere, approximately from 200 to 2,900 km.
The upper mesosphere (200 to 670 km) is more rigid than the overlying Asthenosphere.
 Siderosphere: The innermost layer of the Earth extending from the bottom of the lower
mesosphere to the centre of the Earth (i.e. to a depth of about 6,371 km).

Classification of elements

Based on Abundances elements are classified into:

1) Major elements: chemical element whose concentration usually greater than 1%. •
Examples:SiO2 , Al2O3 , FeO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O.

2) Minor elements: chemical element whose concentration usually 0.1 - 1%. • Examples:
TiO2 , MnO, P2O5.

3) Trace elements: chemical element whose concentration usually < 0.1%. Their
concentrations are therefore commonly expressed in parts per million (ppm; 1 ppm = 10-4
weight%.

Based on Partitioning elements are classified into :

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 1) Compatible elements: elements that do easily fit into the crystal structure of mantle
minerals. – Examples: Ni, Cr, Co, V, Sc, Os,

2) Incompatible elements: elements that do not easily fit into the crystal structure of mantle
minerals.

Large ion lithophile elements (LILE): These elements are characterized by large ionic radii,
and low charges, and will therefore preferentially concentrate in the liquid until a particular
phase with large enough sites to accommodate them begins to crystallize.

High field strength elements (HFSE): These are elements which have large cations, but also
large charges, and are also excluded from mantle phases and more concentrated in residual
liquids (i.e. they will be more incompatible). These elements are concentrated in accessory
phases as sphene, zircon, and apatite. Examples include Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, Th and U. Transition
elements: Trace elements which are also transition elements are characterized by relatively
small ionic radii. These elements are strongly partitioned in the solid phases that crystallize
during the early stages of magmatic evolution, and are therefore "compatible" with mantle
phases. Examples include Ni, Co, Cr, and Sc.

Rare earth elements (REE): This is a group of elements with atomic numbers between 57
(La) and 72 (Lu) characterized by relatively large ionic radii, and valences of either +2 or +3.

5.Geochemistry of magmatic processes

Magmas – are generated inside the earth by partial melting of mantle material or crustal material
– mostly have silicate composition, known as silicate magma.

Chemical Composition Magma

Oxygen is invariably the most abundant element about 50% of the weight of the total mass of
magmas. Other major elements like Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K, Ti, P vary from 1 to 30%.

On the basis of silica abundance the igneous rocks are classified into:

 ultrabasic (SiO2 65w%),

 basic (SiO2 , 46-52w%),
 intermediate (SiO2 , 52-65w% and
 acidic (SiO2 >65w%).
Physical Properties of Magma : Three important parameters are used to explain the physical
properties of magmas,

1) Temperature: Magmas vary in temperature from about 700O C (acidic) to about 1250O C
(basic).

2) Viscosity: It varies by several orders of magnitude in natural magmas, as high as 108 - 109
poises (acidic) to 103 - 105 poises (basic).

3) Density: also depends on the composition of the melt; – basic magma will vary between 2.5-
2.6 at ambient temperatures but will be about 2.9-3.0 at upper mantle pressures, – acidic magmas

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on the other hand will be about 2.0 at ambient and increases up to about 2.7 with increasing
pressures in the subsurface conditions.

Magma Genesis: Magmas are formed or generated in the lower crust or upper mantle. There are
two important stages in the magmatic process, 1) magma generation and 2) magma evolution.

The conditions that are to be fulfilled for the generation of magma in the upper mantle seems to
be:

a) availability of water: • Occur along active converging plate margins where subducting
oceanic crust carries water to upper mantle, in addition to the release of water from the
hydrated minerals (amphiboles, clay minerals etc), present in altered sea- floor basalts and
deep sea sediments;
b) localized high temperatures: • Occur beneath oceanic islands (e.g. Hawaii or Helena) or
intercontinental areas.
c) reduced pressure in the upper mantle: • Occur beneath the areas of extensional tectonics
such as mid-oceanic ridges.
Alkalis, Na2O and K2O contents are used to classify basalts as alkaline, transitional and Sub-
alkaline.

1) Alkali basalts characterized by – very high alkali content, – under saturated in silica and
contain nepheline.
• Alkali basalts are divided into a) K- alkaline (K2O>Na2O) and b) Na- alkaline
(Na2O>K2O).

2) Transitional basalts are characterized by – slightly oversaturated to under saturated in silica

and – named as a) potassic if K2O/Na2O is >1 and – which occur in orogenic environments, are
also called as shoshonitic basalts. b) sodic if K2O/Na2O is <1.

3) Sub-alkaline basalts are :a) Tholeiitic basalts are characterized by low alkali content and
slightly oversaturated in silica and contain orthopyroxene and olivine (olivine tholeiites, quartz
tholeiites etc). b) Calc-alkaline basalts characterized by contain high content of alkalis
(especially, K) than tholeiites, oversaturated in silica and contain orthopyroxene and quartz.

Magma Evolution: The main processes responsible for magma evolution are:

1) Fractional crystallization, 2) Mixing and 3) Assimilation of wall rocks.

1. Fractional crystallization plays an important role and is the most important factor in the
magma evolution. In this process, crystallization of mineral phases and their separation from the
parent magma takes place due to the density contrast between the solid and liquid phases.

2) Mixing and Assimilation :Mixing is a process by which magmas with different compositions
blend in a magma chamber or in a conduit to give a hybrid magma whose composition is
intermediate between the starting end-members.

3. Assimilation is the process of dissolution and incorporation of solid wall rocks by magmas.
Assimilation may be total or selective, depending on whether the entire wall rock or only some
minerals are assimilated.
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Partial melting • There are two types of partial melting.

1) Batch melting, also known as equilibrium fusion and equilibrium partial melting, describes
the formation of a partial melt in which the melt is continually reacting and re-equilbrating with
solid residue at the site of melting until mechanical condition to allow it to escape as a single
„batch‟ magma.

2) Fractional melting, also known as Rayleigh melting, only small amount of liquid is produced
and instantly isolated from the source.

Sedimentary Process

Weathering: Minerals that crystallize at higher temperature are more unstable than minerals
formed at lower temperature.

Decomposition: the decomposition of minerals takes place by water through a series of reactions
that include solution, hydrolysis, and oxidation.

Transportation :Material derived from weathering of rocks can be transported as solid particles,
colloids or ions.

Deposition • Minerals that are resistant to weathering are partly left in situ and partly transported
as granular material and are deposited in zones of low water energy, in suitable depressions to
form thick sand bodies..

Digenesis is the processes that take place during deposition and burial of sedimentary material
and the successive transformation of loose sediments to solid rocks are indicated with the general
term of digenesis.

6.Isotope Geochemistry
Isotope geochemistry deals with the distribution of isotopes of elements in natural systems. •
Isotopes of an element: are atoms with the same atomic number and different masses. Two basic
types of isotopes: Stable or unradioactive. Stable (unradioactive) isotopes: are those formed
naturally and do not undergo decay and their ratios remain constant with time. e.g. oxygen (18O,
17O and 16O) =18O/16O. Unstable (radioactive) isotopes: have unstable nuclei and transform
to other isotopes. e.g. 87Rb to 87Sr

Stable isotope geochemistry: The application of stable isotope geochemistry to geological

problems mainly depends on; the fact that the relative abundances (i.e. ratios) of isotopes of
single elements in various phases that change during several physical and chemical processes
such as:

• Partial melting of rocks

• Crystallization of minerals,

• Water evaporation and condensation

• Chemical reaction during metamorphism etc.

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There are various types of stable isotopes:

o Oxygen isotope
o Carbon isotope
o Sulphur isotope
Radioactive isotope geochemistry

Radioactivity is the spontaneous modification of the nucleus of some isotopes that are
transformed to other isotopes. This process is accompanied by emission of radiations alpha (α)
particles, beta (β) particles and gamma (γ) rays.

 Alpha particles: consist of two protons and two neutrons. Their emission from the
nucleus of an isotope results in a decrease of the mass of that isotope by four units and a
decrease of the atomic number by two units.
 Beta particles: on the other hand have the same mass and electric charge as electrons.
When a beta particle is emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive isotope, a neutron is
transformed to a proton, but there is no change in the atomic mass because of the
negligible mass of beta particles.
 Gamma rays: are high energy radiations that accompany all types of radioactive decay,
but do not have any effect on mass and atomic number of isotopes. Equation of
radioactive decay . The rate of radioactive decay is thus very important and it expressed
as half-life (t1/2 ). t= (1/λ)ln (1+D/N).
Geochronology
Geochronology; is a branch of geochemistry in which we study about the radioactive date of
rocks. The radioactive dating on the basis of parent-daughter isotope is known as geochronology.
These are the following parent-daughter isotopes which are used in geochronology.

 Potassium-Argon dating, K-Ar

 Rubidium-Strontium dating, Rb-Sr
 Samarium-Neodium dating, Sm-Nd
 Uranium-Thorium-Lead dating,U-Pb, Th-Pb

Rubidium-strontium dating
The method estimating the age of rocks, minerals, and meteorites from measurements of the
amount of the stable isotope strontium-87 formed by the decay of the unstable isotope rubidium-
87 that was present in the rock at the time of its formation. Micas and potassium feldspars are the
most suitable minerals for 87Rb/87Sr age determinations.

Potassium-Argon Age dating

With potassium-argon dating, we can tell the age of materials that contain potassium because we
know that potassium-40 decays into argon-40 with a half-life of 1.3 billion years.  Since
Potassium-40 has a half-life of 1.3 billion years, and so this method is applicable to the oldest
rocks.

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 40Ar/39Ar Geochronology

Dating with 39Ar and 40Ar depends upon the fact that the 39K can be bombarded with neutrons
in a nuclear reactor to produce an amount of 39Ar which is proportional to the potassium content
of the sample.

Samarium – Neodymium dating (Sm-Nd dating)

Naturally occurring samarium has four stable isotopes: 144Sm, 150Sm, 152Sm and 154Sm, and
three extremely long-lived radioisotopes, 147Sm (half-life t1/2 = 1.06×1011 years), 148Sm
(7×1015 years) and 149Sm (>2×1015 years), with 152Sm being the most abundant (natural
abundance 26.75%). The long-lived isotopes, 146Sm, 147Sm, and 148Sm, primarily decay by
emission of alpha particles to isotopes of neodymium.

Uranium –Lead Age Dating

Uranium comes in two common isotopes with atomic weights of 235 and 238 (we'll call them
235U and 238U).  Both are unstable and radioactive, and decay until they become lead (Pb). 
The two uranium isotopes decay at different rates. In other words, they have different half-lives.
 The half-life of the uranium-238 to lead-206 is 4.47 billion years. The uranium235 to lead-207
decay series is marked by a half-life of 704 million years.

Ocean island basalts (OIB) are basaltic rocks found on many volcanic islands away from
tectonic plate boundaries, typically associated with hot spots.

EMI (Enriched Mantle I) are mantle contaminated with material derived from subducted
pelagic sediments.

EMII (Enriched Mantle II) Likely mantle contaminated with material derived from the
recycling of terrigenous sediments from the continental crust into the mantle.

HIMU (High U/Pb ratio) Likely derived from subducted oceanic crust that has not been
homogenized with the rest of the mantle.

Ocean Ridge Basalts DM (Depleted Mantle) Experimental results indicate that mid-ocean
ridge basalts (MORB) are produced by 10-20% partial melting of the upper mantle at depths of
50-85 km.

7.Geochemistry of Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on or near the earth. This includes the oceans,
rivers, lakes, and even the moisture in the air. Ninety-seven percent of the earth's water is in the
oceans.

Geochemistry of atmosphere: The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds our planet.
Most of atmosphere is located close to the earth's surface where it is most dense. The earth's
atmosphere near the surface is composed primarily of Nitrogen and Oxygen. Together, the two
comprise about 99% of the gas in the atmosphere.
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Geochemistry of Biosphere: The biosphere is composed of all living organisms.

• Plants, animals, and one-celled organisms are all part of the biosphere

8.Regional Variations of Volcanic rocks of Ethiopia

1. It is established (with the exception of local variation), volcanic activity/volcanicity youngs

southwest ward from NE following the Red sea-AfarWERV sequential rift development 2. It
is also established that Volcanic rocks young rift wards from Plateau (towards the axial zone
where there are still active spots).
2. Compositionally it varied form Uni-modial (basaltic, old) to Bimodal (co-existing Basalt-
Rhyolite younger end members)
3. Geo-chemically they varied from: Alkaline-Mildly alkaline (olivine rich, oldest) to tholeiitic
(iron enriched.
4. Geo-chemically they varied from: Alkaline-Mildly alkaline (olivine rich, oldest) to tholeiitic
(iron enriched) through Per-alkaline to Subalkaline (youngest)

Geochemistry of Plateau Volcanices

A) Major and trace element geochemistry: Rocks are dominantly basalts with minor amount of
rhyolites. Basalts are tholeiitic or transitional in composition. In some places such as central
volcanoes of Termaber and Megezez, they are Na-alkaline.
B) Isotope geochemistry: Limited number of published isotopic data is available for flood
basalts from the Ethiopian Plateau. The Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopic ratios of western and
southeastern Plateau basalts show considerable isotopic variability. Such variation is due to a
generation of basaltic magmas in isotopically different mantle sources and partly to magma
contamination by upper crustal rocks.
Geochemistry of Afar volcanics

A) Major- and trace-element geochemistry • Basalts from the axial ranges of the Afar depression
are mainly transitional, with some low-potassium varieties approaching MORB compositions.
The Erta‟ale axial range consists of many volcanic centers roughly arranged in NNE-SSW
directions. The lavas show a wide compositional diversity. Basalts, trachy-basalts, trachy-
andesite, trachy-dacites and rhyolites.

B) Isotope geochemistry: O, Sr, and Nd isotopic data for Erta‟ale volcanics show small
differences in their values. 18O ranges between 5.05 to 6.46‰, 87Sr/86Sr=0.7035 - 0.7039,
143Nd/144Nd=0.51299 - 0.51287 this suggest that the basaltic magmas are generated in an
isotopically homogeneous mantle source and did not suffer high crustal contamination.

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Geochemistry of Main Ethiopian Rift (MER) volcanics

A. Major and trace element geochemistry: Basaltic lavas are transitional in composition. •
Incompatible elements show to typical „within-plate‟ basalts. Rift margin and rift floor basalts
are characterized by – Ba enrichment accompanied by relatively high Ta contents.

Geochemical composition of sedimentary rocks including those of Ethiopia

Sedimentary process being complex, the composition of the products is quite variable.

A) Sandstone: The main constituents of sandstones are quartz, alkali feldspars, muscovite and
accessory phases such as zircon, magnetite, rutile, monazite and in some cases platinum and
gold. The chemical composition of sandstones is characterized by high SiO2 , K2O, CaO,
and Al2 O3 .
B) Shale: is rich in elements that are present in clay minerals such as silica, potassium,
magnesium, and iron. Contains high concentration of some trace elements (e.g. As, Sb, Pb etc.)
is rich in organic matter, called as black shale if organic matter is very high. most of the rare
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elements are more abundant in shale than in sandstones and limestone. the chief process that
leads to enrichment of rare elements in clay and shale is sorption.

C) Limestone: contain high Ca, Mg, Mn, and Sr. enrichment of strontium in limestone is
accounted by the fact that Sr substitutes readily for the very similar ion Ca2+, just as it does in
the minerals of igneous rocks.

GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Techniques of Geochemical Analysis is a subject dealing with the different approaches or ways
that we use to determine the compositions of geological materials or samples such as rocks,
soils, water, air, etc.

Geochemical data are subdivided into four main categories:

– Major elements,

– Trace elements,

– Radiogenic isotopes and

– Stable isotopes.

Sampling and Sample preparation

A sample is a small quantity of material relative to the geological mass it represents, collected
according to a systematic procedure of measurable reliability.

Sampling is a process of obtaining (or taking) a small quantity from material of a larger body so
that the smaller quantity represents some characteristics or all characteristics of larger body.

The key points to consider when taking samples are:

 What are the objectives and therefore how much

 What type of sample is required?
 Is the sample representative?
 Is the sample fresh and unweather?
 Do I have the appropriate tools for the job?
 Have I recorded exactly where the sample is from?
 Is there a record of how the samples were collected, for instance the tools used (to
eliminate possible contamination)?

Selecting an Appropriate Analytical Techniques

Data quality may be measured in terms of their

– Precision,
– Accuracy and

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 – Detection limit.
Precision: refers to the repeatability of a measurement and is determined by making replicate
measurements on the same sample. It can be helpful to distinguish between precision during a
given analysis session (repeatability) and precision over a period of days or weeks
(reproducibility).

Accuracy: about getting the right answer. It is an estimate of how close our measured value is to
the true value. Knowing the true value can be very difficult but it is normally done by reference
to recommended values for international geochemical reference standards.

Detection limit: is the lowest concentration which can be seen by a particular method.

 Sources of error in geochemical analysis • Erroneous analytical results may arise for a
variety of reasons: Contamination, Calibration and Peak-overlap.
Contamination: Attention must be directed toward contamination in the early stages of
sampling, sample preparation, laboratory.

Calibration: All analytical techniques, with exception of some of the applications, measure
concentrations relative to a standard of known compositions.

Peak Overlap: In most analytical techniques used in geochemistry there is little attempt to
separate the element to be analyzed from the rest of the rock or mineral sample. The only
exception is in mass spectrometry.

Calorimeter is the process of measuring the amount of heat released or absorbed during a
chemical reaction. Titration is important analytical tools in chemistry. is a common laboratory
method of quantitative chemical analysis that is used to determine the unknown concentration of
a known reactant.

Chromatography
Chromatography is the separation (especially of closely related compounds) by allowing a
solution. The types of chromatography are: Gas chromatography and Liquid chromatography.
Gas chromatography can be used to separate mixtures of volatile organic compounds. Liquid
chromatography is an analytical chromatographic technique that is useful for separating ions or
molecules that are dissolved in a solvent.

9.Geochemical Instruments and their Use

X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF)
XRF analysis of geologic materials has evolved over the past 25 yr as the method preferred by
the majority of earth scientists for the determination of the major and minor rock-forming
elements in bulk rock and mineral separates. It provides higher precision and accuracy than
alternative methods. It is versatile and can analyse up to 80 elements over a wide range of
sensitivities.

Advantages

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  X-ray spectra are relatively independent of chemical state
 X-ray excitation and absorption vary uniformly with atomic number
 Absorption and enhancement effects are predictable
 Spectral line interference is relatively infrequent
Disadvantages
o Sensitivity for low atomic number elements is frequently poor,
o Sensitivity for low abundance levels (below part per million) is poor without
preconcentration procedures.
o Interelement effects within the sample must be recognized and corrected, o Standards are
required.
II. Neutron Activation analysis (INAA and RNAA)
Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) – one of a number of techniques used to accurately
determine the concentrations of elements in a sample. This process requires the use of a nuclear
reactor to irradiate the sample.

Advantages

• Small sample sizes (.1mL or .001gm)

• Non-destructive

• Can analyze multiple element samples

• Doesn‟t need chemical treatment

• High sensitivity, high precision

There are two approaches:

– Instrument neutron activation analysis (INAA) and Radiochemical neutron activation analysis
(RNAA),

INAA

• Destructive: the resulting radioactive sample is chemically decomposed, and the elements are
chemically separated. Employs a powdered rock or mineral sample. About 100mg of powdered
rock or mineral sample is placed in a neutron flux in a neutron reactor together with standards.
The sample and standards are irradiated for up to about 30 hours.

RNAA

 Nondestructive: the resulting radioactive sample is kept intact. When elemental

concentrations are below about 2 ppm, a chemical separation may be employed following
the irradiation of the sample, but prior to counting. This approach, known as
radiochemical neutron activation analysis (RNAA). Clearly has the advantage of
increased sensitivity.
III. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry(AAS)
o Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
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Principles – AAS is used for analysis of liquids, so solids must first be dissolved.

– This process is highly selective as well as very sensitive.

– A primary source is used which emits the element specific radiation

– The analyte must present as an atomic vapor, an atomizer is require

Advantages

• The detection limit is low, but some elements such as Na and Li the detection limits are higher.

• Relative standard deviations down to 0.5% (high analytical precision)

• Used to analyse the concentration of over 62 elements.

IV. Mass Spectrometry (MS)

A mass spectrometer can be defined as any instrument capable of producing ions from neutral
species and which provides a means of determining the mass of those ions.

• Separation based on the mass-to-charge ratio and/or the number of ions.

• Mass spectrometer has – an ion source, – an analyzer and – a detector

Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)

• ICP-MS is a type of mass spectrometry that is highly sensitive and capable of the determination of a
range of metals and several non-metals.

• It is based on coupling together inductively coupled plasma as a method of producing ions (ionization)
with a mass spectrometer as a method of separating and detecting the ions.

• ICP-MS is also capable of monitoring isotopic speciation for the ions of choice.

Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES)

• The inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometric (ICP-AES) technique is useful for the
determination of a wide variety of elements in geologic materials.

• It is a type of emission spectroscopy that uses the inductively coupled plasma to produce excited atoms
and ions that emit electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths characteristic of a particular element.

Geochemical data interpretation and Geo-statistics

Data acquisition

Geochemical samples for different purposes (e.g., mineral exploration, to study pollution, etc.)
are collected on a regional scale up to several thousands of sq.km as well as on a local scale (a
few sq.km) and on a detailed scale and mine scale (in the case of mineral exploration).

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The analysis may involve the determination of major elements, minor elements, trace elements, or
isotopes.

o Background Values: “normal” values for the given environment

o Anomalous Values: any value above or below the selected threshold value. If the values
are above the selected threshold value, the anomaly is called positive whereas if it is
below the threshold values it is negative anomaly.
o Threshold Value is the value chosen above which values are considered anomalous.

Correlations Analysis
 The term correlation most often refers to the linear association between two quantities or
variables, that is, the tendency for one variable, x, to increase or decrease as the other, y,
increases or decreases, in a straight-line trend or relationship.
 It is extremely helpful in geochemical studies.
 The correlation coefficient (also called the Pearson correlation coefficient), r, is a
dimensionless numerical index of the strength of that relationship.

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