Modeling and Simulation

of Dynamic Systems

Robert L. Woods
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
University of Texas at Arlington
Kent L. Lawrence
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
University of Texas at Arlington

PRENTICE HALL, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 0745vS

IJbnn of 0M#**

Kent L. La«Tcncc.

d b raph l referent and mdcx.

TA342.W66 1997 9M967.1

(IP

Edilor-in-chicf: Marcia Horlon

Acquisilions editor Bill Stcnquist Leon 1 2> <5 CvO
Managing editor: Bayani Mcndoza De
Project manager: Jennifer Wenzcl
Cover director: Amy Rosen
Manufacturing buyer: Julia Mcehan
Editorial assistant: Meg Weist
To my parents, Aldon Woods and Gwen Woods;
© 1997 by Prentice-Hall. Inc.
my wife, Brenda; and my daughter, Lori,
Upper Saddle River. New Jersey 07458 RLW

All rights reserved. No part of (his hook may be To my mother, Doris W. Lawrence: the loving memory
reproduced, in any form or by any means.
without permission in writing from the publisher.
of my father, James H. Lawrence, Sr.; my wife Carol;
and my children. Dory, Kent, Jr., and Jamie,
flic author and publisher of this book have used Iheir best efforts in preparing Ihis book. These efforts
KLL
include the development, research, and testing of the theories and programs to determine iheir
effectiveness. The author and publisher make no warranty of any kind expressed or implied, with
,

regard to these programs or Ihe documentation contained in this book The author and publisher shall
.

not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of.
,

the furnishing, performance, or use of these programs .

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 Contents

PREFACE XVII

INTRODUCTION 1

Part 1 Overview Of Dynamic Systems

1 INTRODUCTION TO MODELING AND SIMULATION 7

1 1
. Dynamic Systems 7
1
1 1
. . Examples of Dynamic Systems 7
112
. . Definitions Related lo Dynamic Systems 10

Modeling of Dynamic Systems 15

12
.1 . Steps in Modeling and Representing Dynamic Systems 15
122
. . Utility of Modeling and Simulation 17
13
. Scope of the Text 18
References 20

Nomenclature 20

Problems 21

vii

L
 Contents
viir
Contents ix

IC SYSTEMS AND S YSTEMS

2 MODELS FOR DYNAM 12
34 1 Rotational Springs 67
. .

SIMILARITY 3 4 2 Rotational Dampers 68

. .

Fomulation of Models for Engineering Systems 22

343 . . Discrete Inertias 69
22 3 44 Modeling Rotational Systems 70
11 1 Conservation Laws of Eng.neenng Systems
. .

2 I 2 Property Laws for Engineering Systems 25 35 .

Syslems of Combined Translational and
2 1J ,
Reduction of the Modeling Equations 26 Rotational Elements 73
26
11 Solution of the Differential Equations 36 .
'

D Alemberl's Principle 81
2 2.1 Classical Differential Equations 27
31
2 2 2 Transfer Function Formal for Differential Equations
. .
37 .
Lagrange's Equation 83
22 . . 3 Slate-Space Formal for Differential Equations 32 38 . Three-Dimensional Motion 87
23 Typical Inputs or Test Signals 34 39 Summary 88
.

23 1 Step Input 34
. .

2 3 2 Ramp Input 35
. .
References 88
2 3 3 Universal Inputs 36
. .

2 3 4 Pulse Inpul 37
. .
Nomenclature 88
2 3 5 Ramped Step Inpul 37
. .

Problems 89
2 3 6 Harmonic Inputs 37
. .

2 3 7 Common Test Signals 39

. .

24 .
Engineering Systems Similarity 40
24
4 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 99
. . 1 Effort and Flow Variables 42
24 2 Dissipalive Elements 42 4 1
. .
. Introduction 99
243
.
Effort Storage Elements 43
.

2 4 4 Flow Storage Elements 44

. .
42
.
Basic Elements 99
2 4 5 Summary of the Elements in En 42 1 Resistance 101
gineering Disciplines 45
. . . .

42
. . 2 Capacitance 102
References 46 423
. . Inductance 104
42 4 Definition of Impedance 105
Nomenclature 47 . .

4J Passive Circuit Analysis 109

Problems 48
43 1
. . Kirchhofrs Laws 109
432
. . Resistance Circuits 110
Part 2 Modeling of Engineering Systems 43
. .
3 Resistance-Capacitance Circuits 114
434
. . Resistance-Inductance Circuits 117
3 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 43
. .
5 Resistance-lnductance-Capacilance Circuits 119
53 4 36 Summary of Passive Circuit Analysis Techniques 121
3
. .

-
1 Introduction 53
32
44
.
Active Circuit Analysis 122
.

Systems of Units 53 44
. .
1 Hie Operational Amplifier 123
33 44 2 Typical Circuits 124
.

Translalional Systems S5 . .

3 I Translalio
J - -

nal Springs 55 45 Summary 127

-

lii nslalional Dampers

Discrete Mass 59
57 References 127

34
UA M(K,clin8T lational Systems 61 Nomenclature 128
.

Rotational Systems 67 Problems 128

 Contents
Contents xi
X

135
7 MIXED DISCIPLINE SYSTEMS 203
5 FLUID SYSTEMS
7 1 Introduction 203
51 Introduction 135 .

136 72 Electromechanical Systems 203

5.
2 Properties of Fluids .

72
52 1
. .
Density 136 . .
1 DC Motor Speed Control 204
722
52.2 Equation of State: Liquids 136 . . DC Motor Position Control 209
138
5 23 Equation of Slate: Gases
. 73
. Fluid-Mechanical Systems 211
52.4 Viscosity 141 73
. . 1 Hydraulic Position Servo 212
52
. .
5 Propagation Speed 143 732
. .
Pneumatic Position Servo 214
5 26
. .
Hiermal Properties 143
74
.
Electrohydraulic Position Servo 221
5 . 3 Reynolds Number Effects 143
75 Summary 223
54 Derivation of Passive Components 145
.

54
. . 1 Capacitance 145 References 223
542
. .
Inductance 150
Nomenclature 224
5 43
.
Resistance 151
Problems 225
55 . Summary 161
References 161

Nomenclature 162
Part 3 System Dynamic Response Analysis

Problems 163 8 FREQUENCY RESPONSE 231

6 THERMAL SYSTEMS 81 Introduction 231

169 .

61 . Introduction 169 82
.
Preliminaries 232
62 . Basic Effects 169 83
. First-Order Systems 233
6 2 1 Thermal Conduction 170
. .
831
. .
Introduction 233
62 2
.
Thermal Convection 178
.
832
. . Classical Solution 234
6 23 Thermal Radiation 181
.

83.3 Frequency Response 235

6 24 Thermal Capacitance 183 834
. .
. . Frequency Response Simulation 238
63 835 Low-Pass Filter 238
.

Circuit Analysis of Static Thermal Systems 183 . .

83.6 A First-Order Mechanical System 239

63.1 Thermal Conduction Circuits 183
63.2 Thermal Conduction and Convection Circuits 185 84
. Second-Order Systems 241
64 84 1 Classical Solution 241
.

Circuil Analysis of Dynamic dermal Systems 188 .

842
.

Frequency Response 246

OAI Singlc-Lumped Capacitance Modeling 189
. .

64 - .

2 Multiple-Lumped Capacitance Modeling 190 85

. Higher Order Systems 247
65 851 Introduction 247
.

Summary 197 . .

852
. . Pneumatic Servo System 247
References 197 853
. . Torsional System 249
Nomenclature 197 86
. Alternative Forms of System Description 250
Problems 198 87
. Summary 252

s
 Contents
Contents xiii
KM

References 253 10.3.4 Weight Transfer with Deceleration 313

10.3.5 Tire Adhesion 315
Nomenclature 253 10.3.6 Optimum Brake Distribution 316
10.3.7 Engineering Sizing for a Specific Application 318
Problems 254
259
10.4 DC Motor Speed Servo Control System 323
| TIME RESPONSE AND DIGITAL SIMULATION 10.4.1 Equaiions and Criteria for Sizing and Selection
of Components 324
o ,
i Introtluclion 25l* 10.4.2 Selection of Numeric Values 327

4 .
2 \niilylical Methods 259 10.5 Pneumatic Position Servo System 331
g2 1 First-Order Systems
. .

10.5.1 Static Operation Criteria 333

22 Second-Order Systems 261
. .

10.5.2 Dynamic Response Criteria 335

"
. 3 Mighcr-Oidcr Syslems 2t>} 10.5.3 Dynamic Response Simulation 340
OJ Digital Simulation 265 10.6 Summary 341
93 , . 1 IntroductioQ m
93 . .
2 Eulcr's MciIuhJ 265 References 341
9 v3 More Accurate Methods 27(1
9 34 Problems 341
. . Rungc-Kutta Methods 270
04 .
Systems of l;i|ualions 272
Q S APPENDIX A UNITS AND CONVERSIONS 347
Selection of (he Step Size 273
95
1 Selechon of n Fixed Step Size 273
. .

9 52 Selection of Output Inlerval and Final Time 276 APPENDIX B PROPERTIES OF MECHANICAL SYSTEM
. .

9t .
VwinNe-Step-Size Methods 271) COMPONENTS 352

Solution of Nonlinear Differential Equaiions 283 B l

. Elastic and Area Properties 352
B 1 1
. .
Torsion of Rods 352
Stiff Equations 28tS B 12
. . Bending of Beams 354
Summary 291) B2
. Mass Properties 355
References 21)(1 B2. . 1 Common Shapes 355
B22
. .
Parallel Axis Theorem 357
Nomenclature 290
B3
. Material Properties 358
Problems 291
References 358

rl 4 EnginrrrinR Applk.uions APPENDIX C VECTOR AND MATRIX ALGEBRA 359

C I Vectors 359
H> MUM DESIGN AND SELECTION OF COMPONENTS 301
.

C 1 1
. .
Definitions 359
UU Iniroduelion 301 C1.2 Operations 360
102 Voltage IWcr Supply Filter 302 C2 Matrices 362
C2.1 Definitions 362
lOJ Automot.ve Brake Sv tem 306 C2.2 Operations 362
C23
. Properties 364
.

C 2 4 Special Types of Matrices 364

, .

»i.innglouosoiuhe(ar 311
 Contents
XTV Contents xv

C3 Determinants 365 APPENDIX F LAPLACE TRANSFORM SOLUTION OF

C3.1 Definitions 365 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 426
C3-2 Evaluation by Cofactors 367
C33 Properties 367 Fl Introduction 426

C4 Matrix Inversion 368 F2 The Laplace Transform 426

C4.1 Definitions 368
C42 Properties 369 F .
3 Mathematical Properties of the Laplace Transform 428
Problems 370 F4 .
The Inverse Laplace Transform 428

APPENDIX D SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS 378 F5 Solution of Differential Equations by Laplace Transform
Techniques 432
D l
.
Introduction 378 F5
.1 . Step Input to a First-Order System 432
F52
. . Ramp Input to a First-Order System 433
D2
-

Nonhomogeneous Algebraic Equations 378

D21
. . Matrix Inversion 378 F6 .
General Approach to the Solution of Differential Equations 434
D2 2
. . Cramer's Rule 379
D2
. . 3 Gaussian Elimination 380
F7 Partial Fraction Expansion 434
F71
. .
Partial Fractions with Distinct Real Roots 435
D3
.

Homogeneous Equations 382 F72

. . Partial Fractions with Repeated Real Roots 437
D4 F73 Partial Fractions with Combined Distinct and Repeated
.

Linearity. Singularity and Rank 383 ,

Real Roots 438
D5 F 74 Partial Fractions with Distinct Complex Roots 439
.

Matrix Eigenvalue Problems 388 . .

D5
. .
1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 388 F7 5
. . Partial Fractions with Repeated Complex Roots 441
D5.2 Reduction to Diagonal Form 390 E7.6 Partial Fractions with Combined Distinct and Repeated
D6
Complex Roots 442
.

Systems of Nonlinear Algebraic Equations 391 F7.7 Partial Fractions with Combined Real and Complex Roots 443
Problems 3% F8 Solution of Differential Equations with Partial Fraction
Expansion 443
APPENDIX E
References 445
400
E I Problems 445
.

Introduction 400
E2
.

First-Order Systems 400 APPENDIX G STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION OF

E.

1 2 .

Initial-Condition Response 401 DYNAMIC SYSTEMS 448

E2
.

2 .

Step Input Response 402

E Concept of Stale Space 448
E 23 Ramp Input Respon Gl
se 404
.
.

.
24 .
Sinusoidal Input Respon se 405 G2 . State-Space Formulation 449
E3
.

Second Order Systems 409

-

E3 G3 Conversion from Classical to State Variables 450

.
1 Free Response 410
.

E3
.
2 Response to a Step In
.
G4 Conversion from Classical to State Variables with Input
£33 Response to a Ramp Input
put 414415 Derivatives 453
E3.4 Response to a Harmonic Excitation 416
E4 G5 . Conversion From State-Space to Classical Formal 457
.

Summary 420
G6 .
Transfer Functions 459
Reference 420
Problems 460
 XVI
Contents

APPENDIX H DIGITAL SIMULATION USING MATLAB 463

H .
l Introduclion 463

H2 .
MATLAB Environment 464
H3 Variables and Statements 464

H4 .
Script Files and Functions 465 Preface
H5 Fourth-Order Runge-Kutta Procedure 466
H6 .
Plotting Your Results 467
H7 .
Signals and Systems Toolbox 469
H8 . HELP! 471

References 471

APPENDIX I ANALOG SIMULATION 472

1 -
1 Introduclion 472
12 .

Computing Components 473

12
. .
1 Inverter or Sign Change 474
Approach
|t 22 2 Scaler or Fixed Gain Amplifier 474
- .
-

- .
3 Potentiometer 476
12
.

4 Summing Junction 476

.
This text is intended lo provide a comprehensive trealment of the modeling tech-
1 2 5 Integrator 476
- .

niques of the major types of engineering systems, the methods for solving the re-
126 Differentiator 477
. .

sulting differential equations, and the attendant mathematical procedures related to

L3 the representation of dynamic systems and the determination of their response char-
Classical Analog Computer Diagrams 477 acteristics.
14
.

S.a.e-Space Analog Computer Diagrams 478

The material is designed for a one-semester course in engineering at the un-
LS dergraduate or graduate level. The reader is expected to have completed the basic
Magnitude and Tme Scaling 481 lower division courses in chemistry, physics, mathematics, and engineering. The ap-
. " c Scaling 481
IJU Time Scaling 483 pendices supplement this background as necessary.
16
.
The introductory material on system dynamics gives a broad overview of the
concepts of dynamic systems and the systems approach to the analysis and design of
engineering systems. This should give the reader a feel for the similarity of the dif-
162 -
nfeScatS: 484 ferent engineering disciplines.
17
.

Summary 490 The modeling portions of the book begin with a discussion of the basic system
References 490 components of each engineering discipline and then show how to combine these
components inlo systems and how to obtain the appropriate governing differential
Problems 491 equation models. Mechanical, electrical, luid (hydraulic and pneumatic), and ther-

f
mal systems are treated in detail, and emphasis is placed on the similarity of the re-
sponse characteristics embodied in each of these physically dissimilar systems.
L 'N THE BOOK 493 We stress the importance of matching the system mathematical model to the so-
MiWm 10 """ED P,o,u„s lution technique. Thus, classical differential equation models are recommended for
INDEX 4')(.

515 xvii
 Preface
XVIII Preface xix

low-order linear systems that are to be solved using analytical differential equatior reader experience with these approaches The techniques for solving the three rep-
methods or transfer function techniques, and state-space formulations are emphasized
.

resentations of differential equations are presented in enough detail that the reader
for use with digital and analog simulation solutions. Both frequency-domain and time -

can solve typical equations. Classical solutions to differential equations and the
domain analysis techniques are presented. Laplace transform solution technique should be a review from a course in differen-
tial equations for most students; however enough material is presented in Appen-
,

Contents
dices E and F to allow the reader, if necessary to obtain a irst-time knowledge of
,

f
these methods.
Chapters 1 and 2 present the necessary background and preliminaries that tie together
the concepts of system dynamics for the major engineering disciplines. Chapters 3-6 Road maps"
present the techniques of modeling using conservation laws and properties of each of
the technical disciplines of mechanical electrical, luid, and thermal systems analysis
,
.
The chapters as well as the appendices, are more or less independent of one an-

f
,

Mixed systems, i.e..

..iiavu .".
i.e., systems
sjaivius composed
itiiis.
winpustu ofui combinations
11 Hi ii 'iii,unH in of
ui mechanical
ii ii/i 11,111 H ,11 electrical,
ciet luid. ,
,

other, and a number of "road maps" may be used to move through the material

f
.

and/or thermal components are are discussed

discussed inin Chanter
Chapter 7. 7.
,

One approach is to work straight through the text material covering modeling
The frequency response of dynamic systems or how dynamic systei
ystems respond ,
irst, frequency and lime response simulation second, and applications last. The ap-

f
to a steady-state sinusoidal input is presented in Chapter 8 Chapter 9 is devoted to
,
.
pendix may be used as required for review or lo ill in any deficiencies.

f
methods of time response and digital simulation .
Another way lo use the book effectively is lo study Chapters 1 through 3 (or 4),
In Chapter 10 the methods of the preceding chapters are brought to bear on
,
followed by Chapter 8 (on the frequency response) and/or Chapter 9 (on the time re-
the design and selection of components of representive sample systems sponse). The reader is then in a position to evaluate system behavior through fre-
and no nlinear sytem analysis These systems serve to tie the previous modelin
,
using linear quency and/or time simulation methods Using a computational and visualizational
analysis develpments together and to unify the reader's understanding of the gmod-
and
.

tool such as MATLAB with real-world example systems usually promotes greater
eling and emulation process as it might be employed by the practicing engineer. understanding of the basic principles. Covering the material in Appendix H on the
International S
throughout the text, ystem (SI) units and British units are used alternatively
and Appendix A
use of MATLAB early in the course will assist students in preparing for subsequent
presents conversions between the two We chapters. One may then take up Chapter 7 (on combined technology systems), Chap-
0f
Ztiv7
.

7 Uni,S the comPatibility of equations in terms of units Ap- ter 10 (on systems design), and the additional disciplines covered in Chapters 5 and 6
t LCm. 0n the of ,he *
o f .

me n
in any convenient order.

equat ror nie? ? and th« solution of algebraic

'
Acknowledgments
noU X Sh
Zl d cZ?™ I'T ,he16aPPe"di-s
f0rm in ApPendi ces C a"d
se
are intended D. For substantial
to provide the reader We wish to thank our colleagues Kliff Black. Raul Fernandez, A. Haji-Sheikh,
David Hullender, Frank Lewis, Panos Shiakolas, DanTuckness, and B. P. Wang, who
form S SSS qUa,i0nS * -d La place trans-
read portions of the manuscript and suggested improvements or suggested material
ferentiallustrative
l equatio exa pra!L n ohC F- MethodspreSen,ed
for converting for inclusion as homework problems. We especially appreciate the careful review of
e

linear dif- the entire manuscript by Gregory P. Starr. University of New Mexico, and Daniel J.
mples in A cndiX G Inman. Virginia Polytechinic Institute and State University. A number of important
to supplement the major ideas tha
t H " SUI,able eerences arc provided
.

ools are emphasized throughout Th USSed in ,he ,ext. and simulation software changes resulted from their analysis.
rf

using the Student Edition (rfSimAS Our thanks also go to Prentice Hall Executive Editor Bill Stenquist for his in-
Prob|ems in the text were solved valuable support in bringing this project to completion and to Ms. Margaret Mc-
guidance on the use of Mati AR f and ,n APpendix H the reader is provided
'

problems.' for ,he sol"»ion of typical dynamic simulation Granahan for encouraging us to complete the work. We appreciate the expert
assistance of Project Manager Jennifer Wenzel and Copy Editor Brian Baker in
bringing the manuscript to inal form.

f
We are deeply indebted to our wives. Brenda Woods and Carol Lawrence, for
space differential equations a in. rSpCrSed their patience during the preparation of the text.
,
n each of the chapters to give the
MATLAB it a regntcred Irademark of The MalhWorks
,
Inc.
 preface
xx

Your comments regarding the majen

US Z PduT Additional information concerning the material contained

Robert L Woods
.

Kent L. Lawrence

Hte launch of Apollo 13. (Photo courtesy of NASA!

 Introdu
pf
Unlucky 13 1
2

*
rocking gently in a Pacific swell The agony was over.... "You did not reach the Moon
.
.

UNLUCKY 13
"
" but you reached the hearts of millions of people on Earth " the president remarked
upon welcoming the astronauts back home .

Neither the United States' successful reach for the moon nor the associated
of Apollo 13. I rescue just described were feasible prior to the advent of advanced dynamic system
1nril 1970 Be iniiu'l "n"ncv Pr>,reeded withaJ modeling and simulation together with its contemporary computer implementation .

Apollo 13 took off on 11 AP"' 5S hours 55 minutes after lift-off. the missioi|
.

The whole fabric of engineering practice has changed from a cut-and-try experi-
customed smoothnc-. a 2mm m,|cs (32().(HK) km) fm mental art to a process in which informed decisions can be made using system simu-
became the unluc owards Moon, ds .n e
.row had just completed a telecast 1 lation very early in the design process before any prototype hardware is constructed
home, and accele at.ngto«a (code.n and tested. This in turn has led to improved engineering designs, more intimate in-
f dHSrwa n he « (A.u.nus,, w.th James Love.l in be- tegration of design with manufacturing, shortened time to production, and lower
SdS e I; a loud hang, .he spacecraft vibrated, and within seconds I system costs. Indeed, advances in modeling and simulation methods for dynamic
master alarm sounded. systems have contributed enormously to the technological progress of the late twen-
Mission control back on Earth were stunned when Swigert radioed through: "Okay tieth century.
Houston, we've had a problem here. It was a masterly understatement. What had hap-
"

pened was a potential disaster. A liquid oxygen tank in the service module had ex-
ploded. destroying the fuel cells that supplied power to the spacecraft and cutting off
iIk oxygen supply. The service module, including its propulsion motor, was dead. The
command module had a back-up battery pack, but that would be needed for re-enfl
In any case it had a life of only 10 hours, and Apollo 13 was 87 hours from home. .

NASA engineers scrambled to understand the problem that had occurred S ,

velop a solution ,
and assist in bringing the astronauts safely back to earth .
Mathe-
matical models of the spacecraft and its systems had. of course, been developed long
ago to predict the in-flight behavior of the vehicle before any Apollo missions were
launched .

These dynamic simulation models had been relined and updated as data
Ploratorv mission in.-T 'nVal.Ua.ble as g'neers attempted to convert afl
KSn
L of do pT So ' miS . S 10n-NUmer0US P-P d changes in l.fe supper,
hS rd be exam,ned throush d>'niimic s,muia-
fore selecting an appropriate Sue apptaT 8 """" COU,d CValUated i "

Hie crew's salvation rest,.,! with Ih 1 fl

they had to rel y on its limited pow er
m0dUle A(luarius- For the .u xl three dajfl
home
Bey fired ,he LM's i Sll'l V*™'and i,s engin" them bacl
«swing .hen, around th Moon anri h " APollo"s trajectory into one thl
"

1
'

0n 17 APn'Apollo ,3 was with n,baCk,0E

arth -
Sc m0f,hedamage A ou?"1 AS "cture drifted away thel
h ny"riUrVer.l,mcs
niHdUle "lifc -f'of ndoZr od1Crhri b away. Next, the,
"

in "

' '
PS U, 1
hi, ,he Ea S .'.mosphere <
rth
-

"
"h"> KcrM ,
The Wuslnu «. qUarler 0f 3,1 hOUr-
 Part 1

Overview of
Dynamic Systems

gL t

ll e Bell Hoeing V22 OsprcyTillrolor Aircraft. (Photo courtesy of Bell HelicopterTextron. Inc.)
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction to
Modeling and
Simulation

If I have seen further [than you and Descartes] it is by standing upon the shoul -

ders of Giants" 1 . 1 DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Sir Isaac Newton in a 1675 letter to Robert Hooke This text discusses both the modeling of dynamic systems as found in the major en-
gineering disciplines and solutions of the resulting differential equations by analyti-
cal and computational means The book is intended for use at the introductory level
.
,

but serves the practicing engineer as a reference source as well It presents modeling
.

of the engineering disciplines using a unified approach Since the equations that rep-
.

resent the dynamics of a physical system can take several different forms we em- ,

phasize selecting the form most compatible with the mathematical method or
numerical process that is ultimately to be used in solving the equations. This chapter
presents general considerations that will be used throughout the text.

1 1 . . 1 Examples of Dynamic Systems

Static systems have an output response to an input that does not change with time;
ie
. ., the input is held constant. This means that the output always has the same in-
stantaneous relationship with the input. Dynamic systems have a response to an
input that is not instantaneously proportional to the input or disturbance and that
may continue after the input is held constant Dynamic systems can respond to input
.

sicnals. disturbance signals, or initial conditions.

Examples of dynamic systems are all around us. TTiey may be observed in com-
mon devices employed in every day living. Figure LI, as
neering systems such as those in spacecraft that took astronauts to the JHJ
engineering disciplines and include mechamca
J l ,

systems are found in all major

7
 Chap 1
|ntroduction to Model.ng and Simulati on

Sec. 1.1 Dynamic Systems

9
s

or fluid flow .

A city water tower has a dynamic response of the height of the water as
a function of the amount of water pumped into the tower and the amount being used
by the citizens. If a garden hose is suddenly blocked at its end when water is flowing
through it .

the pressure in the hose will have a dynamic response . Airflow across a
cavity in a lube will cause a dynamic response (generate an acoustic lone) in an
CRT organ pipe. A waler pump with an accumulator lo damp out pulsations will have a
Auio
dynamic response of the output pressure when in use .

Thermal Systems. Thermal systems have components that provide resis-

tance (conduction convection, or radiation) and capacitance (mass and specific
,

heal) when exciled by temperature or heal flow. A healing system warming a house
Figure 1.1 Examples of dynamic has a dynamic response as the temperalure rises lo meet the set point on the ther-
Boiling Pol
WHa Tower j systems. 1 mostat. Placing a pot of water over a burner lo boil has a dynamic response of the
temperature. The size of the pot, the material il is made of. the amount of waler in the
thennal system. .n p«ran he observed as well in natural systems
They can pot. and the size of the burner all play a role in how quickly the waler comes to a boil.
e ctrical. fluid, and
,

dynamicbe.
Mixed Systems. Some of thc more interesting dynamic systems use two or
here- more of the previously mentioned engineering disciplines, with energy conversion
between the various components. Figure 1.2 shows several examples.
Mechanical Systems. Systems that possess significant mass, inertia and
spring nergy dLpation counts driven by ces to„
a

placements are considered to be mechanical systems. An automob.le is a good ex

ample of a dynamic mechanical system It has a dynamic response as it speeas up. 1.
f
.

slows down, or rounds a curve in the road The body and the suspension system ol
.

the car have a dynamic response of the position of the vehicle as it goes over a bump.
An airplane in flight has a dynamic response of its speed and altitude as it maneu- Speaker
Aciuaior
vers in the air A paint shaker at the hardware store with its unbalanced motor sus-
.

pended on springs, provides a dynamic response of the

the device is in use A musical drum has a dynamic res position of the frame when
.

sition of the membrane The structural frame of a buildiponse or vibration of the po-
.

sponse or v.bration due to external loadi ng may have a dynamic re-

ng, such as wind forces or ground motions
Fif-ure 1.2 Examples of mixed
Hiinclude
ve StSS
Space Heaicr systems

enSSS
Knginc

vI With reSiStiVe T
-

transistors or amplif ntl n 7 CUrrCnt- eleclromagnetic component

,0 find E,eCtr0n,C C,rCU, l Electro-Mechanical. Systems employing an
trical systems with imporCL .
ec-
thai converts a current into a force generally have a dynamic response. Examples

has a dynamic respond SeCS?86 charac isticsS0od

Th
am

A CXamPleSreceive
television 0f solenoid aciuaior. and electric motors. In a
W tuning circuit which alS? arc a loudspeaker in a stereo system, a is transformed into movement of
-

thc Picturc on the screen of the scfl

.
e
,

loudspeaker, electrand current from the amplifier

icalihe subsequcnl air pressure Huctualions thai cause us lo hear
namic response, and a simpler thn.!! 10 "
,he desircd channel, also has a dy -

voltage and current respond ihat 2 "°

imp0rtant- mple is the dyna c the speaker cone
C1nuid eSyst Ur Whcn
,.
swi the amplified sound id-mechanical
ic systems with l
f u
.

tch a light on or off. ]

ems fl .
-

,1 Fluid-Mechanical. Hydraulic or pneumat les are a hydraulic pump.

yXa
orifice, restrictions conversion components
exhibit dynamic behavior. Examp
l uctors) ,
,
control valvej
and actuators excited by prc
 Chap. 1 Introduction to Modeling and Sirnu,
10 J Sec. 1.1 Dynamic Systems 11

nH a hvdraulic motor drive. A hydraulic servo sv«.

SE S»
,

-is a good exa.p e of a c „ mmo

. „ e.ec. that may occur randomly or unexpectedly The initial conditions are the initial val
.
-

.
ues of the dynamic variables of the system The dynamic variables of a system are
.

mechanical dynamic system. those variables whose time derivatives appear in the governing equations.
A combustion engine use d in a car, truck ship.« As an example of a system and its response consider a vehicle traveling down
Thrrmo Mechanical. ,
,

airplan
fTa thermo-fluid-mechanical (or simply, thermomechanical) device,
into luid power and then mto mechan.cal pow
si n e, the road and passing over a bump The positions of the wheel and the body of the
.

Tonverts thermal energy er vehicle relative to the ground could be the system variables Their differential equa-

f
.

Thermal dynamics, luid dynam ics, and mechanical dynamics are all involved in ih, tions could be written from a knowledge of the spring rates mass, and damping val- ,

'
ues of the vehicle s components. The initial conditions would be the values of these

f
process. I
variables just before the vehicle hits the bump The bump would be the input to the
.

Electro-Thermal A space heater that uses electric current to heat a system, and any aerodynamic turbulence could be considered a disturbance. From
ilament, which in turn warms the air, has a dynamic response to the surroundinj these considerations, it is possible to develop equations and solve them for the out-
f

environment. An electric water healer is another common example of ar puts, i.e., the displacements of the wheel and body. The maximum stresses in the
;
electrothermal dynamic system. springs could then be found, as could other critical performance parameters neces-
sary in the design of the vehicle.
1 12. . Definitions Related to Dynamic Systems A dynamic system is described by time-differential equations: therefore, the
future response of the system is determined by the present state of the system (the
initial conditions) and the present input. Thus, a dynamic system may continue to
Modeling is the process of identifying the principal physical dynamic effects to be have a time-varying response after the inputs are held constant. In contrast, a static
considered in analyzing a system writing the differential and algebraic equation
system is described by algebraic equations, so that the present response of the sys-
,

mgKthe equatioT0"l
ns to a conveni
aWS andentPr0perty l a ws of the relevant
differential equation form discipline, and redm tem is totally determined by the present value of the input, and there will be no
change in the response in the future if the input is held constant.
\ system is a set of interactin
interaCli
heJ TnS
Son ol
r f r ?the g components
n8 COmp0nenls connected together
to in such
gether in such aa wav
wav
of one component alects the state of th.
ic variation or response in the state of one component affects the state of thf
u
The transient response of a dynamic system to an external input refers to the
behavior of the system as it makes a transition from the initial condition to the inal

f
.

In this text,
ing disciplines
"system" refers to a collection of com ponents from the major en -

condition. The transient response is expressed as a function of time. Figure 1.4 shows

The major disciplines of engineering systems are mechanics electricity arB

.

] a typical dynamic response of a system. A dynamic system will reach a steady state
have died out. The time it takes to reach the steady state is
electronics lu.d mechanics and luid controls (i f ,
after all of the transients
ncluding hydraulics and pneumai
f

S nou r" Ma8netism and optics a,so in*olve d ynamic system' Transient Response Steadv Stale

diwesturncel LVr
mean ede S W its response to external inpu
U shows this relationship By outp-*
sponse of th e sy t
the differential equation the rr
equation that represent the
.

old disturbances or perturhai fUnctions of the independent variable j

"

0r lhc for
t

cin&function
P "urbatmns we mean those
,
extern
It e\
effec«
Response
al environmental
|nu:.i »

Inpuu
Setiling
Outputs Time
M 1.4 Typical dynamic response
and settling of a system.
Time. /

"re u Excitation and respo

or a system .
 Chap. 1 Introduction to Modeling and Simuiati0ri
12
Sec. 1.1 Dynamic Systems
13
i™ We normally think of the steady state as the response thai
irSptts constant; however, we can also have a stcady-s.a,:
„

r
" inn.., ilh f 1
eXpreSS 3 SyStem reSP0nSe variable normalized by the
s "

some'of its derivatives, summed or d.fferenced together, w.th the

the dder ndtehnt variabie def in/d S
defined as the rat.o of the output rati0- linear SyStemS the " n is
-

to the input for a system with zero initial condi

tions. as determmed from the Laplace
-

response and
t function. The response of a system can be due to the initi
re-
Laplace transform (see Appendix F) of Eqtransform of the system equation The .

u t equated to the inpu al .

(1.2) with zero initial conditions gives

conditions of the dependent variable or an excHatmn by a vanaUon m the inputs An [ s1 + als + a0]X(s) = F{s) (U)
example of the classical differential equation form is shown in Eq. (1.1):
The Laplace transform converts the system equation from one in which time is the
d2x dx independent variable to one in which s is the independent variable. The result is an
di
s -domain expression rather than a time-domain expression.
Solving Eq. (1.5) for the output-input ratio gives the transfer function:
(1
(0 ) = x0
"

X(s) 1
(1.6)
F{s) s1 + a.s + aQ
The output-input ratio can also be written symbolically in the time domain using the
D-operator notation Ref. 1.6. Rearranging Eq. (1.4) gives
.

Here x{i) is the response variable the a's are constants that depend upon the
,

system parameters includes external inputs and x0 and i0 represent the initial m i
,
,
_
(1.7)
state and initial rate of the system at the instant just before / = 0 (designated as 0 ) "

.
/(/) D2 + o, D + afl
ZlZ nTT. CalCUJatin8 the funCti0n that describes the response of the While the Laplace transform (s-domain) expression, Eq. (1.6), is the usual de.
h3 TeVTesents a dif f erentiation with res, inition of the transfer function, in this text we will also ind it convenient to refer to

f
o me
o oe. so that this system of equations can be written in the following fJ the time-domain form. Eq. (1.7), as a transfer function. If derivatives off{i) occur in
t

the right-hand side of the differential equation, the numerator of the transfer func-
tion also contains s or D terms, and we frequently refer to the transfer function as
x + ali + a0x = f(t)
the ratio of two polynomials in s (or D).
x(0-) = State-space differential equations form a set of simultaneous irst-order differ-

f
x ii (1
ential equations. The state variables are the dependent variables of each irst-order

f
i(O-) = i i differential equation and represent the dynamic response vanables of the system.
TTie 0- notation is not used freauentlv in .u- An example of equations put into the state space format is as follows:
-

note that for initial conditions anrT S teXt: however, it is always important t(
and just after the time t = o PU,S'We should insider the values just bef
we can also use the diff
.

(1.8b)
p y = a3xysin(x) + g{i)
SpeCt t0 time ( e Ref 1.6); rCnl,a, 0Perat«' D to express differentiation with (1.8c)
z = a.x z + a5e w + h(t)
~
-
.

x(0) = x0
llius ,
dt y(0) = y«
z(0) = zo s*
-
'

_
.„ t

D2: d2x
dt'

Can Wr,te Eq -
(1.2) as
tion (1.2) is a second-order equauon.
lD2 + ol.(0 m (i
 Chap. 1 Introduction to Modeling and Simulation
Sec, 1 2
14 .

Modeling of Dynamic Systems

15
„„„atirm<t the order is the number of independeni
J! 7SS&1 0.a, (...) „ , S . aS
second- or higher order systems do noihTl
irNon,i n ear s- -
nuniber of *

solution is not possible for a nonnn. . OWn analytic SO,u,ions ,f an analy

-

lution of the non near ' 3 T ?' W™™™10 he so-

"

" simulation methods We 1 ! a™Z;8 * f0Und by

k
USin8 appr0priale
i he a second va,ue of ,he argumen., is .he same as the func- r«m«..»„«- . , . n an aPProx,mat,on a computational solution.
.

en

don evaLled with the sum of the two arguments. Mathematteally, the flrst eond,- in.earM P " S0,U?0nS ,0 differential eClUations can be
mtegrat.on usmg a d.gnal computer
. numerical
,
.

Numerical integration is ,he process of com

tion is expressed as putmg an approx.mate solution to the integral of a derivative function by a numeri-
fax) = a fix) (1-9) cal algorithm. The algorithm propagates the solution of the differential equation by
usmg small increments in time Thus, the solution of the differential equation is
.

In other words, a multiple of the input results in a multiple of the output. known only at certain discrete times Computational methods commonly employ
.

The second condition is j the state-space representation of differential equations Calculation of the response .

fix, + x2) = fix,) + fix2) (1.10) of a dynamic system in this way is commonly called digital simulation .

In analog computation, the differential equation is represented by an inter-

In other words, a sum of the input results in a sum of the output. connection of linear and/or nonlinear electrical components and electronic integra-
We can combine these two properties as follows: tors (operational amplifiers with capacitive feedback). Since the equations that
govern the electrical system are the same as the equations that govern the dynamic
/(a,*, + 02*2) = fl, ftjQ + a2 fix2) (1.11) system under consideration, an analogy between the two systems is formed. The
Thus, the only linear function is a straight line through the origin; the form electronic integrators then the differential equation by executing an electri-
"
solve
"

y = wijc + 6 is not a linear function according to these definitions! cal dynamic behavior corresponding to that of the system being studied. Many sys-
tems can be simulated by making an analogy between the voltages displayed by an
"
"

A linear combination of variables results from the sum of a multiple of the

variables. For example L = ax + by, where a and b are constants is a linear combi-
, ,
analog computer and the variables of the equations being solved.
nation of the variables x and y. A linear equation is formed by a linear combination
of the variables and their derivatives
A linear differential equation is an equation
.

formed by a linear combination of the derivatives of the system variables For ex- .
1 .
2 MODELING OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS
'

ample. L = ax + bx + cx, where a b, and c are constants, is a linear differential senting Dynamic Sys tems
1 Steps in Modeling and Repre
,

equation, and Eqs (1.1), (1.2), and (1.8a) are linear, constant-coefficient differential
.
12
. .

equations.
A linear system is described by linear algebraic and differential equations. By Figure 1.5 illustrates the severa l -ges ed in jhe - «
contrast, a nonlinear system has nonlinear combinations of the variables and their Shown first is the actual dynam.c "Ae«a«l«
' ar or nonlinear behavior of
derivatives. Examples of nonlinear functions are the product of two variables the sponse characteristics that cor spon Jo
the system and the dynam.c
,

wish to determ ine.

square of a variable a trigonometric function of a variable and so on. Equations
,

(1.8b) and (1.8c) are examples of nonlinear differential equations.

,

tem, of course, possesses linearity (or lac of..

the system-its
Fhe analytic solution of a differential equation is the mathematical expression Second is the engmeert PW*" Jy neglect some nonlmeannes or
of the dependent variable as a function of time and may include exponentials, sinu-
soids. and/or other mathematical functions An analytic solution of a given differen-
.

U ,,0 n
nn f
rCqU,
A
rCS lmowlcd8e of initial conditions and the inputs as explicit
dast clTd? .
n .

y,,C S0lUli0nS arC foUnd e'"P»"ying techniques for solving

tZ
pcndicxsTZTff
hik! I forCqU1
;i discussion
a,,0ns 0r of these meth
L«P ods.)e transform techniques. (See Ap
t utua r Cq i0nS WCl1 und
'
erst
usu.lly can be obtained by applying the widel
-and their analytical solu- mathematical model is q
y accepted methods thai are dis-
 Chap. 1 introduction to Modeling and Simulation Sec. 1.2 Modeling of Dynamic Systems
17
16

Oriainal Design

Modification Actual Physical

Dynamic System Determine Effects
to Be Considered
Modeler s Perception
'

of Dynamic System Write Component and

System Equations sponse ot the system. It is important to note these differences.
Mathematical
Representatior Classical Differential Equations
Transfer Function
mance of the
mam t Isystem
f andSy.Stem' ca,culation
system
,
of response,
redesign naturally analinysisa complete
fit together of the perfor-
cycle
State-Space Equations
as an engineering tool. No single step is valuable, except as an academic exercise un-
Calculated less the cycle is complete. It after the performance has been evaluated, the system
Response Analytic Solution does not display the desired response, the system and its model should be modified
Digital Simulation or the components of the existing model adjusted to obtain the required output.
Analog Simulation
Performance
Analysis Static Gain 122 Utility of Modeling and Simulation
Disturbance Sensitivity Figure 1.5 Modeling sequence and . .

Dynamic Characteristics levels of representation.

The major advantage of modeling a system and analyzing its response is that it al-
m before it is built. This is sometimes
lows us to predict the behavior of the syste isting sys-
the mathematical representation could include some approximations to simplify the called virtual prototyping We also can analyze the performance of an ex
"

"
.

the system, or we
analysis: therefore, the equations may not exactly represent the engineer s percep tem with the intent of improving the static or dynamic behavioralofinput
-

what might happen to a system with an unusu or condition

tion of the real system. can determine
Fourth is the calculated response of the system. The system response ex- without exposing the actual system to danger. ted to have a certain
pressed by analytic solutions to differential equations is an exact solution of those For example, if we were designing a new system and wan
we could select components of the correct size to give us the
equations. Some slight error might exist, however, between the response computed level of performance,
by a numerical or analog computer method and the actual solution of the differen- desired result. On the other hand, if the system already exists, and we want to im-
lp us determine which comhe
-

tial equation. prove its performance, modeling and analysis could he

and the amount of change necessary. If we wanted to change t
The fifth stage involves the analysis of the performance of the dynamic ponents to change
system, as expressed by specific response measures. This text discusses both
frequency-domain and time-domain analysis methods for evaluating the system's
performance.
One of the most important responsibilities of the engineer is the process of ex-
amining a certain combination of values for the components, determining the per-
pU, a multimillion dollar 2 3a can immediatel y tell us the
formance of the system and adjusting the values of the components until an
,
-

acceptable performance is achieved .

This cut-and-try procedure can be done by as- A good f5 ' l ZZ- little analysis .he dynamic
semblying hardware or by mathematical modeling The advantage of mathematical
.

performance hf 16
"
dynamic characteristics, this will give us a
modeling and analysis is that it is usually faster and much less expensive than ex
imenting with hardware! Thus per-
the iteration loop shown in Fig 1.5 in which the sys-
,
.

tem is modified is an important part of the engineering process .

It
movin
is important to note that, because the model may be simplified (e.g., by re- lauon could
g nonhncanttet and higher order d ynamics) or approximated, the calculated Of course, our solutions lo J*™ , . thev.acnts
simu to chaage
T yliC S(,1U,ion <,f lhc di£tere*ial equation may be one step re- semation of .he actual "" know whtch c
Zt ,,f uhC SyStem-lf the mathematical model contains
T Tiis rr
u
x

i,na,ytic so,uuon is xwo steps rcmovcd from ihe ac-

 Chap. 1 Introduction to Modeling and Simulation
Sec. 1 3
18 .
Scope of Text
19
.
i . h« Hioital comoutation is favored over the use of an-
c - the irst place given ,

alytic solunons to d.fTerent.a TLl of effort experience, or time on the part

f
iween the two We emohasi L information on conversions
C =r S nd. we canUe changes in the mode.
tem and quickly obtam the response usmg t he compatihihty of nt S
be-

(di crential equations) of the sys an equatton that has been derived is to check the dimensions o c lZ * a corre
hnique as before, whereas by analyt.cal methods, a change in
f

ame computational tec express.on of phys.cai principles must be homogeneous in its dimension
'

the differential equations might require a completely different analytic solution to Appendix B provides often used information on geometrical, mass, and mate-
be developed. Third, and perhaps most important, nonlinear systems can be handled
-

rial properties of components of mechanical systems

bv simulation with relative ease, whereas analytic solutions of specific nonlinear sys- .

Reference material on vector and matrix algebra and on the solution of al

lems may not be possible. braic equations is presented in a complete for ge-
m in Appendices C and D respectively.
It is important to note that a numerical solution of a set of system equations ,

For the reader who is not familiar with these subjects, these appendices provide
gives only a numerical result for that particular circumstance; a large number of sim- much more than just a brief review .

ulations may be required to detect performance trends corresponding to variations A discussion of the solution of ordinary differential equations by classical
in the values of parameters. So while it may sometimes be difficult to ind, an ana- methods is given in Appendix E and the solution of linear differential equations by

f
.

lytical solution contains the complete representation of the behavior that is modeled Laplace transform techniques is presented in Appendix F The definition and format
.

and may be evaluated over the entire range of performance as easily as it is evalu- of the state-space representation for dynamic systems are presented in Appendix G
ated for a specific point of the system's operation Much more information is always
.

as are methods for converting linear differential equations to and from the state-
given by a complete analytical solution, provided that it can be found .

space form. In Appendix H the reader is provided instruction on the use of the
MATLAB software system for analysis and design of dynamic systems. Appendix I
13 SCOPE OF THE TEXT sets forth the fundamentals of analog simulation.
Modeling techniques resulting in the derivation of classical equations, transfer
The text is organized into four parts: functions, and state-space differential equations are included throughout to give the
] reader experience with each approach. The techniques for solving each of these three
kinds of differential equations are presented in enough detail that the student can
Part I "Overview of Dynamic Systems," consisting of Chapters 1 and 2 ore- 1 master typical situations. Solutions of classical differential equations and the Laplace
transform solution technique should be a review from a course in differential equa-
tions: however, enough material is presented in Appendices E and F to allow the stu-
dent. if necessary, to obtain a irst-time knowledge of these solution techniques

f f
The derivation of the inal mathematical representation of a dynamic system

cal syMems . nJstt J T" 01 systems, electri- depends upon the intended solution or analysis technique as indicated in Table I.I
™
"mponems
, are consid d in Sle/v eleC,riCal -

nUid- and/OT lhe™al 1

Pari III '*s * "opicr /.
0*Z -Pr i ses Ch apters 8 and 9. I
dynamic systems, while Sa £ dl iT and stability of I presentation among these three representations.
p
ptal emulation Pler ,S devo to methods of time response and j
J . TABLE 1.1 DIFFERENTIAL
SOLUTION METHODS
EQUATION
.
Solution Method
m d I0' COmP"
0ThaPter 10
"ts of a nulTr of ;OU8lU 10 bear 00- " which
and
System Equation Formal
Analytical
tX n:,n,inCar " T ' - geneous and
" r Classical
TYansfer Function Laplace Transform
m()d(.lin 1 '
(
Digital Simulation
and S,m
,,w,h" and to unifyy thhCe rreader s ?1C.S SerVe lo lie previ- j
-

State Space Analog Simulation

u,ali«>n process. ""derstanding of the 1
 Chap. 1 Introduction to Modeling and Simulation
20 Chap 1 .
Problems
21
to omit coverage of one of the chapters on model-
WWle it -ay be * the interdependence of modeling
ing in a parncular First of all. what good is a model of a PROBLEMS

d:« r - T m
td T old what good is a differential equation solution techn.que tf we cannot
form it for solv-
model a system and derive the associated different.al equations in a

f
ing? Therefore, we must be able to model dynamic systems and to arrange the re- 1 .
2 Fo two of the systems in the previous problem draw a diagram that identifies the ohvs
and ™y sturbt crs:
.

sulting equations into the form necessary for the customary differential equation rresstitute the ,nput
sketchhTt;e the output
-
-

solution technique-classical, Laplace transform, or digital or analog simulation. j 1

ol the expected ponse as a function of time .

This text is intended to give a complete presentation of the modeling tech- -

3 evaluate
IZZVthe reaction
T70meoff the
1™ofs
a dynamic sysleni by performin8an 'o
niques of major types of engineering systems, the solution techniques for the result- ystem to inputs. For example, you could turn your ther -

mostat up or down two degrees and determine how long it takes the heatin
ing differential equations, and the attendant mathematical procedures related to the conditioning system to reach the temperature g or air
representation of dynamic systems and the determination of their response charac- set point. Then repeat the procedure for
four degrees and remark on any differences Or you could hold a ruler or yardstick
,

teristics. Illustrative examples, practice problems, and references are provided to

.

lat against a tabletop with most of it projecting over the edge. Then pull down the tip
.

f
complement the principal ideas discussed. j a specified amount ,
and let the measuring rod vibrate. How long does it take to stop?
How does the amount of overhang affect things? Heat a pan of tap water. How long is
it until the water boils? How does the amount of water influence things? You can think
REFERENCES of other possibilities as well.
Submit a description of the experiment you performed and how the results varied with
1 changes in the parameters. Draw any conclusions you think are appropriate.
.
1 Qose Charles M and Frederick , ,
Dean K. Modeling and Analysis of Dynamic Sys-
tems, 2d ed Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston. 1993 1 4 Suppose you accidentally leave a lashlight turned on after using it. and the battery runs
.

f
.
.

down. Describe this electrical system and its inputs, outputs, and response. Make a
.

1 .

2 Dorny C Nelson Understanding Dynamic Systems: Approaches to Modeling Analy-

.

sketch of the response as a function of time. Gather the relevant physical data on a typ-
sts, and Destgn .

Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs NJ 1993 g' * ical lashlight, and see whether you can estimate the time required to run the batteries
2d ed Prentic; Ha,1 En W00d Cliffs NJ-1992-

f
14 *Zw mT* T ' -

'
down.

ttS f
'

*** ntrol of Dynamic Systems. John Wiley 1 . 5 Determine the approximate circumference of a circle by dividing the circle into a num -

ber of straight lines of equal length. Use several increasingly shorter chord lengths, and
f

show how this numerical process approaches the exact result.

1 . 6 Repeal the steps in the previous problem, but now use the triangular wedge to compute
successive approximations to the area of the circle.
Systems .
Addison e y ruonsning Co .
a"dReading
,
A MA, 1970.
1
USlander -
M. Control and Dynamic
1 7 Identify one or two system processes with which you are familiar in which (a) thet mput
dou-
.

and output are linearly related, (that is, if you double the input value, the outpu
bles) and (b) the input-output relationship is nonlinear.
NOMENCLATURE L8 Using the definitions of linearity (Eq. 1.8 and 1.9), prove that + not a

I)
' ' 7 coefficients .9 S itionsofHneanty (Eq. l.Sand .9,proM) - is not a linear
differential operator
f
$
CVtlTrv l
external input
= d/dt HO LTng the definitions of linearity (Eq. l.Sand .. vethat ) *********
Laplace transform variable m S Virions of lineanty (E* . -8 and t.9, prove that is no. a l.n-
X response
(independent
variabl
variable)
e
ear function.
). l-h)
UPl t,ansr„rm„f
,
(,)andyt
 Sec. 2.1
Formu'at'on of Mode's for Eng,neer,ng Systems
CHAPTER 2 23

givenL Tin 0
' f0r
L A ThT P ( atio a qUantity states
3 V0lume selected consideration-a "control *vol-*
1

Models for Dynamic r t thou h r n

a e en
C e S

ha
,
80 OUt 0r be St0red-11 is nl
he n!iantih
the rvation laws of engineerin
quant, y conserved, we almost always use the law in the gtime-derivative
are stated in terms of
format-

Systems and Systems for example the conservation of charge in electronic systems is expressed as the law
,

of conservation of current (current being the time derivative of charge) Thus, the
time derivative of the quantity stored provides the framework on which the differ-
.

Similarity ential equations used in each discipline are based.

The storage term can be treated directly or can be treated as a separate com-
ponent that is connected to the location in question. In the subsequent discussion of
each law, notice that the time-differential conservation laws are set equal either to
zero (if dynamic storage elements are considered) or to the derivative of the quan-
tity being conserved (which gives us the differential equation directly).

Linear Momentum. The principle of linear impulse-momentum states that

the translational momentum is equal to the applied impulse. The momentum equa-
tion can be applied to the motion of a rigid body or a fluid. The momentum of a mass
particle is the product of the mass m and the translational velocity v.
Stated in the time-differential format, the momentum law becomes the famil-
2 1 FORMULATION OF MODELS FOR ENGINEERING SYSTEMS iar second law of motion established by Isaac Newton (English mathematician.
1642-1727) and can be stated as follows: The sum of all forces acting on a mass par
-

Mathematical models for dynamic systems are derived from the conservation laws ticle causes a rate of change in the momentum of the particle with respect to time.
of physics and the engineering properties of each system component. These basic Mathematically.
formulations are then combined or simplified to achieve the desired differential
equation form. The preferred forms are: i 2X. = 1M (2.1)

Alembert pr
i nciple for i
f xed-mass systems (J. D Alembert.
If we employ the D
"

(1) The classical representation of a single nth-order differential equation.

11 we employ inc J
French mathematician. 1717-83), we can mm . k f h rate of change of momentum
(2) The transfer function format, which gives the output in terms of the input.
(3) The state-space format of n simultaneous first-order differential equations
'

Analytic solutions in the form of the sum of exponential terms are found from the system and can be written as
classical format of linear differential equations Laplace transform solutions to the
.

2ifm m dt
Stu, rr,C are f0Und from lhe transfer function f o nnat Computa-
T t ire r8 3 dl8,lal 0r anal08 COmpUtCr are state-space The nrinciple of angular impulse-momenfum slates
rm exercises ,n this- be - Angular Momentum of mo,m,Ulini .uh
m r u

21
1 Conservation Laws of Engineering Systems
-body or wi,h respect ,0 3 hxcd
. .

Z*: ' SyrS ' Up0n lhe conservation of rotation for

Stated in
the body.
the
h lar momentum law becomes
10fixed axis
and ofmoments al t.-
.emtum hv/s 1S discussed
evcr k ,n,crc,IIIt.! KS?,0* ; SPeC, f i C disciP,inc- Each of
' 'i; ****** chapters on each subject;
the COll- Newton s second law.
'

f y or about a
rotat.on tor the

axis through the center of mass

.
,
mtroduce them here to see the similarity among them .
 Chap. 2
Models for Dynamic Systems and Systems Simila
24 Sec. 2 1 .

Formulation of Models for Engineering Syste ms

e with resp ect to time, of the angular momentUn) 25
is equal to the rate of chang
for that axis:
Vr _ - \M (2.3
S -reZrxorrz *zr--- -
n.Aipmtet s
'
orinciple can also be applied to problems involving rotational
obtain the following statement about the balance of
r

.0 .

aw of conservat,o„ o power ,
or the irs, law of thermodynam cs Xch T
torques on the body: th sum of all power (heat transfer meehanical power Z 1hermal7„wer rha
a„ ate
s

f
,
.

(It
(2.4) ume
ul oflnT
the system
. 'S Tit o ,he ra,e M Which ene is bei"« s'«<i <* ' rol vol
Mathematically
.

Conservation of Charge. The law of conservation of charge states that the

charge in an electrical system is constant. Stated in time-differential format, the law 2
+ mz
] CI
(2.7)
becomes Kirchhoffs current law (G. R. Kirchhoff, German physicist, 1824-87) and
Again, if we consider the storage term as a separate dynamic storage component
states that the sum of all currents at a node in an electrical circuit is equal to the rate then the sum of all power at a control volume must be equal to zero
,

at which charge is being stored at the node: j

.

When there is no significant energy exchange (heat transfer or work) with the
dQ de environment, and no energy is being stored the law of conservation of power reduces
y =
(2.5a)
,

to the Bernoulli equation (D Bernoulli. Swiss physicist and mathematician 1700-82).

.

for luid low:

f
If we interpret this to mean that charge can be stored only in a capacitor C, then we
P v2
can simply connect a capacitor to the node and state that the sum of all currents is -I- ~ I- z§ = constant along a streamline (2.8)
equal to zero: P 2

2 1 . . 2 Property Laws for Engineering Systems

Zj'node t- T = 0
"

dl
(2.5b)
The property laws are derived from the various special properties of each discipline
Conservation of Ma<:<t tv. i in engineering and perhaps geometric or mathematical properties as well.
mass of a luid system k cZl . 0f con r on of mass states that the In mechanical systems, the viscous friction of a piston and cylinder tilled with
comes the law oS vl f
f

"
in time- erential format, the law be- luid gives rise to damping. This type of friction can exhibit a linear or nonlinear re-
« equal to the rate of change with
135' rate 1,16 net mass low rate at a location
-
f
lationship between force and velocity. It is actually the combination of a luid sys-
f

f
£ s of a fluid at a locat on ennT'.!t0 time'of the mass * that location. With tem with a mechanical system. Coulomb friction is a purely mechanical effect also
of the fluid at that locatioHe can lue 1111010f denSity P and
, called dry friction (friction without lubrication). This type of friction is always non-
w
linear and may be relatively difficult to handle analytically when modeling dynamic
systems. The relations between stress and strain (Hooke s law: R. Hooke. English
'

Zjm
n'1 = J \Pv] = pV+ Vp
t (2.6a) scientist 1635-1703) determine the value of spring stiffness for a given size and di-
esents
ameter of a wire. The mass or rotational inertia property of an object repr

CS "*
rSS
as a V
' St 0red - « "f luid capacit or" ( o r mechanical inductance (Newton s second law).
'

In electrical systems, the resistivity property of a matenal causes eI c.r a 1 e

.
. .
-

esl« zero:
"-rat -t" container)
'c component at that locaj.o
state that the sum of a"
,

* **
S explai ~l = o Hagen-Po.seuiL. low (Hagen. 0~
(rf,ht 4Ch;n<,t:,aihhatinorder,
n,
f

h l" Z eXpress
,
,his -'ationship the rate of chang
ed as a function of the comp
,
 Chap. 2
Models for Dynamic Systems and Systems Similarity Sec. 2 2
26 .

Solution of the Differential Equations

27
I
tan ponentiauS solution as the summation of e x
e inertial properties of the fluid as acce era c 1 -

ih convection5 and n form of the input function This me Sod ,h Tw 1 due t0 the Particu
is discusseTm 0f - on
.

differential equations ,

2 1
. .
3 Reduction of the Modeling Equations
erty laws of the disc ipline are written for a
Once the conservation laws and the prop
par S1 system, we arrive at a group of simultaneous d.fferent.al and a gebra.c
desired differential
equations. These equations must be simplified or reduced to the each factor of the system response may be determined using inverse Laplace trans -

torms. Laplace transform techniques are reviewed in Appendix F.

If the stem is linear, the equations canionsbearecomnonlinear,
bined and reduced to a single
it may or may not be
Digital simulation which is the solution of differential equations using a digi-
,

mh-order differential equation. If the equat tal computer and numerical integration is quite popular for a variety of reasons
,

possible to reduce the system to a single equation, depending upon the nature of the
.

First, numerical integration is easy since the user has only to write the differential
,

nonlinearity. If it is not possible to reduce the nonlinear system of equations to a sin- equations in computer code and does not have to solve them by analytic techniques.
gle differential equation, the system is best treated using the state-space representa- Second, digital simulation can handle time-varying inputs that are not analytic and
tion and employing the solution techniques discussed for state space. that cannot easily be expressed by a mathematical function. Third and perhaps most ,

The classical form of a differential equation is developed by reducing all of the sys- important, is that digital simulation can easily handle nonlinear systems. Since most
tem equations to a single mh-order differential equation. This form will be an equation nonlinear systems do not have an analytical solution, we must resort to digital
having a summation of the Oth through the nth derivatives of the dependent (or output) simulation in these cases.
variable set equal to the input function and possibly, derivatives of the input function.
.

The transfer function notation for a linear differential equation is found from 22 .
1 Classical Differential Equations
.

the classical equation by solving explicitly for the dependent variable and expressing
it as a ratio of the output to the input This form is required for the Laplace trans- A classical differential equation has a dependent variable (or response of the sys-
tem) x(i) that varies with time according to the initial conditions x(0) and the input
.

form solution technique and for control system analysis.

The state-space form for differential equations consists of n simultaneous first- u(t) The input is a specified function of time. Therefore, three pieces of mformation
he
order different.al equations They may be found by taking the differential equations must be known to find the future response of the system: the init.al conditions, t
differential equation, and the input as an explicit function of time.
.

from the conservation law equations and substituting algebraic equations from the
property law equat.ons to eliminate the algebraic equations. The equations arc then , A classical linear differentia! equation
c„rmc fnr Differential Equations.
arranged in first-order for m . | Forms P ndent (or response) variable .v(0 and terms m
rivati tn8? T dflned 35 the System variab,es that appear as first de-
f the stat o tt 0f * minimUm nUmber "f varia eded to de-
r Zs Seodeot equated to terms in the inpu.
function u(0 and. possibly, its derivatives.
Itvfi S ,n r S,ant- ?y simP'*cation of equation.
I f . rSt"0rder eqUalions are the derivatives of the Firs.-Onier Different E
"
ions. A linear fi.t-order d.fferenUal equation
state variables expressed
with con an. coefficients a., and />0 is expressed as
dx (2.9)
fl, + «o* = V
2 2 SOLUTON OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUAHONS The differential. operator
tnr D
.
D dldt Ly be substituted to indicate a derivative with
- d.<ti may
~

respect to time: (2.10)

-Sit X irlndot
.
t
'

rSJ, SO,Utions
other exphct mathe
that can be expressed
matical functions of time .
For
 Chap. 2 Models for Dynamic Systems and Systems Similarity
28
Sec. 2 2
.

Solution of the Differentia, Equations

be used when the different ial equation is transformed 29
The Laplace operator * can form technique. With a zero initial condition on th
for solution by the Laplace trans e

dependent variable, this results in very

is the partial derivative of SeSStl S?' o ther
* S
words T* *
the static gain
= b0
,

a Xis) + a0Xis) U(s) (2.nj therefore , when D = 0 P reSpeCt t0 the ,n pUt in the steady state '

Either form can be simplified further for linear systems by having the coefficients dx
and the operators multiply the dependent variable: G =
D =0 (2.15)
[afi + a0 x = b0u £.12 Figure 2 2 illustrates the static gain of a system
.

[a.s + a0] X(s) = b0U(s) (2.13)

In this form, the coefficients, a,, a0, and b0, are derived from the dynamic system and
do not by themselves reveal much about the system's inherent characteristics A .

Ouipui.
more revealing form is obtained when we normalize the differential equation with G
respect to the coefficient of the lowest order dependent variable a0: ,

[tD + l]x = Gu (2.14)

Figure 2 Sialic gain of a dynamic
When the coefficients are normalized in this manner, it is easy to identify terms that Input, u svstem.

we call the time constant t and the static gain G of the system The time constant of
.

a irst-order system relates to the responsiveness of the system or the amount of Second-Order Diferential Equations The general form of a linear
.
f

f
,

time required to settle to steady-state operation from a disturbance or initial condi- constant-coefficient second-order differential equation is
,

tion. Figure 2 1 illustrates that the time constant is the amount of tim
.

the irst order system to achieve 63% of the response from th

-

e required for d2x

02 dt*
dx
It +aox = lW (2 16)
the inal condition when the input is held constant e initial condition to
f f

In four time constants (4t). the with initial conditions .r(0) and .r(0).
In D-operator notation, this equation can be expressed as
[a2D2 + a,/) + a0]x = bgu (2.17)
Again, a more revealing form of the differential equation is obtained by normalizing
it with respect to the coefficient of the lowest order dependent variable l0 and re-

f
defining the coefficients. This form emphasizes the static and inherent dynamic char-
acteristics of the system and is as follows:
rn2 d
~

+ 2f - + 1 x = Gw (2.18)

Here, a>n is the natural frequency of the system (the frequency of oscillation of the
ionlcss ratio
system if there were no damp ing), and (is the damping ratio (a dimens
of the value of damping in the system to the value of damping
which defines the
boundary between oscillatory and nonoscillatory behavior.) The static gain G has
tem as it does for
the same meaning and definition for a second- (or higher) order sys
discussion of these dynamic
a irst-order system. ( See Appendix E for a further
f

characteristics.)
Higher order linear differential
2t

Higher Order Diferential Equations.

3* -
It
Hmc 5t
I Kurc 21 Time response of a be stated in the following general formal, in which the system is nth
,
f
"
rsl-order system .
equations can
 for Dynamic Systems and Systems Similarity
Mo de,s Sec. 2.2
Chap. 2 Solution of the Differential Equatl
30 ions

< n) and has initial conditions *(0), Dx(0), 31

derivatives
erwith.thor derinpu.
InHial CondMons In solving differential equations
.

ZT-VO):
x = [bkDk+ - + + (2.19) the mit.al values of the input and response variables at an insta
a distinct
i on is ,

and just after the time defined as r = 0. The notation f = (T isnt in time just before
.
n + a
...

1 u. include derivatives of the input, as well as de- time just before/ = 0 and/ = 0+ is used to identify the time justused
, to identify the
Note that a differential equa,lon
8 h'L after f = O
n
;; e sics of real sys
tems dictates that the order tial
th
conditions for the response variables are stated at t = 0" Tlie ini-
The reason for this is
.

rivatives of the output: J

r

order of the system. at impulse types of inputs that occur at r = 0 can be conside .

stantaneous change in the s red to affect an in-

of ,he input derivanves canned exc he differential equation with respect to s ystem response, so it is important to know what the re-
Here again, .us des.
he coeff.cient of the '
variable. THis will give the static gain ponse was prior to any possible impulse inputs.
. '/.Jfamic characteristics cannot be determined
22
.
2 Transfer Function Format for Differential Equations
.

Characteristic Equations and Roots, [t is well known that the solution to A convenient way of expressing the dynamics of a system is to convert a linear dif-
the hSSSSSof a linear differential equation (the form w.th the nght-
zero) can be written as
ferential equation into transfer function notation. A transfer function is the ratio of
the output to input variables expressed as an algebraic ratio of the polynomials of
hand side of the equation set to ,

(2.20) I the D-operator (or the variable A or the Laplace operator s)

= Ce „(/)
" , .

A'
The transfer function of a first-order system can be expressed as
Substituting into the homogeneous equation and simplifying by factoring out Ce x G
then gives a polynomial in A. The characteristic equation of the system is the poly- tD + 1
(2.22)
nomial function of A. This equation establishes the conditions on A for Cex' to be a
u

solution to the differential equation and is written The transfer function of a second-order system can be expressed as
«nAn + fl -iA
n
""1 + ... + fl + a0 = 0 (2.21) 1 x G
(2.23)
Notice that the characteristic equation has no input or output variables associated D1 D .
T2 + 2C- + 1
with it and therefore depicts the inherent dynamic characteristics of the system, I
-

without regard to the type of system the discipline being considered, or the particu-
,

lar type of input .

A general /Uh-order system with two inputs w(/) and w;(r), including derivatives
The roots of the characteristic equation reveal the dynamic properties of the I of can be expressed as
system ,

expressed in terms of time constants, natural frequencies and damping ra- ! ,

'

nd
ValUeS A
H)
characteristic equation. (See Ap-
a
x =
(2.24)
real r T nS I T* be real 0r comPlex- First-order systems have - D" + ... + - Z) + 1

cSLt Ttem8uhave two rcal roots -tw" ™w*rools

a ,
hc two possib,e of Tr
imPortant to understand the behav- The characteristic equation of the system is the denominator of the transfer
w of first- and second order ,
.hought of as combinations ms'because higher order systems may be function set equal to zero. For the nth-order system above, the transfer funct.ons are
of '
yS,cm could have th ol Second-order sterns. For example, a
"

third-ordcr S . + ... + D +
e real roots. or one real root and one pair of
r
plex roots .

x a0 ao ao (2.25a)

" n
r Nyn
™a 'r'-m each f
m orm
.
td'dv Ua,i 0nrS f0r r00ts second-order differential
*' dynainic rms and presents the conversions to an
D"* ...
+
it
+1
.
 mic Systems an d Systems Similarity
Chap 2 Models for Dyna Sec 2.2
32 .

Solution of thp ni«

6 Dlfferential Equations
and 33
Example 2 2 .
State Space Fom
-

.,
er th L ! a f0rMeCha ,Syrtem
,
Co
Now consid pH S"da
r
.
(2.25b) mass is describ niper sys,e
ed by x ;nT,l ni of F.gure 2 4 in L
ir
- D" + ... + +1
a0 «o

Nonlinear systems, of course, cannot be represented in transfer function notation. '

22 . .
3 State-Space Format for Differential Equations -
Rgure2 4 .
Mechanical system
niesecond-order modelin
g equation is
The stale-space format for differential equations consists of a set of simultaneous
irst-order differential equations. The state variables are those dynamic variables of
f

the system which can be arranged to be the variables that appear as irst derivatives BytaKing note of the re,ati0„shi
p the

f
.

There must be at least n state variables to describe an mh-order system. For a given =
system, there is no unique set of state variables; a variety of system variables could
«?, = k and e, = i,
be used. Later we illustrate techniques for conveniently selecting state variables that (2
best describe the system. irst de Sr S ** variables whose

f
m
Example 2.1 State-Space Formal for an Electrical Circuit the position and the ST 8 8
,eqUat,0nS ,n,0 ,W0 Can * defined:
As an example of the state-space formal, consider the following modeling equations ,
ential equations yields r -

which represent an electrical system composed of a voltage source connected to a se -

:
ries resistance-capacitance (RC) circuit as shown in Fig 2.3. (see Chapter 4 for the . (2.32)
derivation of these equations ) The e's are voltages and the fs are currents: the input
.
* it
voltage is <.„(/) and the output is e,(f). (2.33)
Co - e, = RiR (2.26) Hie two slate-variable equations in this example are coupled together because
ic = Ce,
both state variables appear in the equations The input to the set of equations is x0{t).
with e,(0) (2.27)
Example 2.3 State-Space Format for Electrohvdraulic Servo System
' « = ' '
(2.28) We next present the slate-space differential equations from an electro-hydraulic servo
tern) Je t lT r T™?™ dentation for this system (and indeed for any sys- system, without explaining the origin of the modeling equations (see Chapter 7):
12- Zl ltltT A efiqUa,i0nS f0r lhe VariableS ,hi11 occur « irst-derivative
,

z = i (2.34)
M Z eZn ?efinCd aSI,he 5,3,6 Variabl- elimi"ating the cur-
f

G GtAh RA2 G G,A

,
, 1 '
v =
*-

-z v + e
a (2.35)
im m m

(2.36)
(2.29) RC
>" this irs.-ordcr modcl e
is the only state va . Here the state variables are the position velocity v. and voltage e,. Note thai
f

,
0 is the input. the three first-order differential equations are coupled and have an input <.,,
R

We see then that state-space differential equations are a set of/i simultaneous
(irst-order differential equations derived directly from the modeling equations One
must specify the initial conditions of all state variables in order to obtam a solut.on
Note that, although state variables will allow us to solve
nR„rc2 ..
i Electrical circuit. sys
Lm we may be intereste d in the response of a system vanable that .s not a s tate
 Chap. 2 Models for Dynamic Systems and Systems Similarity
34 Sec. 2 3
031 Inputs or Test Signal
.

vsiem variable as a function of the state vari-

35
Mathematicallv the Qt .
the step mput can be stated a s
est) and state variables. - .

"
(0 = 0 for / < 0
(2.37a)
2 3 TYPICAL INPUTS OR TEST SIGNALS u{t) = Mo for r > 0
Notice that a distinction is made between r = 0" and r = 0 (2.37b)
.

Dynamic systems respond to initial conditions and to input signals. The response to input is zero, but the input is nonzero at r = 0 Just before r = 0 th .
e

S conditions displays the basic inherent dynamic behavior of the system and the and thereafter .

23
response to the input illustrates the response character of the system to forced inputs
. .
2 Ramp Input
thatemulate physically realistic conditions. This section describes typical inputs, or lest
signals, that we apply to systems and their models. These signals represent physical in- Like step inputs ramp inputs occur naturally in physical systems and therefore
,

puts to dynamic systems. The type of system response can be classified according to the defined mathematically. An example of a ramp inpul is a trackin are

kind of applied input signal. A frequency response is the steady-state response to a a target is moving past a pointing system at constant velocity g situation in which
harmonic input signal and is discussed in Chapter 8. A time response is the system re- camera trying to track a loat in a parade might re For example a TV
.
,

quire a ramp inpul of the pointing

f
sponse to an arbitrary time-varying input and is the subject of Chapter 9. angle
time
of the camera. In this case the desired input increases as a linear function of
,

If the input started at zero for r = 0 and before then this input
.

23. .
1 Step Input time, would resemble a ramp, as illustrated in Figure 2.6. plotted against
,
,

In physical systems ,
it is common to cause a sudden change in the input by throwing
a switch (in an electrical system) actuating a valve (in a luid power system) or re-
,
,
f

leasing a spring preload (in a mechanical system), or even by some other means In .

these instances the input value changes very quickly relative to the time constants
,

or dynamic response time of the system. Plotted against time the input signal re-
,

sembles a stair step and hence is termed a step input as illustrated in Figure 2 5
, .
.

Input //(/)
.

Input uiii,

0
Time. / Fieure 2.6 Ramp inpul.

Mathematically, the ramp input can be stated as

u = 0 for / < 0 (2.38a)

Time. / ll = liuJ for t > 0

HgUW 2 5
.
Slop input .
 36
Chap. 2 Models for Dynamic Systems and Systems Similarity
Sec. 2 3 TvPicalln
puts or Test Si
.

gnals
233
. .
Universal Inputs
37
mathematicall
no frnm the step to the ramp that one is the integral of th y defined. doublet input is the derivativ
l{ We notice
other .n mo™ e progression of input signals that are inte-e has a posmve impulse derivative followed by a ne e of the impulse input and
gative impulse derWatT r
"
then we
.

ar ;d/ s Thc ramp

u is the integral
jn
8!nut
ZZTcZwc li the ramp. We can thus define a set of I
t of the st e p ,
tunctS o?sst ;T o . is the of ihe ramp ,npui and ,hus is a quadr
v

atic
step
7L 1'n ', Iputs. that consist of the doublet, impulse, step, ramp and
23 . .

4 Pulse Input
T nput. In each of these, the constant Mo has a d.fferent meamng and dif-
ad a
T units, depending upon the type of input. For example «0 m.ght be a posi-
en.
It is impossible to give a pure impulse signal to a physical system, since doin
L in inches, for a step input and might be a veloc.ty, m mches per second, for a would require a n inf i nite value of the input var i g so
ramp input Therefore, even though we employ the concept of universal inputs as However
it is possible to give a inite input for a iable
,
for a zero duration of time
nite duration of time .

derivatives or integrals of each other, the constant u0 will have a different meaning considered an impulse if the duration is very small in comparison with This can be

f
.

in each case. sponse time Such an input signal, called a pulse input
. the system re -

nite input magnitude that occurs over a inite amount ofis tidefined as a signal with a i- ,

f
Impulse Input. The derivative of the step is termed the impulse input and is after. (See Figure 2.8 ) me and is zero before and

f
.

shown in Figure 2.7. This function is often called a delta function 6(/). Since the step ,

input is discontinuous at / = 0 the derivative of the step at / = 0 is infinite There-

,
.

fore. the derivative must be written in terms of the integral across the discontinuit
y .

Input, idt)

Input u(n
.

it r

Time, / Kigurc 2.8 Pulse input.

Malhcmalically. the pulse input can be staled as

m = 0 for l< 0 and / > 7, (2.40a)
Time / .

Figure 2 7
.
Impulse input
m = Wo for 0 s r F, (2.4()b)

" = 0 or 23 5 Ramped Step Input

f

. .

(2.39a)
When an input is suddenly changed by an operator or generated by some other dy-
fl"

namic system with a inite response time, the resulting action itmay not have a zero
(2.39b) might be better to
rise time relative to the system response lime. In that case,
f

fter as illustrated
model the signal as a ramp for some duration and a constant therea
fUr,hcr a 's and dc i not so usefu. i „ testing in Figure 2.9.
t

eS of ,he rcgoing signals can be

 * Simi «V
Chap. 2
ModeIS for Dvna-io V**™ *" Sec. 2.3 Typical Inputs or Test Signals
39
38

1'

inpul, u{t)

Input M') *4

ii

I)

Time. / FiEiirc 2.10 Harmonic input

r,
Time. /
Figure 2.9 Ramped step input
Mathematically, the zero-mean harmonic transient test signal of Figure 2.10 is
Mathematically, the ramped step input can be stated as defined as
» =0 for r < 0 (2.41a) M =0 for r < 0 (2.42a)

u = u0sinarfforrsO (2 42b)
.

(2.41b)
transient sine wave test signal is a signal that
Another useful variation of the imum value. In this case.
(2.41c) starts at zero and then oscillates between zero and a max
for / > T i
the mean value is m0 and the maximum value is lu
u = uD

Hiis model provides a realistic representation of many physical processes.

23 . .6 Harmonic Inputs

Harmonic inputs can occur with rotating machinery or with oscillatory electronic
circuits. Sine waves are relatively easy to generate and use as test signals for dy-
namic systems. Sine wave testing leads to the concept of the frequency response,
which describes how the system will respond to sine waves of various frequencies. I
Usually, in sine wave testing we are interested only in the system's steady-state re-
, J Input. uU)
sponsc to a sine wave input In other words, we will give a system a sine wave input
.

for a period of time and observe the response of the system after all start-up tran-
sients have died away In this case, we are not interested in the absolute phase of the
.

smc wave with respect to time; rather we are interested only in the phase difference
,

of the output with respect to the input signal and to the amplitude ratio of the out-
put and mpul sine waves. In such a case it doesn't matter whether the test signal is
HgureZ-U Non-«ro-mcan
,

a sine or cosine wave I harmonic inp"'

.
-

In other situations ,
we might be interested in sine wave testing for a tran- Time.'
sient uluation .
in which case the input would be zero and the sine wave would
start t / m {i
 Models for Dynamic Systems and Systems Similarity Sec. 2 4
Chap. 2 Enai
ngmeenng Systems Similarity
.

40
41

zero mean harmonic transient test signal is defined as

Mathematically, a non
.
-

u = 0
for r < 0 (2.43a)
(2.43b)

Figure 2.11 illustrates a sign al of this type. cific, if 'you were passine anmher l I T re comPletely rent To be spe-
the thro ttle 1 . 0
.

"

from 50 mph to 65 mph 8 take y0Ur Car 20 seconds t0 accelera

23 7 Common Test Signals .

fthe r0ad and St0p-You Place the car * "'utral and

. .

to initial conditions reveals directly the inherent make

IT* transient response of a system
and is therefore a good response-testing method. For
rive hfr 86 ,m thKposition of your throuie: then ihe
achieve a high rpm in less than 1 second However
-ouw
tu a d namics of the system
.
, if you were to watch the
most svstems the step input reveals basically the same response character as an ,n,-
tachometer during this acceleration of the engine with essentiall
would notice that the reading was actu y no load, you
tial condition on a response variable and may be easier to generate than an initial ally less than the engine speed TTnerefore if .

condition. . .
the engine were idling at 1000 rpm and the throttle change would ultimately result
,

The step input is probably the most common test signal, since it is so easy to m a steady-state speed of 5000 rpm when the engine was actually passing through
2000 rpm on its way to a higher rpm the tachometer might be reading only 1500 rpm
generate physically, and, in addition, solving a differential equation with a constant .

or so if our eyes were fast enough to catch it Thus, there is a time delay between the
input is not difficult. Ramp inputs are also relatively easy to generate physically and .

treat analytically. Because impulse signals are generally difficult to produce physi- input (the engine speed) and the output (the tachometer reading) .

In effect, then the electronic tachometer has a dynamic response similar to the
cally. the impulsive response" used in many discussions is really more of a mathe-
" ,

acceleration of the mechanical system represented by the car You might even notice
matical concept than a commonly observed physical response. Sine wave testing is
.

that the tachometer could overshoot the maximum speed reading and oscillate
very popular and is not difficult to perform experimentally; however, sine wave test-
slightly before it reached a steady state, even though the engine itself did not over-
ing is usually of interest for evaluating the steady-state frequency response rather shoot the maximum speed. Thus, the behavior of the car and the behavior of the
than testing the transient response. The solution of differential equations subjected tachometer are similar in many ways, even though the car and the tachometer are
to harmonic input is easy to ind
completely different dynamic systems.
.
f

Often, it is convenient or interesting to test with repetitive input signals that The car provides us with additional examples of dynamic system response.
are periodic but nonharmonic. The repetitive step input of alternating signs is a
,

When you start your car for the irst time of the day. the engine water temperature js

f
square wave and is very easy to generate physically. The repetitive ramp input of al- low Over the period of a few minutes, the water temperature would rise from. say. 75°
ternating signs on the slopes is a triangular wave or a sawtooth wave that is also rel- to 190 "F The temperature rise is a response characteristic similar to the acceleration
atively easy to generate .

of a car (in a mechanical system) and the acceleration of a tachometer needle in an

2 4 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS SIMILARITY - T1

Z' ZSZ tthiS teXt iS 10 Sh0W the technic'ues and co ptS used to model
T CZC ro7n8inferin8 disciplines and to point up the similarity
ly d S e
Simi,arily we that modeling of many phys-
'
mentation
lag in the output response in re lation to th e input command even though the tunc
,

equations nd htf r te™ result in the same or similar differential base now
would be in milliseconds,
would
'

nc in "' '" T dvnamic systems in eral disci-

several disc-
characteridynamic
stics SSSS The foregoing examples dtmon lonstrale
;f , .hat
dvnanlic re ponse. As a studen t ot
P d analogies that exist
Further systemsTn dXn! h 8 P.eCialty Can transfer to other disciplines. plines have similar characteristics
plines ies
r nce padtance anil adS'dnce~and have various
,

the same basic elements- Svnamic systems, you

dynamic ' g disciplines as we work throug h
t

P er amplifiers or mod ulainn:

™d"'ators
ener gy converters and among dynamic systems
aho lUfe .

T e ways in which they handle energy concepts are lliis text.

 Chap.2
Models for Dynamic Systems and Systems Similarity Sec. 2 4
42 .

Engineering Systems Similarity

43

2 4 1 Effort and Flow Variables is presented by a capillary viscous re

t (
'

m basis of systen. m S resistance isTe lollTt ferta

that
mcallythermal resistors Iranspo
eXpansion) Sm S
? 2T,0,;.COndUCti0n-"radiatio"-Note
ph 0
-

T i y -that ?employ t0 write the differen,ial om

dissipate energy; however thevTr n TT t0 an0ther and do not
ferential equations and theSe Ir f h Wa,8ebraiCeqUationsratherlhandif-
S S f w.ch can be In all cases the resistance
3 1 .
ec
aS reS1St0rS in this di
scussion -

This could also be

S me effort variable for aFormechanical
p,aced on a component .

regarded
sys
as the Pote al '' to do
tem .s cons.dered to be force (,n un.ts
they can be expre s d aS and if the » linear,
rk
of aewtons or pounds force). an electrical system, it is voltage volts). Pressure effort = resistance X flow
(2.45)
is the effort variable for a luid system (newtons/meter2 or pounds force/mch ), and
f

temperature (0C or 0F) is the effort variable for a thermal system. variaWes but i U of a StatiC relationshiP tween the effort and low
ance isis aDolicable
apphcable tnI ?' system

f
00"
A low variable is the system variable that expresses the low, or rate of change ce to a nonlmear * relationshiP While the concept of imped-
-

f
f

with times, of a system variable. The low variable usually is a derivative of a variable ,
we cannot use a simple value or variable for
inc rcsistsncc
f

and thus has units of something per unit time. It represents the rate at which work can The impedance of dissipative elements (resistors) is symbolized by R
be done. The low variable for a mechanical system is considered to be velocity .
f

(meter/second or inch/second for linear motion and radian/second or degree/second

24 3 Effort Storage Elements
for angular motion); however, in some cases it may be more desirable to work with
. .

position instead of the derivative of position. The low variable for electrical systems
f

is current (1 amp = 1 coulomb/second). Volume low rate (meterVsecond or Effort storage elements store energy by virtue of the effort variable Effort storage .
f

inch3/second) is the low variable for luid systems while heat low (joule/second or elements are thus capacitive in nature since they follow a differential equation of
,
f

f
the form
Btu/hr) is the low variable for thermal systems .
f

As we write the basic equations for the resistive capacitive storage, and induc-
,

tive storage elements in each discipline we can use similar equations for each in all
,
flow = capacitance x - effort (2.46)
of the engineering disciplines by employing the effort and low variables appropri-
f

ate to the physical situation . In this form it becomes clear that, since the effort variable is differentiated, it is pos-
Effort and low variables provide a basis for the concept of impedance in all of sible to have an initial condition on the dependent variable (effort), and thus, it is
f

ari S
'
T
'
r Plin
7,16 i,npedanCe 0f 30 element is the "tio of its effort possible to store potential energy2 in the initial condition of the effort variable byffort
the
l
o

Id a cc a d Z T l?9
M

Can be Static (resistance) or dynamic (ca- amount of capacitance x effort /2. For this reason, capacitors are termed e
f

CZrZi\tTCe\ EleCtr,Cal impedance is wel1 own and understood; storage elements.

In mechanical systems, the component that follows the
/«
form of Eq. (2.46) is
. ,«:

nd a' may not be as familiar a concept Fluid impedance

proa hesm Er;;'0"1'." be t00 difficu,t asp, since modding ap-
.
t

1
d .
(2.47)
model To llTlZ i n the
"
' our b C
Van0US en8,nee™g disciplines is an impedance rela-
velocity} = -rzr - * J force
stiffness att
tionship such as

24
effort = impedance X flow
(2.44) Sf S S L sJpo-a, by .eaas o( an .i.ia,
2 Dissipative Elements
I:tltica! .ems. .he elccical capaci.or obeys .he difterenda!
- .

) oSftSSSSS an°!her form such as heat light, vibra-

form

= capacitance x | voltage (2-

t

fin m*»* descriystems

bed theSS
SnS Djralher
SSipativelhaneledifferential
me"ts do no'equations.
ore en-
,

current
Crgy
echanical s ini.ia, v„,tage charge.
Ckt,r,Ca,$ys,cmMhcdissi
An e .ecrica, capaei.or
caa be .ade ,o s.ore energy by an
Pa,iv s th
.1

menl lhe d ashPot or hamper

cement 18 the res.stor Resistance in luid s
.
In
ystems
.
f
 Chap. 2
Models for Dynamic Systems and Systems Similarity
44 Sec. 2 4
Engineerin
g Systems Simi,arity
.

In luid the storage differentia, equation describes an accumu.ator or

In electrical
f
a volume ofcompressible luid in a tank: svsteim th

f
d
flow = capacitance x - pressure (2.49)

kae*H ..nnn the compressibility of the luid itself or the ability of the
u

f
.

with press re. Lus an incremental volume of The electrical inductor can ctnr
X aced in «he container will result in an incremental change m pressure accord- In luid systems , ilT ZZlT? 0f curre"'-

f
t to' he apacitance of the system. Since l ow is the denvafve of volume wuh re- area represents inductance due to the in "rl'r 3 l0n8 line 0f Sectional
. this ca Z ~
,

.
to change its How rate
Z

f
cx
the volume-pressure relat.onship gives Eq. (2.49).
to time the derivative of
.

storage differential equation is

Fluid capacitance, then, is represented by a volume of a compressible luid or a con-

f
tainer of luid that can expand with pressure. Energy can be stored by an initial pres- pressure = inductance x | low rate (2 54)
f

f
sure in the container.
In thermal systems, the storage differential equation represents the property
of heat capacity of the material: of the low rate ener8y 15 Stored in the initial value

f
.

d
heat flow = capacitance x - temperature (2.50) llow st o rSfS??? there iS n0 en8ineering at has the form of the
ow storage differential equat.on. Tlterefore. thermal inductance

f
does not exist

f
lUis is a very interesting fact that further emphasizes that thermal systems are
Thermal capacitance is the mass of the element times the specific heat of the material. slightly different from other engineering systems. It also leads to the observation
A thermal capacitance stores energy in proportion to its initial temperature. that passive (noncontrolled) thermal systems cannot have resonance or overshoot
The impedance of effort storage components (capacitors) is \/(CD) .

(i.e., the characteristic equation of a thermal system cannot have complex roots) as
,

24
can other systems even though a thermal system can be described by a second- or
,

. .
4 Flow Storage Elements
higher order differential equation .

The impedance of flow storage components (inductors) is LD .

Flow storage elements store energy by virtue of the low variable. Flow storage ele-
f

ments are inductive in nature ,

since they follow the differential equation form 24 . .
5 Summary of the Elements in Engineering Disciplines
effort = inductance X - flow (2.51)
dl Systems similarity is inherent in the preceding discussions which show that the basic
elements in each discipline can be classified as resistive, capacilive. or inductive, de-
aWeThis t T Tis LTVT
able. TTm energy x ( )/2 where L is38theaninductance
e e c initial conditi°n of the low vari- pending upon how the discipline treats energy. In each case, the behavior of the lin-
ear elements can be expressed as an impedance relationship.
f

eS eqUati0nS
.

0f the Same form as the l0W The impedance of the three types of elemenls is the ratio of the effort to low

f
e
variables. In resistive elemenls.this relationship is algebraic: however, the storage
f

elements (capacitance and inductance) have dynamic impedances that arc properly
force = mass X velocity (2.52 described using the / -operator as a part of the definition of impedance. Tlius. the ca-
and

'orque = in,erli
a x angular veIocity (2.52b)
multiplied by the -mp anc* jn the chapim
M0r of' a mechani
rgy cJca| cnc Sl y C °
180 A mechanical inductor can I lliat fr engineering disciplines are listed in TaMc U
; (;rn alsy7edn;l;on of velocity. A lywheel is a good |
f

r which emphasizes systems similarity.

f
 mm

for Dynamo Sys.e- an d System. Simi„ritv Chap. 2 Probloms

Models
Chap
46
24 Palm. William JM 111
.
.
Modeling, Analysis, and Control of Dynamic Systems .
John
Flow Storage Wiley & Sons New York 1983.
,
,

Efforl Storage (Inductive) 25 . Shearer. J. Lowen, anil Kulakowski BohdanT. Dynamic Modeling and Control
Dissipativc (Capacitivc)
.

(Resistive) of Engineering Systems Macmillan Publishing ( ompany. New York. 1990.

.

F
F 1 I
rmv-
,

\
Mechanical 1
J -
;

F = mDv, NOMENCLATURE
Effort = Force F = Wvi " v2)
F =5 (V| - vj) V
1
How Velocity /
/

(AlicnMiiivcFonnl i-TMr - ty i O coefficients

F = mDlt, b dissipation constant of a viscous damper
Effort = Force F = hDix* - x2]
ciow = Position C capacitance
at,

e voltage
Mechanical
R i Mali on
t g gravitational acceleration '

T = /D<u i
G static gain
Effort = Torque
Flow = Speed T = Ww, - l*h)
ft i
h specific enthalpy
1

0 i current
(Alicmativc Form)
J moment of inertia
Effort = Torque 7 = 70-0,
Flow = Angle TmbMt - 02] T=k(ex-e2] k spring constant
i
/ .
inductance
Electrical
m, n\ mass, mass flow rate
I = LDi
Effort = Voltage e, = Ri e. - f i =
P pressure
also heal transfer rate and volume (low rate
e. -

Flow = Current

Fluid
()
(J electronic charge:
P i -0 CWT R resistance
Effort = Pressure
Row = Volume
s Laplace transform variable
P - P2 = LDQ iable
t (or input) var
.

kiiic t time
Tnenntl y specific internal energy: also independen
Docs Nol
m
0
constant for generalized inputs
Kffon Tempenuurc i; translalional velocity
( low - nrat Flow
V volume
u work
dent ( or response ) variable
x depen
REFERENCES
i heighl
/> density
2 . 1 Ooie Charles M. and Frederick, Dean K
.
Modeling and Analysis of Dynanuc T time constant excitation frequency
rotational speed, or
.

Syiiems 2d cd. HoughtOfl Mifflin Co.. Boston MA. 1993.

.
, „
2 2 Dorny. C
.

NcUon. Undersiandin Dynamic Systems: Approaches to Modeling

.

Ww
natural frequency
Analysii. and Design Prentice Hall. Englcwood Cliffs NJ. 1993.
2 3 OflU
.
.
C damping ratio
.

KaUuhiko System Dynamics, 2d ed Prentice 1 lall F.tmlcwooci ('liffs. N.I

,
.
.

1W,
 for Dynamic Systems and Systems Similarity
Chap 2 Models Chap. 2 Problems
4B
49
PROBLEMS
Find the equivalent classica! second order differentia! equation of the form
-

which engineering systems design and analysis are a

2 + fl,y3 + = /(,)
(he basic conservation laws on 2.

17 Stand on the bumper of your parked automobile and let the suspension settle to its
baSed' - ali physical nronerlies that inf
l uence the dynamic behavior of the
22 Which are the pnncip prop em equ.hbnum pos.t.on Step off quickly and observe the response
.

wh e
you providing
S Tto *the system?T 0f ,he Car"S Sh0ck r WHa, kind of excitation are
.

COndit
following systems? | ou or p o

a .
Mechanical 1 2.
18 Hold on to one end of a fairly tight cord. (The stretched cord of a waH-mounted tele-
b . Electrical | phone handset does pretty well.) Hold the cord tight with one hand , move it up and
c nuid down rhythmically at different rates with your other hand, and report what you ob-
d .
Thermal j serve. Can you cause motions of large amplitude if the rale is just right? Also, describe
what happens if you move your hand up and down just once with no repetition. Sketch
23 Explain the difference between digital and analog simulation. the cord displacement response as a function of time
2 4 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of using digital simulation. Discuss the ad- .

119 Describe three types of system input that are useful in evaluating system performance
.

vantages and disadvantages of using analog simulation. ] .

15 Discuss what is meant by the order of a dynamic system.

2 20 What is meant by similarity in dynamic systems?
.

2 21 Describe the meaning of effort and flow variables. Identify effort and flow variables for
2 6 The differential equations representing the behavior of a dynamic system can take .

mechanical, electrical, fluid, and thermal svstems.

many forms. What are the most important forms? j 2 22 What mechanical, electrical, fluid, and ihermal system components cause energy dissi-
17 Define the term time constant as it applies to dynamic systems. j
.

pation? How does the thermal model differ from the others?
2 -
8 Where does the characteristic equation of a dynamic system come from? j 2 23 Describe the mechanical electrical, fluid, and thermal system components that can
.

19 With what information do the roots of the characteristic equation provide the engineer? store energy.
110 Suppose you hold a ruler or similar object fiat against a tabletop, with most of it ex- 224 Two different definitions of effort and flow variables are available for mechanical sys-
lending over the edge. You then pull the tip down and let it go so that it will vibrate .
tems. How do they differ? Is either preferable? Explain.
What are the initial conditions for the dynamic response? ; 2 25 Show mathematicallv that thermal systems which are compose
d of firsl-order systems
.

111 Design an experiment that performs the motion described in the previous problem multiplied together can never have complex roots. Use the characteristic equation
such that the vibration continues for about a second or longer. Do the experiment. 0
Give a description of the recommended ruler or other object the initial conditions, and (r,D + l)(TjD + 1) = a2D2 + al15 + l -

the expected response What factors do you think influence the dynamic response?
.

112 How does the slalc-space differential equation form differ from the classical form?
2
13 Derive the state-space equations given in Example 2.2 for the spring-mass-damper system.
,

"
Zt lSZZ ei","i°"S ."P" V*™ ot Example 2.2
z = *i - ato and v = z = i, - i
0
2 15 Let.

*
+ 2x - 3jc + j: = sin w/
l T
Mate-jpacc representation.
*= * = and * = * and determine the equivalent
216 The stat e-spac
e equations for a
particular system are
i

.
 Part 2

Modeling of
Engineering Systems

!r

si.icon wafer-grow.ng sySlcm. ( Pho.o counesy of

EIectro-therma..mcchanica.
mcnls Incorporalcd.)
 CHAPTER 3
Mechanical Systems

3 1 INTRODUCTION
and live well and die happy .
" P' .

In this chapter
10 Pip in G™ E '>ons by Charles Dickens. 1861
,
we introduce the fundamental ideas and the basic building blocks com-
monly used in modeling mechanical systems While stiffness, energy dissipation
.
, mass, and
inertia are basic quantities distributed spatially throughout all components of mechanical
systems, the behavior of many dynamic systems can be accurately represented through
the intelligent combination of discrete springs discrete dampers, and point masses or in-
,

ertias. That is to say. while a spring is certainly not massless if it supports an object whose
.

mass is very much larger than its own mass, it may well suit the objective of the analysis to
ignore the mass of the spring and treat the spring as an element with discrete stiffness
only. Sound physical reasoning establishes a foundation from which the engineer devel-
ops the judgment necessary to know when quantities can safely be neglected and when
'

they cannot. This evaluative ability lies at the very heart of the engineer s art. '

The physical behavior of each mechanical element, together with Newton s laws
of motion, provides the fundamental principles governing the development of suitable
models for mechanical systems. In what follows, translational systems arc discussed
first, followed by rotational systems and, last, systems composed of combined transla-
tional and mechanical elements.

3 .
2 SYSTEMS OF UNITS
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Systems
Sec 3 3 .
Translational SyS,ems
54
55
Notice that the weieht of ih* « .
ity to obtain the mass term Since ,
ded by lhe acceleration due to grav-
be sure to use Xd
inches as the units of length m
unit ,

dUe t0 ™if area length

e l
ar

",n
er
P ,b,e : th ,

acceleration due to gravhy t0 USe g = 32 18 X 12 = 386 16 in/s2 as the

,

of all forces acting on a particle is equal to the prod-

-
.

that the sum

O sequauon s eraItaken
motionin the
in three-dimensional
cl
uct of the Partl f ™ vector sense, and 33 TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEMS
T

acceleration are .

space, the sum f J with aspect

' to a ixed (nonaccelerating) ref-

f
ZZ Z P we may us e a frame attached to the earth.

Znte displacement of the particle is different.ated wtth respec to t.me in

33
. .
1 Translational Springs
nte
the velocity, and the derivative of the velocity w,th respect to time is Springs resist applied forces and may be used to store energy
order to obtain m You will find sprmu .

the acceleration. Thus, acceleration has dimensions of length per uni t time , per unit use m a wide variety of common devices and machines Hie clip that keeps a pe '

from falling out of a shirt pocket the device that keeps the lid of a n
.

dying the dynamics of

time It is common to use the second as the unit of time in stu and the mechanism that returns the key on a computer keyboard tocaritstrunk
,
open
ll units of length com-
,

mechanical systems; the meter, the foot, and the inch are a unpressed
.« position are all examples of springs A common translational spring is sh
monly used in describing dynamic systems. Figure 3.1. .

own in
The terms in an equation must combine to form an expression that is consis- We characterize a spring by its static response to an applied load. You can per-
tent in its units if it is to be a valid representation of a physical process. We can select form an experimental evaluation of the behavior of a spring using the simple appa-
the units of mass, length, and time to suit our needs, but the unit of force must then ratus described in Figure 3 2
be defined consistently so that the units of all terms in the equation form a homoge-
. .

Apply the loads slowly and carefully so that no significant dynamic motions
neous system. Alternatively, we can select the units of force, length, and time, but
,

occur, and record the amount of deflection corresponding to each load A plot of
then we are required to select a consistent unit of mass in order for Newton s second
' .

load vs. deflection indicates whether the spring is a linear hardening, or softening ,

law to be homogeneous in its units. spring. If the spring is linear, the resulting deflection will be directly proportional
Two homogeneous systems of units are in common use in engineering: the Inter- to the applied load. If. as the load is increased, a smaller and smaller amount of
national System, abbreviated SI and the British system In the SI convention, the unit of
, .

load is required to achieve a given displacement, the spring is called a softening

ZZt'TI; u"?0f f0rCe isderived 10be consistent with it.This system uses spring A hardening spring is defined in a similar manner. Most springs display a
high degree of linearity over a range of deflections that is small relative to the
O0ne newton
neX iis theht force by fSeCOnd law' (3-1). and is called the newton (N).
0ITrequired ,
engt ThI forcTin spring depends upon the relative displacement of the endpoints
to accelerate 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/sl Mathematically.
F = ma (3 2)1 .

Wei w 1 N = (1 k8)(1 m/s2)

T e acceleration du t vS ! .I™5*in a gravitational or acceleration ield.
e
'

number of practical system components. If a spring

f

"

b at |CVC1 a atitudeT Written 8 haS ,he Value 3118

-

S ce «,he mn(1L theS Whei8ht iSofdeftimeinedis the™*second

the uni(s)t ofandmasstheisunde-
m
it
t

> "nit of mass ls then derived from e second laW:

*

I -

m =
(3.3)
Kiguro 3J Translational sping.

r
mass = J f
32 .
18 ft/s2
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Systems Sec. 3.3 Translational Systems
57
56

Rubber
Bands

Hardening Figure XA Linear spring .

Linear
Solution

Load
F = k(x2 - xx) (3.5)
Soficning
Ruler Cup
x. = 0
(3.6)
Deflection
/ 350 N
Coins = 0 175 m = 6.89 inches
.
(3.7)
Figure 3.2 Determination of spring 2000-
m
behavior.

The load-deflection relationship for any spring, linear or nonlinear, may be

V written in a general way by specifying that the spring force is a function h of the dis-
placement of the endpoints:
X
F=h{xl,xJ (3.8)
1 2
For a hardening spring, the function could be a simple power law. For a spring
o -WmV-o F Figure 3.3 Notation for linear
whose force is proportional to the third power of the relative displacement, the ex-
I -

- AT, I *2 springs.
pression would be
proportional to its deflection, with the spring constant k the proportionality con- '
Figure 3.2 shows a
stant Here, x, and x2 are the displacements of the ends of the spring, and F is the where k is a proportionality constant with units of force
/length .

spring force. The spring constant k has dimensions of force/length Mathematically, .

typical load-deflection curv

e for a hardening spring.
F = fc(je2 - x,) (3.4) 2 Translational Dampers
33
. .

Note that if x2 - xl is positive, the spring will be in tension, and the force F ortion to the di f
Ho hnnt is a device that generates a dforcej inDampers
prop cannot store
-

shown in Figure 3.3 will be positive also. To get the correct modeling equations, A damper, or dashpot. is a uo J .

it is essential that the sense of the force in the figure and the equation repre- ference in the velocity o f the two e not dynamic component.
'' * rc Used to representdevice
the energy d.ss.-
senting it be consistent. It doesn't matter whether we show the spring in ten- energy: thev3iL£lll2
sion or in compression as long as the associated equation is written
,
L« d-T5S5a 3F»tem, a
de.ee is.s shown
shown mm
consistently. Nor does it matter whether we find in the solution of the prob- ,
pation components of a sys
lem. that the force is in the opposite sense to what was shown in the sketch. Figure 3.5. .v
What matters m setting up problems is that we be consistent in the free-body Viscous Fluid
I m duCfme the SenSe of the forces and the equations that describe
v

l '.I 3 C°nsuistcnt set of itches and equations, stick with that

m
/

sr8r Xg,you the solution of the prob,em and then interPret your re-
a .
r
'

N
/
Example M Unear Spring
it i

3.5 IV nsLKonaUia '

i herTnS «TUS,ra,Cd
!* apP,lie,n F,8UrC
,aUca,1yto ee end of a linear spr
i ng that is i
f xed ra,-n"
..

rc lU ncc :; '
iA lht consla"» * 2000 N/m. Find .he
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Systems
58 Sec. 3.3 Translational Systems
59
of this damper is shown in Figure 3.6
A schematic representation and integrating produces the desired result:

y x = f lft-t,
Jn
75
b (1-5~0) = 0 5) = 0 45 inch = 11 4mm
-
.

(3 15)
.

>

i
llocitv
uid SSS
(See Chanfer S
Sf
tS ? 7
l - or by
1S ProPortlonal to the square of the ve-

f
SSSSis oad"veloc,ty relationship for a damPer
Figure 3.6 Damper schematic.
F = sign (ij -

iOfte - i,)2 (3 16)

.

t
where sign() is a function that gives the algebraic sign of the quantity in parenthe-
For a linear damper, the force carried by the element is directly proportional ses to the term that follows in the equation The sign function is needed because the
to the difference in velocity of the two endpoints of the device; that is,
.

drag force is proportional to the square of the velocity which is always positive and
,

F=b(i2- i ,) (3.10) must be multiplied by the sign of the velocity if it is to change sign when the velocity
changes sign.
where b is the damping constant, with units of force/velocity or force/(length/time), A damping element can also be devised to represent the sliding friction between
and i, and i, are the velocities of the endpoints. This type of device is called a viscous two surfaces. The friction that results depends upon the coefficient of friction and the
damper. The force generated is due to the pressure drop across a luid resistor. If the normal force that presses the two surfaces together. Sliding friction of this type occurs
f
luid resistor is a capillary or viscous resistor, the pressure drop will be linear with in many mechanical devices, and its behavior is often represented by a frictional process
f

low (or velocity) because the low will be laminar. Discrete damping elements are as- called Coulomb riction In a Coulomb friction idealization, the resulting damping force
f

f
sumed to have no significant stiffness or mass. An example of their use is given next. opposes the motion, but is independent of the relative velocity of the two surfaces.
Example 3.2 Linear Damper
3 3 3 Discrete Mass
. .

A viscous damper element is initially at rest with its left end restrained from motion. A
,

constant force of 7.5 Ibf is applied to the other end as shown in Figure 3.7. What dis-
placement has occurred at the right end after this force has been applied for 1 5 s if the .

viscous damping constant is 25 Ibf in/s?

Solution The left end of the damper is ixed, and the system is initially at rest, so "
overcome the r,c,,0" bt, n
f

. (zero velocity relative to the earth) to a ve-

r rrrla ,0 8o. Z «a,... or m *
fr
1= 1 = 0 (3 11)
.

mit = o) = o (3.i2) nation is shown in Figure 3.8.

Hie load-velocity relationship for the damper element Eq. (3.10), gives
,
V

F=b(i2-iI) = bi
2 (3.13)
Hi us.

tlx /
x2 (3.14)
dl />

2 f Kignrc.U Fonrcs acting on mas

Figure 3 7
.
Linear damper.
 Chap. 3 Mechanical System s
60 Sec. 3 3 .

Translational Syste ms
force and acceleration for a point or lumped mass I
TTk relationship between 61

given by Newton s second law of motion:

'

Ci = 0 initi
initial velocity
,

2 forces = mx (3il7 (3.22)

i;
tdi + r
m J
applied r friction - (3.17a) (3.23)
c2 - 0 initial displacement
Note thai forces are positive if they are in the direction of the positive reference axis
,

, (3.24)
which is x in this case. For mechanical systems with constant mass properties, mass is The resulting displacement is
the constant of proportionality between force and acceleration and has units of & f2
force/acceleration or force/(]ength/time squared).
m 2 0126 ? J T =l-575m = 5.167 ft (3-25)
Example 33 Acceleration of Mass
In Figure 3.9, a cargo container is being loaded onto an airplane. The container has a 33
. .
4 Modeling Translational Systems
mass of 95 kg. Find its acceleration if a force of 12 N is applied to push it How far .

would the container move if the constant pushing force is applied for 5 seconds? It is
reasonable lo neglect the force of friction acting on the container since the container is
,
The concepts just discussed can be used to develop mathematical models of systems
supported by rollers .
composed of combinations of spring, dissipation, and discrete mass elements Meth-
ods of constructing mathematical models of translational mechanical systems are il
.

Solution Sketching the free-body diagram of the container and applying Newton's -

second law gives the equation of motion: lustrated in the next four examples .

Example 3.4 Spring and Damper

(3.18)
A component of a photocopy machine is modeled as a viscous damper connected to
Pp 12N m in a linear spring, as shown in Figure 3 10. The mass of the part is judged to be negligi-
x= = = 0 126 = 4 97
.

(3.19)
.

95 kg s ble. The spring has a displacement (f) prescribed at its free end. Find the equations
.

governing the displacement of the node at which the spring and damper join to-
d2x F
gether and an expression for the force p(i) that must be applied to cause the motion
.

x = = -P-
di2 m (3.20) of the component.
Integrating Eq (3.20) gives
.
Solution The connection nodes are numbered 1 and 2. and a convenient axis system is SO

established We then draw free-body diagrams of the damper, sping, and connection

r
dx nodes. Element loads are defined for the spring and the damper in terms of the stiffness
dt
i (3.21) and damping constants and the node displacement and velocity variables, us.ng Eq*
V

/j1 n
0
* , * 2 P(')
o-\AM-? -*

I
0

f, --o-VVW-0-" F -

FiRiire.UO Photocopy component.

"

f - / ,

iuhIc 2
.

node 1
...
Rure3.9 Cargo container.
 Chap. 3 Mechanical System s
62 Sec. 3 3
.

Translational Systems
'

s second law becomes a

Since the mass at each node is zero Ne
wton
„ d (i 10)
nt
S b nce of the forces apphed to each node. Solution When the
For node 2:
J/? = mx = 01 = 0 (3.26)
(3.27)
The quantity 4 determines thematic, tk (3'36)
W Fs = p(i) (3.28) use x to measure the displacement of tS n T P0Sili0n 0f ,he *™
F ,
= k{x2 - *,) = p(0 (3.29) F = k{x
Hon,

,
the +forces
A
acting
)
on
.
the Pan are P
the "a ,hiS S'a,'c '
n
lts e.ght W and the spring force
Applying Newto s second law ,o the mas. we obtain
n
'

For node 1:

(3.30) j
(3.31) j W-F =
*

mx
(3.38)
Fd = b F k -x,) (3.32) \ Thus we have
,

hi, = k(xx - xj (3.33) 1

W - A:(x + 4) = mi (3.39)
so that
which reduces lo
bx, + kx, = kx (3.34) I
Thus. mx + kx=W--kA = 0 (3.40)
Hence, if the motion of a linear mechanical spring-mass-damper system acted on by
X (3.35) gravity is measured from its equilibrium position, the equation of motion lakes the sim-
ple form of Eq. (3.40). in which the weight forces are canceled by the initial spring
Since x2(/) is a known quantity we can solve the last equation for x t)
, .
The force forces due to the sialic deflection. Any subsequent motions are calculated with respect
p(i) can then be found f rom the spring stiffness relationship, Eq. (3.29) .
1 to the equilibrium position.
We have neglected energy dissipation in this model, and the equation we derived
As a second example we consider a common device that may be idealized as a
,
cannot predict any decay of the motion of the pan once it is disturbed from its equilib-
combination of spring and mass elements rium position. To simulate the decay, the model would have to be modified to include
energy dissipation of some kind.
.

Example 3.5 Spring Scale

Example 3.6 Machine Part
A schematic of a simple spring scale used lo measure items that are sold by weight is j
shown m Figure 311 The weighing pan has a mass of m Develop an equation describ- Figure 3.12 shows a machine part that slides along a smooth lubricated surface that it
self is attached to a ixed base by a spring. In its operation the part is subjected to a
.
.

M
mg the motion of the pan.

f
force that varies harmonically with time at a frequency of / Hz = o, rad/s Denve the
Unstreichcd
Spring Solution in ng
as a damping e|ement
"
t fXs oft n, and damper are shown in Figure 3.H ***
- > k{x + A)

Oil Film Fcos a*

1 1
/ 77777 7777 777 npire 3.12 Machine part schematic

ngnw3.ll Spring scale,

 Chap- 3 Mechanical System
Sec. 3.3 Translational Systems
64 65

mi
FcosaM -v
m
Figure 3.13 Machine part model teXTw
b
.

ment .
" the 10 the is a
Example 3.7 Vehicle Suspension System
A simplified translational model of an automotive suspension system is constructed
!
by considering only the translational motion of one wheel of the vehicle (quarter car -

fa
model). The model is shown in Figure 3.15.The stiffness of the tire is modeled by a lin-
ear spring the tire, axle, and moving parts by a mass m the suspension system by a
,

,.

tv m h(i2 - *i) spring and viscous damper (shock absorber) and the supported vehicle components
,

by a mass m -
Solution We follow the same basic steps as used in previous examples .
A coordinate
pcos tttf
"1
2 system for translation is selected with y taken positive upwards. If the wheels stay in
,

contact with the ground, the lower end of the tire spring follows the surface of the road-
way, as described by y0(0. The springs, damper, and masses are separated from their at-
Figure 3.14 Free-body diagrams. tached components so that the forces acting on them can be identified in terms of the
in the schematic of parameters of the problem. Figures 3.16 and 3.17 illustrate the appropriate free-body
forces that are consistent with the positive displacements shown diagrams. We next use Newton's second law to write the equations of motion for each
' mass and imply equilibrium of forces at points where elements join.
Newton's second law is now applied to each of the masses: We measure y, and y2 from the at-resl equilibrium position of the springs, acted
on by the weight of the vehicle s components. TOs means that the forces due to the
'

Node 1:

S F = mix weights of the components are balanced by the preload in the springs, and the tvyp will
the
. i
cancel each other in the equations of motion. Hius. to simplify the process, we write
.nuations oT tiSS without tad the weight terms and understand that y, and v:
kx, + b(x2 - xx) = m,*,
arc measured frOTTthTiquilibrium position. (See Example 3.5.)
-

Node 2:

yjF=m2x 2
'

b(x2 - i)) + fcos wl = tn-ix-t

Thus, the two second-order equations of motion become

m,*, + fti, - bx1 + kx\ = §

'
J Figure 3.15 Auto front end and
m2 x2 + bx2 - bxl = F cos w/ model.

We may also write these equations in the following form:

KD2 + bD + fclx, - bDx2 = 0
[m2D2 + bD]x2 - bDXi = cos ul
Wc solve for a; ,
from the first equation and substitute into the second equation:
=
b 2
{mil? + bD + k]
Ficurc , ,.
6 Free-body diaglim Of«%
(3.50)
After amplificatio , we obtain the following third-order e
n
quation:
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Syste
66 Sec. 3 4 .

Rotational Systems
67

1 (3.59c)
ft b

(3.59d)
It may be convenient to
write these irst-order equations in matrix form:

f
Figure 3.17 Free-body diagram x = Ax + Bu
v:) y2) ofm2 1 (3.60a)
l.o ,
-

0 1 (I 0 0
Recognizing that the springs will probably be in compression most of the time .
-
*i -

k2 2b h
we show ihe spring forces compressive and write the spring element force equations ac-
cordingly. In the development of an accurate set of governing equations, it doesn't mat -

MO (3.60b)
ter whether elements are shown in tension or compression, as long as the element force 0 0 (I

equations are consistent with the convention adopted. Thus, for mass m,, 1 Jc2 b "

e, -b 0

f
_

2fy = mM (3.52) L J

*i(yo -

y\) - k2(yi - - - = ™ih (3.53)

y
3 4 ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS
.

And mass nu.

34
. .
1 Rotational Springs
(3.54)
k2(y\ - t) + b( y> - iz) = m2yi (3.55) Rotational systems are composed of elements that are constrained to rotate about
f

an axis. A pencil sharpener and an automotive drive train are examples. Energy can
The resulting equations describing the motion of the two masses are be stored in rotational systems by springs that experience an angular displacement
w$ + - h)+ kAy\ - yi) + kxy\ = yoW (3.56)
when subjected to a torque or moment. A shaft can serve as a rotational spring when
one end is twisted relative to the other. The torsion bar suspension system in auto-
and
motive applications and a clock spring are good examples. Figure 3.18 shows some
hyi - "
- y2) - b(yx - y2) = Q (3.57)
representative rotational system springs.
The load-deflection relationship of a rotational spring can be linear or nonlin-
These equations represent the mathematical model of the sus
order system consisting of two second pension system, a fourth- ear. For a linear torsional sping, the torque and deflection angles of twist are lin-

r
order equations The two equations can be com-
-

.
early related:
bined into one fourth-order equation of the classical form (3.61)
.
T=ke
Alternatively we can convert Eqs i
,

(3.56) and (3.57) into a system of four irst-order

.

and has units of torque/angle = (force x

equations by defining a new set of variables such that the irst d
f

ivative in the set erivative is the highest de- | Here k is the torsional spring constant
d as a torsional spring is shown in Figure 3.1*
f

(Sec also AppendixTliis change of variables to produce the state-space form is shown next. IcnuthVradian. A shaft employe
r

If
G ent an angle or a torque.
.

) We make the following definitions and calculate derivatives: Sometimes a doubleheaded arrow may be used to repres
is interpreted according to t he nght-hand rule.
so, its rotational sense
Ul X2= h *
i = y\
Then /
*1- y ,
*3
(3.58) F
= = X.
*
4 yi = J/
y
AHcr substituti on ,
we obtain the followi four slate-space e
quations:

(3.59a
RgMtMl Rotational spring
* J ,, %nu) - b{x2 - _ m _

X}) _

(3.591a
 Chap- 3 Mechanical System s
Sec. 3 4 .
Rotational Systems
68
69

T 34
.
3 Discrete Inertias
.

Figure 3.19 Shaft in torsion 31

dem r eSiStanCe 0f an obJect 10 an8ular
pendent upon the mass of the object as well as th
n f
deration and is de-
e geometry of the object i.e.. the
,

manner m whtch the mass is distributed with respect to the axis of rotation T us a .
.

wheel with a large nm has a greater inertia than a uniform wheel of the same mass
Example 3 Shaft Stiffness | When applied to all of the particles that make up a rigid body in rotation about a
.

s s: ~ - °f - - fixed axis, Newton's second law for a particle requires that the sum of the moments
about the axis of rotation of the body is equal to the product of the mass moment of
fn SZ * «or a unite™ shaft are re,a,ed (Re,. 3.4, b> inertia / of the body about that axis and the angular acceleration 0 of the body
,

about the axis. Mathematically ,

,

9, - = (3.62)
(,7

Hence, discrete inertia has the units of momenty(angular acceleration) =

where G is the shear modulus of the material, /„ is the geometric torsional constant for (force X length)/(radians/second squared).
the cross section of the shaft, and L is the length of the shaft. Thus,
Example 3.9 Disk Speed Control
GI wd4, . . A uniform brass disk of 250 mm diameter d and 125 mm thickness h is supported on a shaft
k =- and /.. = - for a circular cross section (3.63)
32 as shown in Figure 3.21. The disk is spinning at a constant angular rate of 42 rad/s when a
constant braking torque of 1.2 N m is applied. What is the resulting angular decelerat.on?
Substituting the given values yields What is the angular speed of the disk if the torque is held constant for 7.5 seconds.
Solution A free-body diagram of the disk is shown in Figure 3.21. Positive angular ro-
ft = (12.
\ 5 x 10* in7\f-7
'

32 in4) -fr- = 3236 in Ibf/rad

y 7.5 m
(3.64) f trvelocitie. and'aJerations are taken about the .-axis according to the nght-
a

hand rule. For brass, p = 8.5 x itf kg/m . Tlius.

(Remember that Ixx is equal to the polar moment of inertia of the cross section only if ' (3.67)
the cross section is circular; see Appendix B for information on the other cross-
sectional shapes ) . u
in
=p =
(8 5 X 103 g
.
(0.125 m) = 52 16 kg
.

md 2 52J6kg(25) = 0 kg mi (3.68)
34 .

2 Rotational Dampers
.

(3.69)

Friction caused by a thin film of lubricant between two rotatin

a g surfaces can produce
resisting torque that is directly proporlional to the relative angular velocity 'bc-
twe n the surfaces A schematic of a rotational damper is shown in Fi
.

Tlie torque-velocily relationship for a linear damper is gure 3.20.

T = ''(02 "

0,) (3.65)

j = 42 rad/s
f
1 2 N-m
.

nprtSOl Free body diagram

- o
disk.

l
- ubhcani J
npn 3.20 Rotational damper .
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Systems
Sec. 3 4
.
Rotational Systems
70
71
2
Mx j i L. = - 2.945 xzdls
2
(3.70) k

9**1' 0 4075 kg m
.

)
2

(Recall that N = kg m/s .)

Finally

fSj , k=M±t o = -2.945(7.5) = -22.08 rad/s (3.71)

ddt - »2 /
d/s (3.72)
= e, - 22.08 - 42 - 22.08 - 19.92 ra
60s/min inn-? mm
190-2rpm (3.73) : If
Figure 3 23
.
Engine and propeller
19-92rad/s d7 - free-body diagrams .

the drive shaft torques must be in the directions shown in Figure 3.23. Of course, the
34
. .
4 Modeling Rotational Systems equations can just as easily and correctly be derived by taking B2< 0 and reversing the
torque: just be consistent.
The discrete components just described can be combined to provide the basis for The equations governing the motion of the two inertias become the following:
At the 0, node:
modeling rotational systems. A careful consideration of the sense of the angular dis-
placement and torque parameters is necessary in order to obtain error-free system (3.74)
equations. The procedures follow directly from our discussion of translational sys- (3.75)
tems and are illustrated in the next two examples. nt) + k{e2-ex)=Jce :

At the 0, node:
Example 3.10 Engine and Propeller Model
5X - ¥ (3.76)
A simplified model of a turboprop aircraft engine and propeller is shown in Figure 3.22.
The mass moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the engine is represented by the (3.77)
mass moment of inertia of the propeller by J. The driving torque applied to the engine -
* (*:- ex)-b$lsign{e2)=jpe2
is r(/). The drive shaft has a small mass moment of inertia in comparison to that of the Equations (3.75) and (3.77) constitute the fourth -or der model of the torsional system.
engine and propeller and is represented by an inertialess discrete torsional spring The .

rotation of the propeller is opposed by aerodynamic drag torque, which is proportional

to the square of the rotational speed of the propeller Develop a mathematical model Example 3.11 Geared System
gear of a pair of gears at
The shaft of Example 3.8 is fixed at one end and has the larger
.

for this system and write its equations of motion I inches (64 teeth) and r2 = 4
,
.

the other end. The pitch ra dii of the steel gears are r, = 8
Solution A reference axis x is established along the drive shaft as shown and rota- widths are 0.5 inch. Find the equation of motion of this
tions e, and 02 of inertias ] and ]p are taken to be positive along this axis according to
,

inches (32 teeth); the tooth face

,

the right-hand rule at the propeller end of the shaft If it is assumed that 0 > 0,. then
,
the smaller gear has a torque f sin air applied to it, where a> is the frequency.
system if
in rad/s, of the excitation torque.
.

in Figure 3.24. wnh angular vanablcs as

,

s are sketched
-

Solullon The shaft and gear in opposite senses to accoun t for

siencd to each gear.
IT* angular coordinates are taken force between the mating gear
r0p s te rotations of two mating gear. TTte contact
teeth is called f. ;„„fnrihciwoeears
are;
tion
.
for DM iwo g
L)rivc Shafi
The equations of mo
For gear 1: (3.78)
Engine (/
Propeller (3.79)
-
T + ry

f
,

\
For gear 2:
I
Rgure 3.22 Enginc-and-propeller
model .
 Chap. 3 Mechanical System s
72 Sec. 3 5
Sterns of Combined Translati onal and Rotational Elem
.

ents
73
or
i

m r \2 1
"

i + c l, = (rsisin wf)

f
f
:

(3.88a)
If we write ,his reSU,linterm
sof
number of teeth on the gears we get
,

T=ke i (3.88b)

X
35 RO T
r
T sin (ol
ta
tal method of develX c
s
So
rcomb,
£
n a,, ons of--
he fundamen- H0WeVer -
,

used in previous ™lPLZT Z *± ™ ,he Same as tha,

t
s

(1) Establish an inertial coordinate system (one that is not attached to an ac-
Figure 3.24 Shaft and gear system .
celerating object) .

(2) Identify and isolate the discrete system elements (springs dampers, ,

masses , rotational inertias).

Tsmox- Fr2=J
2B2 (3.8!) (3) Determine the minimum number of variables needed to uniquely define
Solving for f from the last equation and substituting into the equation for gear 1, we obtain the configuration of the system. This can be done by subtracting the num-
ber of constraints from the number of equations of motion.
T
2
(3.82) (4) Establish convenient axis systems and make appropriate free body sketches.
showing all variables and all forces and torques acting on the elements.
r (3.83)
(5) For stiffness and damping elements, write the equations that relate ele-
2
ment loadings to element deformation variables.
(6) Apply Newton s second law of motion at all nodes of the model.
'

r2 r, v ' (3.84)
(7) Combine equations as necessary to isolate response vaiables of interest.

r
This problem requires only one variable to define the positio
two gears turn in contact with each other the arc lengths th n of the gears As the .
These steps are essential for accurate modeling and simulation. The degree toly which
inter-
have the following constraint equation to consider: ey traverse are equal We you accomplish them correctly, solve the resulting equations, and mtelhgentThe next
,

pret the solution will determine your success in modeling and emulation.
niu*. there is onl
'
A = r2fl2
(3.85) four examples illustrate the ideas we have discussed.
f y one independent coordinate f
erentiate the result to get (j or the problem We solve for 0, and dif-
j:
.

Example 3.12 Rolling Wheel uniform, homogeneous wheel

t hnnir 1l device
device may
m v be idealized as a
A portion of a mechanica ,
-

„
o{

W
62 = 0 and Sj- Jj
,
, (3 86)
.
roUing without slipp ing ede a lincar 8 "
c wbrtiute this result into Eq (3.84) and obtain an equation i
n 0, only:
.

ion of the center of whe shown in a displaced position, and the forces act
-

, .

(3.87)
JtS S diagram. Since .he wheel rolls without «
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Systems
Sec. 3 5
74
.

Systems of Combined Trans.ati

ional and Rotational Element s
75

/
*
r
= '0 and x = r\rO so e = ~
,

r (3.95)
/
Figure 3.25 Rolling wheel and
spring. (3.96)
Substitution gives

(3.97)

\ + 0 + kx = 2F (3.98)
I Figure 3.26 Free-body diagram of
wheel.
(3.99)

frictional force/occurs at the point of contact between the wheel and the surface. Only For a uniform circular disk the mass moment of inertia with respect to an axis through
one variable is required to uniquely define the location of the wheel; thus, the wheel dis-
,

its center of gravity is mr2/2 Substituting this for 7 gives

placement x and the wheel angular rotation 0 are not independent. In our solution, we
.

will use x. The wheel is not constrained to rotate about a ixed axis, so we use the general
f

mi + kx = 2F (3.100)
form of Newlon s second law that includes x- and y-translations and refer the moment
and mass moment of inertia to an axis through the center of gravity of the object:
If a igid body rotates about a ixed axis O the moment equation in Newton's
.

f
(3.89) second law can be written for that axis. Both the sum of the moments and the mass
moment of inertia are then written for that axis:

S*7 = My* (3.90)

=V (3.101)
1MCR = Jj (3.91)
Example 3.13 Trailing Arm Suspension System
The irst and third equations may be used to develop a description of the hori-
A simplified model of an automotive suspension system is shown in Figure 3.27. The
f

zontal motion of the wheel Because the wheel rolls on a horizontal surface there is no
wheel is supported relative to the chassis by a torsion bar spring and a shock absorber.
.

acceleration in the y direction and the second equation expresses the equilibrium be-
,

tween the weight of the wheel and the normal force N at the surface The irst and third
The tire stiffness is to be represented in the model. Develop the equations govem.ng
the angular motion of the pivot arm.
f

equations give
Solution An x- v- 2-axis system is established as shown in F.gure 3.28.The torsion
y Fx = mx
F + f- kx = m x (3.92) h n ire stiffnesses are represented by linear springs, the shock absorber by a
,
eg
t c
ZT o* L is shown in a displaced position. It i, assumed that
rF-rf= JJ (3.93)
Wc now solve for/from the moment equation:

f'F-J - (3.94)

l l f ?q-(3-94)imo translation equation, we

the rim of the wheel is eauann r r0llS thrOU8h an ang|e «.the arc ,en8th Figure 3.27 Automotive suspension
think of the wheel on ,anCe *,raveled by center. If it is help- 0
s, .U .
system.
- ount of;:;;:; tg rp a rope-,he
i wounu ontp the drum is rft Thus
n

0
»< hou- Beannfi

,
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Systems
Sec. 3.5
Systems of C0mb-med Translational and Rotational Element s 77
76

Example 3.14 Hoisting System

m

b
taR SA l eqUati0n S deSCribing the motion of lhe ho ™ own
L ers
l the SUPPlled by the m0,0r 31 ,he end of the
.

raises or
Iand a 1T
m

T
nH m edev,ce
scous fnction
,

y JmaSS 15b gUided 50 ,ha, 11 can move onlv in the ve" l direction.
etween the container and its guides is used to damp out
1 possible oscillations.

0
y

kT0 k{u - r2e) ttgm 3.28 Suspension schematic

r and free-body diagram. X

the angular motion is small enough that forces from the damper and tire spring remain
essentially vertical. That assumption will need to be verified when the equations are
solved to find the deformation. The pivot arm is assumed to be rigid, and the quantity
m(0 represents the variation in the height of the road surface and acts as an input to the
system as the car moves along the road. ,
The tire spring, torsion spring, and shock absorber forces are
k(u{t)-r2e), kTe, and b{r{e) (3.102)
We use the moment equation form of Newton's second law written for rotation about
,

a fixed axis 0: Figure 3.29 Hoisting system.

= j0e (3.103)

kjS- rMrj) + r2/c(M(0 " r2ff) = J0B

-

(3.104)
Here the total rotational inertia about the torsion bar axis is the inertia of the arm plus
he merfaa of the mass The parallel axis theorem is used to calculate the total inertia.
.

e
(see Appendix B): deformatton relat.ons ar
T e element Icading-
T = fcft - %)
Oiarm) + J (3.105)

J0 ~ J0{arm) + Wf (3.106)
JoO + r]h0 + (fcr + rlk)e = hk m 107) following equations:
Quantity u(l) h assumed to be a kn own time At fl, node: _ no)
' (3.110

ngtyttem X
„„!, m r(rotational
mechanical systems we consider a hoist- (3.112)
-
. prm, .
S!!!rS
)la inertias"'ilss-lli'mpu -and a spring
.
,
as well as a tor-
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Systems
Sec. 3 5
7K
.

Systems of Combined Translational and Rotational Elements 79

t
f
(3.120)
X3 = x4
J S
(3.121)
(3.122)
X5 = ft (3.123)
(3.124)

Example 3.15 Planetary Gear Sysfem

The so-called planetary gear system shown in Figure 3.31 is a common means of pro-
viding a high gear-reduction ratio in a compact mechanical device Several input and .

outpul combinations are possible depending on which gear is fixed. Typical applica-
,

F = k(r.Ox-
tions include helicopter and automotive transmission systems The system is called a
.

I
planetary gear system because the small gears move about the central gear in a way that
is similar to the motion of planets about the sun in our solar system In this exercise, wc
.

want lo develop the equation of motion for one of the planet gears. For our purposes
here, we remove the sun gear and just analyze the motion of the planet in mesh with the
ring gear. The effect of the sun gear can be incorporated later.
Solution The gears can be modeled as wheels that roll on one another without slip-
ping. The notation shown in Figure 3.32 is used to analyze the kinematics of motion of
Figure 3.30 Moisting system free- the planet gear as it meshes with the ring gear. Only one variable is required lo define
= T body diagrams .
the position of the planet. Wc use its angle of rotation for this purpose.
Wc can duplicate the motion of the planet gear by means of the following se
-

At l, node: quence: To arrive at the displaced position, we divide the movement into two step but
First wc rotate the planet gear about the system s central
'
axis Z through an angle
f

(3.113) Ring Clear

Sun (icar
(3.114)

/ l = MO , " 02) + r/M (3.115) IMiind dear

Hoisled mass:

KiRure 3.31 Planetary gear system.

(3.116)
/
" '2
=-fti + r.e,w (3 117)
.

Xi?qiSL ; ll:; rdcr ct'ul,,i,,n8

0
C ,n

w
,
of "".ion can be combined into a single
|
H'ZO
r mOh
rdcr lo prepare for diBii .Uim!!i S SIX f™'***** WJUEtloni. Selecting the latter in
"
"

«.U vrut, . .
, Slmull,,,,,n ,,f system response, we dclin . tlu- f.,llowi3
.

Wlthlhrscdcflnii '0"'1
*4 *4 i,- . (3.11H) 0

allowing.i* equationi: '

MalC 8pUCC rcPresen"'li"n of the system is given by the Motion of planet gear
t

\M

1
(3.m)
 Chap. 3 Mechanical System s
80 Sec. 3 6 D '
.

Alembert's Princip|e
81
circular path
SSZ o Sg i. 1-. dUed position. brings a.b to a .ions „, moli<>„:
with res
P« .« „„,„, Kis 2 as by
equa-

S Sf c * orientation is . = r " A is def ines the angu.ar mo-

1 of the planet gear. Now we need the relat.onsh.p thalmust ex.s. between 6 and 0
r -

(3.132)
2
,o satisfy the geometr
ic conditions of rolling wtthout shp. Th.s .s found by determining
the length of the arc of contact between the planet gear and the ring gear. The arc (3.133)
R
The
length can be calculated either by using the angle 0 and the radius R + r or by using nations of motion become for the.-direCtion
.

the angle rand the planet radius r. The two expressions must be the same. We thus have
.

(R + r)P = ry (3.125)
lf* = ntt F-f=mr0 (3.134)
and for the rotation
y (3.126)
(3.135)
This result is now used to ind the relationship between 6 and (3: Eliminating/ we have
f

e=y-l3 = fi\\ + *\-fi (3.127) or

{J /r + mr)B = f (3.136)

l R a (7 + mr2)e = rF (3.137)
f

r
(3.128)
From this and knowing the force f applied to planet by the carrier arm we determine
,

TTiis completes the kinematic analysis which can be the most difficult part of a
,
the motion of the planet The normal force between the planet gear and the ing gear
.

r
problem to visualize. (Note that it's not always helpful to think of an object rotating can be found from the remaining equation of motion :

about a point especially in cases of general motion. Just follow the orientation of a line
,
1

line heiwtn 5 ' m0VeS fr0m P0Si,i0n ,0 ,he next-7116 an8uIar diff nce in the
'
.h
2Fv = myes N = m-e: (3.138)
r 0f ,S.,he angUlar m0ti0n 0f the obiect ) O" e kinemat-
body tTm 0nhp :? be:n analyZeud'iS eaSy 10 861 the ecluations of uon. A free-
a
The use of Newton's second law to develop the equations of motion for me-
chanical systems is the basic method of doing so. but is not always the most conve-
'

nient one. In the next two sections, we consider d Alembert's principle and
Lagrange's method.
2Lip* a mx (3.129)
. 6 D'ALEMBERT'S PRINCIPLE
(3.130)
J d'Alembert (French mathematician and philosopher. 1717-83) suggested that the
(3.131) inertia-times-angular-acceleration terms be taken to the
Hie center of mass mass-times-acceleration and
of ihp i
the acceleration of O is ihe.ccet8!3' T left side of Newton's second law and considered to be force and moment quantities:
the acceleration of its cent8e0me,ric cen<er « Z™- I
" us.

er of mass and it moves in a ' (3.139)

,

2FX = cg 2FX
(3.140)

(3.141)

"

Planet g f Free"body diagram of

 Chap. 3 Mechanical Systems
Sec. 3 7
S2 .

Lagrange's Equatio n

/ .rtia x acceleration quantities in a

direction opposite to the positive direc- V 83

f aci.er *e e 3.34. No angular*terms are constdered

ma« of + $

S 3 S miified as sho in Figur

t
,

e f

since the object slides without tipping.

-
x
kx
mr

Rgure 3J5 Free-body diagram of

wheel for d'Alembert method .

D
F mx
Alembert showed
mass-times-accel
th at the moment equation for a fr
ee body that includes the
eration terms as vector components gives the same result as a
mg Newton s second law Furthermore, the advantage of the d'Ale
.
pply-
that moments can be taken about any point We are no longer restricted
mberttoprthinciple is
of mass e center
.

3 or a i xed axis of rotation as before. For the free-bod y diagram of Figure

35, we ind the moment of all terms about the point of contact with the horizontal

f
.

i
Figure 3.34 Free-body diagram

f
surface
N
'

using d Alembert's approach. .

We include the moment due to the inertial force mx and the moment due to
the inertia torque 7 0 . The result is

We now sum the vector components; i.e., we obtain the balance of forces in = 0 (3.148)
the x- and y-direclions:
2rF - rfct - mti - 7 0 =0 (3.149)
x-direction: Fapplied - F
friction
-m£= G (3.142)
Plainly, this equation is the same as the one we obtained previously ,
but now we did
y-direction: N - W ~ my = 0 (3.143) not have to combine two equations to get it.
When the inerlial term mx is placed on the right-hand side of the equation, Eq.
(3.142) is the same as Eq (3.18) found previously in Section 3.3 3
.

3 7 LAGRANGE'S EQUATION
. .

The value of the d'Alembert approach is more apparent in problems in- .

volving combined mechanical components and in cases where rotational mo-

tions occur Consider, for example, the wheel of Example 3 12. The equations
.
Both Newton's and d'Alemberts methods of developing equations of motion re-
previously derived using Newton's second law for translation and rotation are as
.

quire that a mechanical system consisting of several components be taken apart and
follows: all forces acting on the components be identified on the free-body diagram of each
element. However, there are cases in which we have no interest in the forces at in-
F+ f-kx = mx terconnections. and it would be advantageous to be able to derive the equations ofh
(3.144)
motion by regarding the system from an overall standpoint. J. L. Lagrange (Frenc
rf» Jj rF~ mathematician. 1736-1813) showed that a consideration of system energies allows
.

(3>145)
such a derivation.
rmSZ mUlt,P,y ,hC firSt CC1Uation * -d add the two equations together. According to Lagrange s approach, we '

i rst se lect the minimum number of in-

f
describe the position of the system at any in
-

dependent coordinates necessary to onding loading in eac h

W - rkx = rmt + J a stant Call these coordinates q, and let Q, be the corresp tes and express the po.cn
-

f * r
(3.146) coordinate. We select reference positions for the coordina
When the system is displace d
ial energy V of the system in terms of its coordinate.
position the potential energy includes energy stored in spnn.e
s

I
r

2rF-rkx-
rmx-jJ = Q nT weigS raised above a reference height. We have
reference
'
S
n u

Nwt , apply lhed.A| t.m

. , o (3.147)
-heel is sketcSllC f Pr0blem;
e

agram
free-body di-
 Chap. 3 Mechanical System s
84 Sec. 3 7 .

Range's Equation
der consideration.
where/, is a function thai depends upon the problem un 85
Now we express the kinetic energy T in terms of the system masses, mass mo.
ments of inertia, linear velocities, and angular velocities:
T = f:Un) (3.151) (3.159)
JJ
The loss due to viscous friction devices is written in an energy dissipation function

d
= kx
(3.160)
that depends upon the velocities of the system and the damping constants: The force in the coordinate x is the excit
ation force
R = f$(4i) (3.152)
Forces can be considered by including them in the force term Qi associated with Summing the terms on the right-hand side of E (3.161)
each coordinate. Using the d Alembert principle, we can show that the equations of
'

familiar spnng-mass-damper equation of moti qs. (3.157) through (3 160)«

on:
'gRives the
motion for each coordinate can be found by merely differentiating the energy func-
tions using the equation mi + 6i + ex = /(r) (3 162)
Thi

f
s simple problem illustrates the important features of the technique
.

d BR dU
_ ldT _dT (3.153) Lagrange's method is more useful when employed in higher order systems and sbut
dt U y dq-
,

dq ,
-

dqi tems of interconnected bodies ys-

.

(Since the energies are functions of all the coordinates, partial derivatives must be used ) . Example 3.16 Vehicle Suspension System
Let us consider the spring-mass-damper system as a simple example of the use
of Lagrange's equation We need only one coordinate ql = x, to describe the posi- Consider the system shown in Figure 3 37. This could represent a si
of a vehicle and its suspension system. The system requires two demplified model
. .

tion of the mass shown in Figure 3 36.

The energy functions are
.

dom to describe its position: vertical translation and angular pitch The
greesmotion
of free-is
taken with respect to the equilibrium position of the vehicle, and thus the poten-
.

tial energy of the vehicle's weight is not required in the energy considerations.
U = ±kx2 (3.154) (See Example 3.5.)
Solution The kinetic energy is the sum of its translalional and rotational components
and is given by the equation
(3.155)
(Since the energies are scalar quantities, their combined effects are included by sinv
(3.156) pie addition.)
Taking the indicated differentials The potential energy stored in the springs is
gives the following terms:
(3.164)
= mx
dtW mx
-

(3.157)
where
= 0
(3.158)

4 k ' tS -

A
h 1

A\
1

Figure 3.37 Vehicle suspension

Figure 3 36 Spring-mass damper
.
-
system.
system .
v
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Syste
86 Sec. 3.8
Three tensions. Motion
Si = y-a0 and 8, = y + bd (3.165) 87

Taking the appropriate derivatives gives

(3.171)
= my and
-
tt - *i0i 9v
(3.166)
ay

= y and f = (y - a -a) + + 0) (3-167) Resolving the right-hand tterms

erms in.,,
.nto components in th e r- and y-directions gives
Combining these results gives the following equations of motion: and
L.O.sinO
,, /ftcoso (3.173)
my + (*, + k2)y +
-
= F{t) (3.168)

jj + (j l2 + *262)0 + {hk2 - = M{t) (3.169) Now since „! = ,; + c!;; l * '

(«, co. W + „ mm
f

eg ,
As an example of a situation involving interconnected bodies, we next con-
sider the development of the equations of a robot arm. 2-j l, + e2) + -m2[L]e] + IL/d + 02)cosO2 + (fl, + l2fl (3.175)

f
Example 3.17 Robot Arm The total kinetic energy is the sum of the two scalar kinetic energy
y expressions:
The top view of a selective compliant assembly robot arm (SCARA) is shown in
Figure 3.38. The SCARA consists of two arms pinned together at a joint that has a ver-
tical axis. The base joint of link 1 also rotates about a vertical axis. These devices are fre- If losses occur because of viscous friction at the joints the energy dissipation function
,
.

quently used in pick and place operations, such as inserting integrated circuit chips in
" "

which provides torques proportional to the relative velocities at the joints is ,

printed circuit boards. We wish to derive the equations of motion, considering joint ac-
tuation torques and friction effects. (3.177)
Solution In the chip insertion process the mass of the chip is insignificant in com-
,

parison with the mass of the robot arms. For such an application, we can ignore the In addition, each joint is driven by an actuator, which provides a joint excitation torque.
contribution of the chip to the inertia of the system and for simplicity we will do so
, , These comprise the loadings in the two defined coordinates.
in this example First, we find the kinetic energy expressions The two angles shown
.
. The application of Lagrange's equation lo these energy terms is sufficient to gen-
are convenient and sufficient to define the motion The angle at link 2 is measured erate the appropriate equations of motion without disassembling" the device to deter-
"

relative to link L mine the internal loadings.

The kinetic energy of link 1 can be written in terms of the link's mass moment of
inertia about the ixed axis of rotation O The preceding development is brief, and while a number of details were left
f

out the sahent features have been presented. Reference 3.2 gives add.t.ona
l mfor-
mation on the effective use of Lagrange s method for the deve
'

lopment of equauons
(3.170)
of motion for mechanical systems.
2
tional w
l haS 8eneral m0,i0n. 50 We must include both translational and rota-
<:

shown! we gcf ' an8Ular Vel0City is the SUm of the rates of the two angleS
c
""
.

.
8 THREE-DIMENSIONAL MOTION

> W v
r

in this categbiy. and their and analysts j a (hrcc.Jim

Many other systems. ho wevc r
lexible body motittis ofan airci
e-
.
.

t
u

A framework. A typical cas pu.sivc. weight, lift, an d **

\
neuveringint heatmosphe e
caucn
a fuU
cause motions that can become H
RgoreWS SCARA .

I
 Chap. 3 Mechanical s
88 Chap. 3 Problems

al an t hf bc ariy ed
'
is
three-dimenSion 89
/ friction force
another example of a common mecnam
ther " P' 0' eferences at the end of
e
rharitpr _j
the chapter give addi.io a!
ng a
F force
hree-dimens-ona
prob,ems of this type.
.
information on the treatmtni ui G shear modulus
h function thickness,

/
„ torsional stiffness consiam
3 .
9 SUMMARY J mass moment of inertia
L length
l nt(.T we have considered the significant aspects of modeling translational
n ,h,S fCcomb redTanslational/rotational mechanical systems. Newton's sec:
, u
, k spring constant
Pp -d Lagrange's energy method were introduced, kT spring constant

l tILensional
.og
h"" wifh exampl
two-dime
un-
es ilInlustrati
motion. ng their
the next applweicat.cons.der
chapter, on to typ.thecalmodeling
s.tuat.onsof .electr
nvolivical m mass

M moment

system components. N number of gear teeth normal force

,

qi coordinate
r radius
R radius ,
viscous friction potential
REFERENCES
t time
T torque kinetic energy
,

3 . 1 Cochin. Ira. and Plass, Jr. Harold J., Analysis and Design of Dynamic Systems, 2d ed .
U potential energy
Harper Collins Publishers, New York. 1990.
v velocity
3 2 Dimarogonas.
.
Andrew D and Sam Haddad. Vibration for Engineers W weight
.,
.

Prentice Hall, Inc, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.. 1992 . A

3 3 Hibbclcr. R. C. Engineering Mechanics x displacement
.

Dynamics, 5lh ed. Macmillan Publishing Co

,
..

Inc.. New York, 1989 y displacement

34 Hibbcler
.

J z displacement
.
.
R. C Mechanics of Materials, 2d ed. Macmillan Publishing Co .
,
Inc., New York.

35
1994. | /3 angle
.

Ogata Katsuhiko. System Dynamics, 2d ed. Prentice Hall

.

,
Inc, Enelcwood Cliffs, NX 7 angle
1992.
36
8 displacement
.

Shearer J Lowcn. and Kulakowski. BohdanT Dynamic Modettng and Control of Engi
.

neenng Systems
.

A change in displacement
.

Macmillan Publishing Co ., New York 1991).

,

0 angle of twist
a, excitation frequency

NOMENCLATURE
PROBLEMS
a acceleration
A matrix Section 3.3.1 and shown in Figure 3~.
stiffness expeiment described in
3L1 Perform the spring stiffness experiment described in Figure 3.2. but for the spring, ux'

r
>> dissipation constant of a viscous damp or
3 2 Perform the spring d or held to a tableiop.
n rn.unx
itnx
.

a lexible slat of wood, plastic, or metal clampe

for the spring damper system shown in Figure P3.3.
f

c« center of gravity 3J Derive the equationsn offunction

motion
of lime.
d diameter input 6(t) is a know
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Syst
Chap. 3 Problems
90

91
3 .
7 Consider an arrangement which u ih.
Figure P3.3 Spring-damper sysiem that the item starts with a /eroTn , ,ame ™ lhal dcscribcd Problem 3 6
ation
chute that is 3 m long (ZT' lt Ty iSChu,C
deUvcred lo lhe surfaceexcept
down
.
.

oaches an arresting system com which will insure that the J L \ *

angle a nd coefficicnl of {ric-
with a velocity of I ft/sec appr of
the chute 35 a VC,(K:ily of 6
T i and viscous damper. (See the Figurecar P3.contacts
4 ) Derive the eq t
U a m rmn ihf boxcar .

when it reaches the end

ne s
descr i bing what happens after the arrestin
Z of motion, g
Use symbols to represent all vanables. Descnbc
ns

svstem
how to use th.s model to
that the car comes to rest afte
select values for the spring and damper constants so r

traveling less than 3 ft. 'i

- 5m
-

AAV- 1 m
HRurePS ? . Chute ,

V
V
h .

777777 777Z,
=7777 Figure P3.4 Boxcar. 3 .
8 A 2500 Ibf car goes into a skid on slick streets at an initial velocit
tional force of 1200 Ibf is developed between the vehicle's tires andy the
of 45road.
mph.If the
A fricar
c-
15 Complete the work described in Problem 3.4; that is, ind spring and damper constants continues to move in a straight line develop an appropriate model and ind how far it
f
,

f
that will meet the requirements outlined. travels and how long it takes to come to a stop .

3 6 An item in a manufacturing operation is projected onto a flat surface with an ini- 3 -

9 During the early part of the light of a rocket (see Figure P3.9). the gravity force and

f
.

tial velocity of V,, as shown in Figure P3.6. The item slides to a point where a thrust force are constant. The aerodynamic drag varies with the square of the velocity .

robot picks it up and transfers it to another machine for further handling. For and because fuel is being burned the rocket is losing mass at a constant rale. Start with
,

successful operation of this system, the package must stop in the target zone the linear momentum principle of Eq. (2.1), and devise a suitable model lo describe
the motion.
within one second after its release, or the robot will not be able to perform its
part of the process.

;
1

l Figure P3.9 Rocket.

ing stiffness constant for a s teel shaft 0.5 inch in diameter and
h 3 10 Calculate the torsional spr
5m -1 .

result in in Ibf/rad. and in ft Ibf/deg.

Figure P3 6 Manufacturing setup 2 5 ft long. Express your f the shaft is a square 0.5 inch on a
3.10. except that the cross section o
. .

\ 11 Repeat Prob.
Develop a model describing the motion of the object along the surface Establish an
axu «y»tcm
Use appropriate symbols to represent the relevant quantities, etc. Deter-
.

mine
a suitable ran ge for the coefficient of friction between the item and the lat surface
HOC initial velocity V, is 6 m/s and the picku
f

the figure .
p target zone dimensions are as shown in
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Syste
Chap. 3 Problems
92

fer than one-thir

on
d of its ultimate strength and must carry a maxi. 93
bending stress gre ater than

wind h
.

I A'. Motion of d
VlSCOOS mass relative
Mass
Friction, to ground
//. Motion of
frame relative Figure P3 15 Accelerating car
.
.

to ground
77777777777777777
-

. Figure P3.13 Mechanical system. 3.

17 Consider Figure P3 17 andr/ f
77777777777777 indicated damping is viscous. eqUati0n 0f m0lion for as a funclion of F

m m/s

k
F
9 b oooo*- /
(Recall that N = kg
a Draw a free-body diagram of the mass. '
*
,
///////////yyy/tyy////,, , s sss// /////////
b Show all forces and their direction on the diagram. Neglect gravity. 7
c mite the equation of motion, and derive the transfer function of the response x to Figure P3.n Two-mass system.
an input motion u.
dWhat is the expression for the static gain, and what is its numerical value?
.

3 18 Derive the equations of motion for the system shown in Figure P3.18. Find the trans-
3 14 Figure P3.14 shows a mechanical system with two degrees of freedom and two inputs.
.

fer function between the input y(0 and the output z(f), and find the sialic gain of the
Considering the effects identified by the coefficients,
system.

r r
*3
llf 101 m m2 tmnrms
/
3
/
>/////>//////}//////////>//////}////////
Figure P3.14 Dual-input system. V77777

a.
Wr/Ve the basic modeling equations .
m = 2 kg l6Ns/ni
b. Derive a differential equation for j:
2 as a function of «, and Uj. Ik, = 8 N/m 16N s/m
c Normalize the result and express it as a transfer function. What are the static gains? Figure P3.18 Single-mass system.
3 15 Consider the dynamics of a car acceler jt, = 8 N/m
.

ating (Figure P3 15). The car has wheels and tires

.

that have a high rotational inertia Suppose that the aerodynamic drag and rolling re-
.

sistance forces are linear with velocity. hine becomes jamme d in

3 19 Suppose that a mac '
a
- Derive the differential equation of motion of the car's velocity v as a function of the shaft shown in Figure P3.19
.
' S sma,, in ccuparison to that ol .he
n

total drmng torque T to the rear wheels. Consider the mass m of the car itself, the
a
c
mass mw of each wheel and tire the diameter of the tires d and the wind resistance b.
,

b
. State the expression for the time constant of this s
ystem.

linear system
"
<> + M . Derive a state-space representation for this non -

| S te-space equa.ion form.

 Chap. 3 Mechanical Syst
Chap. 3 Problems
94
95

KM

/
Tit)
n

"I

Figure P3.22 Crane model .

Figure P3.19 Machine model.

small. The mass is subjected lo a slep input force F Find an expression for the dis-
.

i. -mached to a load inertia through a flexible shaft as shown in Fig. placement of point E after lhe transient motions have died out
Z associated differential equations describing the ml
.

m ZtToXdisks 7, and 7, Provide both class.cal and state-space forms of the

,ion of the two
resulting equations.
hinge IRi <<

' B
Applied
Moior Tit)
A I
Torque

J2 1

0 Fj e p3<20 Electric motor and

d LG if)' Load Torque
T 7-t = Constanl ]oad>
,

Figure P3.23 Machine device

3. 21 Figure P3.2I shows a boat engine driving ils propeller through a clutch and lf exible
24 The uniform bar shown in Figure P3.24 is attached to its support by two linear springs
hrouch
shaft. Find a suitable model of this mechanical system. Include the rotating parts of the 3
.

from moving in the .t-direciion. A mass is attached to the bar t

engine, the clutch (which we assume is slipping at this moment), the flexible shaft, the and is prevented for the system. Asmme small an-
a spring as indicated. Deriye the equations of motion in a horizontal plane, so you
propeller, and the water. motionsof the bar. The motion of the system occurs
gular
need not consider the effect of gravity.

/ i
f
7

J
Figure P3.21 Boat engine and pro
peller. a
,

hZnOH ,n FigUre P3 22 is used 10 Pick UP a Po t mass m . The uniform

-

p
P.V24 Bar-mass system.
mr.
r r ? maSS and itS Ccntcr of 8ravi,y is at i,s midpoint. The rotational mass m ilgvc,

TTc Ir 'l ,hC b00m Wi,h P"'to a" through its center of gravity is
.n

and Zw .h .? V ? 7 5,1 ,he baSe of lhe boom- Dr™ a free-body diagram.

0
. au ipvicc shown schematically n
3 23 A d I ni0ti0n f0r the angUlar P0sition of lhe boom- tal
Plane r rnaChinC " ShOWn in FigUrc P3-23- 11 in a horizon XVSs Firul the equal'""- -

E -n Zl™
mpanson JZT
to that of?Tm modc,.assuming
the attached ,hat ,he ™ss of the bar is neglig,
mass m2 and that the angular motions arc
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Syste s
Chap. 3 Problems
96

it develops a constant force that opposes motion

97
-

e
friction cIassical system equat.on format and the state.
. .

b a Coulomb
Express your answers in -
|
space format. v;

L .

F(f) J
J
;
777/
Figure P3.25 Lever device.
Inpui
.

HPvelooed at the piston-surface interface of the system '

1
3 26 A viscous frictio"a f"' the equations of motion, and set them up for solution
'
.
uU)
Figure P3.29 Mass-pulley system .

other disk. The disk at the bottom of the pendulum cannot rotate relative to the pendu-
lum arm. Draw free-body diagrams and derive the equations of motion for this system.
m

No
Friciion r

-
a No
Slip

L Figurc P330 Rolling wheel with

disk.

Figure P3.26 Spring-mass-dampcr- mechanical system shown in the Rgure P3. 31. mass of the
331 A wheel is moved by the
PH) lever .

wheel is mm, and the mass of the attachment .s m,

3 27 Repeat Problem 3.26t but assume that the piston is acted on by a Coulomb frictional force.
.

3 28 Suppose that the apparatus described in Problem 3 25 has a torsional spring kr added
.
.

at the bar hinge point 0. Develop the associated dynamic systems model. Friclionless
3 29 Shown in Figure P3 29 is a mechanical system with a rotating wheel of mass mw (wM
.
.
Bearing
uniform mass distribution) Springs and dampers are connected to the wheel using a
.
b

lexible cable without slip on the wheel .

f

Pos,1,on
a.

b.
Write all of the modeling equations for translational and rotational motion. Whccl Ma s1-
i itpttt U ;
Derive the differential equation of motion for the translational motion a: as a func-
tion of the input motion u . Figure P.U1 Wheel with position
c
- Stale the expressions for the static gain, natural frequency and damping ratio. input system.
,
No Slip
3J0 The d.sk shown in Rgure P3.30 rolls without slipping on a horizontal plane Attached to .

me d.sk through a fnclionlcss hinge is a massless pendulum of length L that carries an-
 Chap. 3 Mechanical Syst ems
98

fc
Write the modeling and geometric equations for the translational and rotationa|
r
CHAPTER 4
systems. motion z as a function of the input
b Derive the transfer function for the output
.

I
d .
motion u(l).
c Smie the static gain of the system.
Under what conditions would there be slip between the wheel and the ground?
Metrical Systems
(Stare an equation.)
s equation to der ive the equations for Problem 3.23
3J2 Use Lagrange
'

3J3 Use Lagrange s equation to der

' ive the equations for Problem 3.24
3J4 Use Lagrange s equation to der
'
ive the equations for Problem 3.26
3J5 Use Lagrange s equation to der
' ive the equations for Problem 3.30
Use Lagrange s equation to derive the equations for Problem 3.31
'

3J6

4 . 1 INTRODUCTION

Electrical systems are composed of resistor* capacitors, inductors , transistors, am-

plifiers, and power supplies: they use voltage and current to sense ,
amplify, ilter, and

f
compute (various quantities) and to move mechanical loads
,
.

Electrical and electronic circuits range from simple passive circuits to active
circuits to complete electronic systems such as stereo amplifiers servocontrol sys-
,

tems. audio and video communication systems and digital computers. Passive cir-
,

cuits simply respond to an applied voltage or current and thus do not have any
amplifying devices or active sources of power. Active circuits have transistors and/or
amplifiers that require an active source of power to work.
Electronics now pervades our lives and is involved in almost every aspect of our
daily activities. The list is long and obvious. The purpose of this chapter is to reviewircuit
the
foundations of circuit analysis in order to predict and analyze the response of a c
to certain input signals We irst cover passive resistance-inductance-capac.tancc

f
(RLC) circuits and then introduce some of the more simple active cucu.ls us.ng opcr-

4 . 2 BASIC ELEMENTS
. i h*>it* we must use variables that represent the poten-
In the analysis of electr.cal " cu
.

can donc. Voltage and current arc

tial for doing work and the rate aiwlmh r
99
 Chap. 4 Electrical SVst
em
s
100
Sec 4.2
Basic Elem
.

w„ variables USed. To he.-er understa „ d .hese quan. i.ies, i. is necessary t0 ents

cuss (he The unit of power is the watt (

behavior is based upon elec.rons moving i„ orb l736-l8,9' a- 101
One model °f '""' e|ec,rons Ca„ break loose and move from atom . "htt h -

iessssr* WM,
n

toar0atom
„„d "S have a™"
The"electrons 0n
0

a y mall electrical charge. If a body has an ex

. Scottish inventor

f
.

of h s Therefore we can d watt = joule/second

.

„, electrons, nhas a nega

ve ch r re(:0gnjlio„ of Charles '

escribe
,

elertriroi (4 8.
five cnarge. mc " '
uim
11 nh c t. 1736-1806), which represents 6.24 x
guslin Coulomb, French physicist. 1736-1806), which represents 6.24 disereypate
and othus
r slothe relation
.

e
- k comPonents in
of their treatment of cn-
.

electrons.
As the electrons low from one body to another, a current is established Th
4.2.1 Resistance
f

current i (from the French word intensite) is the rate of change of charge q with
sped to lime and can be positive or negative, depending upon the direction in wh c"
the electrons low. Mathematically,
f

t -
dq
dt (4.1)
thus,
therePrpWtrLV
fromnth
woulS notlZeXChan8e of lT COndUCtvolt
electrons. Insulators isolate any

Hie unil of current is the ampere, or simply, amp (in recognition of Andr6 Marie
H . Ponents and
ideal conductor would freely conductprotect l i vin g things from shock age potential
By contrast
electricity with no restriction on the abili an
.

electrons to ty of
,

move
Somewhere in between insulators and conductors are resistors
,

Ampere, French physicisl and mathematician, 1775-1836), which is defined as a .

coulomb per second: which show a predictable restriction of electron low The current i
ited and is dir ectly proportional to the applied voltage potential n a resistor is lim
.

f
.

ampere = coulomb/second (4,2) energy by converting it to heal and light and has no ability to st A resistor dissipates .

Thus The fact that the current in a resistive com ore electrical energy.
,
1 amp is 6.24 X 1018 electrons moving from one body to another in 1 ponent is proportional to the volt
age drop applied to the component was established
second. M in 1826 b
(German physicist 1787-1854). This linear relation between they Georg Simon Ohm
-

The voltage represents the potential energy in the circuit. It is the change in .

voltage and curre

energy w as a charge bears the name of Ohm's law and is written nt
q is passed through a component; that is ,
' -

Se = Ri
din i (4.9)
e =
da (4.3)

2?. ""
Volta iS the (in recognition of the Italian physicist Alessandro where & = 2 ( O)
.

1745-1827 . wh.ch is defined as a change of 1 joule of energy per coulomb The circuit symbol for a resistor is shown above with its voltages e , and e, and its

1818-«9)
tX*u a una
J0U efof(energy
named orin work
cogniandtiohasn ofthetheunitsEngliof sh physicist James Joule.
newton X meter THus.
current / .

Thus, the resistance R of a component is the incremental rate at which voltage

.

changes with current in that component or ,

volt = joule/coulomb
(4.4) de 5t 1

R = (4.11)
di i
joule = newton x meter (4.5)
If Ihe resistance is linear, the slope is constanl and the resistance is simply the ratio
energy o 'hat the rate of change of of the voltage to the current. The unit of measurement of resistance is the ohm and
is given the symbol fl.
t

dw ohm = volt/amp (4.12)

p =

(4.6)
is :: v0lla8e
'
"
The amount of power dissipated by a resistor is the product of the voltage drop
and curreni: and the current. This power generally is converted to thermal energy:
P = ei power dissipated = Sei (4J3)
 Chap. 4 Electrical System
Sec. 4.2
102 Basic Elements

Rfeleton arc ma„Uracred .

T "aStTeS pS SS? hernial equati
JS S. . and corona, a -
ff
on, u

conductor. Spe cifically. 1

-nitial j-- r tt

t
t
*

c
C dt with 6e(0)
1
2 (4.18)
Resistors are categorized by their heat dissipation ability. Thus. 1/8- , 1/4., and
In typical circuits resistances rang e from a few hun- 7

1 2-watl resistors are common. . . where 8e = e, - e

dred ohms to a million ohms. Resistance is stated in ohms, kilohms. and megohms-
_

The circuit symbol for a canariir., „i„_ ... . 2 mm

K 1
thus 2.200 ohms would be stated 2.2 kilohms. or simp
ly. 2.2 k. are shown above .
P W,lh ,tS voltages ™* ** and its current i
2 Capacitance tial co iS t S ! eqUati0nS'the qUantity rentiated can have an ini-
tial! condition.
°" h Thusth,SthePr0Perty Which dictales that energy can b«
42
. .
™

electric capacitor can st

, the ini- "

Capacitance is the ability of a component to store electrons. Capacitance concepts charge at time t = 0 with 5e(0) Further, the initialore energy in the initial voltage
conditi
when van Mussenbroek of Leyden stored static electricity known in order to solve for the circuit response on of the voltage must be
.

were established in 1745

charges on two metal plates in what came to be known as a Leyden jar. Capacitors have the ability to store energy by virtue of their voltage
.

An electric capacitor can store electrons on two parallel plates that are sepa- power is the rate of change of energy with respect to time energy is the integral
Sinceof .

rated by an insulating dielectric material in an electric ield. The total charge on the
,

power over time. Power is the instantaneous product of the voltage drop and the
f

plates (or the capacity of the component) is basically the number of electrons that can current: therefore ,
the energy w stored in a capacitor can be expressed as
be stored on the plates. Thus, to calculate the charge, we must keep track of the cu-
mulative current into or out of the capacitor. The voltage 8e across a capacitor is pro- f' f' d8e\ f&
portional to the integral over time of the current i from to the present time ! 8eidt= 8eC - \dt= CSedSe (4.20)
Notice that current is in coulomb/second; thus the integral of the current is in
,

'
coulomb. Mathematically .

1 r'
tional to l8the capacitance
Hnn n rintegra,i0andn reVeal
to theS square
,hat ,heof the volS,0red
tage across
in a "P™
the capacitance:
« Propor-
di
= C .
J (4.15)
»=- (4.21)
The constant of proportionality is the capacitance C. The larger the capacitance, the The unit of measure of capacitance is the farad (in recognition of the English
more charge can be stored at a given voltage.
Because it is not practical for us to keep up with all of the current that has chemist and physicist Michael Faraday. 1791-1867) and is represented by the symbol
into and out of a capacitor since it gone f A capacitor with a capacitance of 1 farad is a very large capacitor: thus, values of
capacitors are stated in picofarads (pf lO-12 farad), nanofarads (nf. 10"9 farad), and
.

was built it is comforting to know that wc simply

,

need to know the voltage at some point in time (say / = 0)

.

som and then the voltage at

,
microfarads (/xf. 10 Typical values of capacitance in circuits range from
"

6 farad).
e future time / can be
,

calculated The equation for calculatin nanofarads to hundreds of micro-farads. In terms of its relation to other electrical
presses the fact that wc can perform the integration in two g the voltage ex-
.

units of measure, we have

ply gives us an initial c ondition e parts: the i rst part sim- hm (4.22)
th 0, and the second part gives us the cumulative effect farad = coulomb/volt = amp second/volt = second/o
f

at the current has on the voltage of the capacitor:

Modern capacitors are built by using two plates or sheets separated by a di-
tk = 1 f" / dt Tlic sheet can be wrapped in a cylindrical shape to save space. Tt a
*
+ electric insulator. or mica provide -ore efhcion
dt (4.16) insulator can be air. but other insulators such as glass
volume. In electrolytic capacitors, the oxidize d surface of the
capacitance per
capacitance per unit hintlll|1o1) sheet itself is used as the insulator, l lw ca-
metal (such to lhe area A of the plate, .he spacing or
8c = c.0 + 1 f'
I
dl (4.17)
C
d 3S Ppla.e. and the permittivity . of the die ctnc:
 Chap. 4 Electrical System. Sec. 4.2
104
Basic Elements
eA 105
C = (4.23) The circuit symbol for an inducinr
d
shown above .

0ng Wlth Us Phages e, and e2 and current i are ,

4 2.3 Inductance
induced in a circuit to the rate o f change of a mag- H nrv n7Q7 187
the voltage m ,
of change of current with time
u "
honor o{ lhe American invesligalor. Joseph
Inductance relates
neticfield with respect to tirnea necessary t0 understand some facts about
symbo used fo lhe
the millihenry (mh)
henry is h and typical values ran
.

"
:
ge from lhe microhenry3 y(U l
b
o
Before discussing '" _ through them. Permanent magnets produce a
magnetic ields and currents v the configuration and separation dis henry = voll second/amp = ohm sec
C Tcolcl or wire produces a mag„e.ie lux tha,
-

f
f

A ond (4 28)
s with capacitance the initial condition i(0) of this differential e
.

f
can be iutensifled by * '" ncepts of eleetromugnetism in 1831
known in order to determine a circuit response Further quation must be
initial value of the current, since the inductor is a d energy can be stored in the
Sauced Z wire (or conducror) wbeu (hc
.
.
,

Energy can be stored in an inductor by virtue ynamic component.

magnetic lux if> changes with time r. The amount of energy stored, w is the integral of the of the current passing through it ,

power over time:

f

d(i>
(4.24)
W=f beidt=( L idt=\
i

J
Udi (4.29)
-* -
x
dt,
In this equation, the induced voltage is measured in volts, the magnetic lux is mea-

f
Performing this integration reveals that the energv stored in an inductor is
sured in webers (Wb, in recognition of W. E. Weber. German physicist, 1804-91). tional to the inductance and to the s propor-
Therefore, an induced volt is one weber per second: quare of the current in the inductor:

induced volt = weber/second (4.25) Lr

it) = (4.30)
2
Induced voltage can be implemented in three ways: (1) when a wire travels
through a ixed magnetic ield (termed electromagnetic induction), (2) when one coil The inductance of a coil depends upon the cross-sectional area A of the coil winding.
f

of wire induces a magnetic ield in another coil of wire (termed mutual inductance), the length € of the coil, the number of turns n, and the permeability nm of the mag-
f

and (3) when a winding in a single coil induces a voltage on an adjacent winding in netic circuit:
the same coil (termed self-inductance) The irst case represents the operational con-
.
f

cepts of electric motors mechanical motion sensors loudspeakers, and other elec-
, ,
(4.31)
tromagnetic systems that have motion The second case represents transformers that
.

reduce or increase voltages Examples include transformers in electronic systems

.
Inductors mav be built with either an air core or an iron core. Air core indue-
(radio. TV, etc.), chargers automotive ignition coils and power line transformers.
,
,
tors have a low permeability and thus low inductance for a given size, but have lic
The third case represents inductors (often called coils or chokes) used in electronic greater linearity than iron core inductors because the permeability of ferromagno
and tuning circuits These inductors are used to ilter voltages or to provide resonant
.

materials changes with lux density.

f

arcuits for tuning frequencies

f
.

Our irst modeling concern is with self-inductance This gives rise to the induc- 4 Definition of Impedance
f

. , L/CIIIMtivii w !

™ 7 ,f " nductance
T 3 COil 0f Wire induces 3 voltage in opposition to a change in work extensively with the concept o f impedance of the
a t tu ;the magneticfield is generated by the current in the wire In analyzing circuits, we will
,
;
S Utt-t
coil 'iU T.then
ZT8 dfr/
dt 0'
- 13,di/dt
8 from86Faraday's
is inducedlaw):a change in the current in the
n
t
t
f

,
the current:
,
age difference to
Be (4.32)
8e = L wi,h'(0)
Z = -

f I
d, (4.26) i

resistive impedance /, is lhe

'2 Th
.

f Tvicc. revive m
. -
,
-
\11U>-
I e impedance of a sistor
where 8e = e, resistance R. Notice that since a re
-
e (4.27)
 Chap. 4 Electrical Systems Sec. 4.2
Basic Elements
106

function and thus is not a funct ion of time or frequency of e«it a . with
'
ith time (See Appendix P \ p 107
„ no, a d amic
.

, .
'

use
se of the complex variable "

tion. Simply.
Zr =R (4.33) ponse of circuits and
sponse a systin* "* PUrpoSe
Z " of s the
aidal excitation: thP J mS Wllho1" restrictinp
r.
.S,.Udy ,he lra em re-
Z. the capadr i ve impedance Zc is defined as the dynamic
Like the impedance nt. However, since the equation for a capactor is a„
ratio of
the voltage to the curreimpedance contains an integral term and is not a sira
J nn caoacitive
.

as well as the
.n ,

.TTt
capacitance C:
is expressed with the differentia, operator D, the circuit. Further ,
the use of the D opera
to simple algebraic ones that will resu n a d.Tfi
-

" . 31TeqUati0n
0f the c
Inalhcmali™>
Poncn,s in
" Pemions
1 the system if it contains capacitors or nducto of
Zc = (4.34)
CD

« «™#«r is a shorthand notation for the derivative of a quantity with the co ns "
Xd r i0nS -

U ,S 1 0

Z ZTZ erse of the differentia, operator represents the in- gether in either a series or para
components are connected in L f h SSSZSl
are
leeral over time:
-

voltage d.v.des between the two. In a parallel comb.nation. the two componLts ar
D = - = differential operator (e.g., Dx = dx/dt) (4.35) connected side by side such that they share a common voltage excitation and the
dt current divides between them The general configurations of two impedances Z and
.

,
Z2 m series and in parallel are shown in Figure 4.1. Of interest in series and parallel
- = integral operator (4.36)
circuits is how the two impedances combine to form an equivalent impedance Z of
,.

a presumed single component .

Thus, capacitive impedance is low during times of high transients and approaches in-
inity (an open circuit) when the voltage remains constant (static excitation). ei *\ F 2| h <2 'i
f

fi .
Hie impedance of an inductor is similarly a function of the derivative of the
,

, !
o- Z
, \Zj -o o- o- Z -o

current. Thus, inductive impedance is a dynamic term, since the voltage-current re- _

lationship is a differential equation: Series Equivalem Rgure 4 1 Series and parallel

.

Parallel circuit connections.

Z, = LD (4.37)
In times of high transients inductive impedance is large. If the current is constant,
,
Two resistors in series have an equivalenl resistance Rrq equal to the sum of the
then the inductive impedance is zero .
two resistances. Thus, resistors in series add directly:
Many textbooks that discuss direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC)
circuit analysis state the reactive impedances of the capacitor and the inductor in
terms of the frequency of excitation w and the complex variable / = V T: If there are numerous resistors in series, then the equivalent single resistance is the
sum of all of the individual resistors:
1 (4"4,)
(4.38) R = /? + rq
* ." + ,
+
equivalent resistance R, equal to the inverse of
Two resistors in parallel have an
Z,L = /cdL
- jvu (4.39)
the sum of the reciprocals of the two resistances:
~

This concept implies steady-state harmonic o

leading for the more peration and is very limited and mis-
general transient analysis that is presented here. First of all, the
foregoing result requires that the circuit be excited by a sinus
quency u>. Secondly it assumes that all transients of the ci oidal signal of fre- uation and re me:mber it as
"
the equivalenl resistance a
I, is easy to transform this eq
,

that the resulting voltages are fully established rcuit have died out and
and do not change their character the product divided by the sum :
 Chap. 4 Electrical Systems Sec. 4.3
Passive Circuit A
naiysis
108

R , R2
(4.43) 4 .
3 PASSIVE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS 109

he reciprocal of Passive circuits are

.

are connecte
d together in ser i es, t composed ,

When numerous resistors are

the sum
recjprocals of the individual resistances-
the equivalent resistance is oduct of aI1 of the individual

Passive circuits are composed

1 1 1 -t.- (4 44) of
sources) connected together. IT* poin fZZT and V0,taSe or c ent
.

called a node Physically

thi s i s C mo««« t.i.

t
00 .

components make electrical contact with earh T Sf W,reS 0r conduc,o" of the

ground associated with a node and th ere ITr Tt 15 one voltaSe relative to
(4.45) dividual components T us we winTssnH.. Tt0 0r fr0m each node 10 the in-
ach comXt
.

R
"> "

RM-Rn + W in or out of the node to e CU™*

'
verse o
Z sum of the reciprocals of the indmdual capaators. 43. .
1 Kirchhoff's Laws

(4.46) Several different approaches are available for analyzing circuits, including node cur-
rent equations ,

loop voltage laws, and mesh current techniques One or the other of.

these approaches might be more suitable depending on whether there is a voltage

,

or current input or whether we are interested in a voltage or current output In this .

or
text, we consider only one approach to modeling circuits and rely on algebra to con-
r c'c2 (4.47) vert the basic modeling equations to any desired form Our approach to modeling is .

" c, + c 2 to use Kirchhoffs current law (Gustav Kirchhoff German physicist. 1824-87) for
.

each of the significant nodes of the circuit and to write all of the component equa-
W e/i capacitors are connected in parallel, it is the same as increasing the area of tions. This will give us the basic equations required, and algebraic methods can be
the plate, and therefore, the equivalent capacitance Ceq is the direct sum of the individ -

used to rearrange them to an alternative form if desired. Such an approach is best

ual capacitors: suited for a voltage input and a voltage output, which represents the majority of cir -

= c, (4.48) cuit analysis cases that are of interest to us.

c + c2
eq
KirchhofTs current law states that the algebra* sum of all currents at a node is
Inductors in series add directly the same as resistors: zero This is really a statement ofthe principle of conservation o charge m physics
(4.49)
Inductors in parallel add as reciprocals ,
the same as resistors do: node must equal the current out of the node. inus.
e

1 1
(4.50)
is USed ,o assign parity
current in a component, as long as we arc ST SS 2 p

nent equations and the | J eqUa,ionS of the significant nodes in the

It is only necessary to write the noaeJ f nodes connected to voltage
or
circuit; it is not necessary to
sources. This is true for the pos.t.ve and n aU' om coming t
(4.51) only purpose for writing «hese equ -o « the equation „ not necessary
the voltage source if you m equation.
,
hC Pr00f 0f ,hese is left as an exercise for the for the solution of the syste
reader .
 Chap. 4 Electrical sVst
no em s
Sec. 4 3 .

Passive Circuit A
to write component equations for the comp0 nalysi s
Similarly, it is not necessary
connected to current sources (either the positive o r the negative node) to deri lhe
tions. The only purpose for writing these
system response equa current source if you need to know it.
equations is to eleN 0 e
111

mine the voltage at the " ."

The component equations for the /?LCcomponents are written in term . ."-
onent and the current through the component -" (4.55)
voltage drop across the comp U*ln& .-

an impedance relationship. The impedance is written with D-operator not t' .--
IOn Sn ......

that differential equations can be derived directly.

AW * ** * . w -| -

In order to perform this type of circuit analysis, we must irst draw the circuit
of it many time on of the
This equation should be memor0nZed
ized
J!! + you "wil, most likely use it or a variati(4'56)

f
the voltages at each node, and assign a variable and a polarity for the current
label the - „
-

-WUI . s

in each component. Next, the component equations are stated in impedance form Normalizati on

and all of the significant node equations are written. The resulting equations ar e simply a fraction of the supprecedin?
ply volta r- i?! 1 ,hal the outPut voltage is
then reduced or manipulated to obtain algebraic or differential equations. This basic zero (when R2 is very small co mpared to p 0U,pU, Volta8e can
procedure is employed throughout the chapter. "
pared to /?,); P ed 10 ' 10 eo (when/? is extremely large com ,
-

432
. .
Resistance Circuits
1
e, =

We seldom have to analyze purely resistive circuits; however some that commonlv ,
(4.57)
occur are worthwhile to mention R1 d
.

Voltage Divider One of the most basic resistive circuits is the so called
.
Irft di V ider i S COmm0n ,n V0lume or
such as the volume control on a stereo, or the gain or offs contro1 application.
which case it is common to use a potenti et in an amplifier circuit in
-

voltage dmder circuit formed by two resistors in series. In the circuit shown i
ure 4.2 a voltage e0 is applied across two resistors
,

n Fig- ometer or "pot to adjust the attenuati

"
,

or gain In a pot, a wiper is used to make contact at variable locations along a ixed
,

. .
on
th /?, and R2, in series
i". Of interest
interest isis
,

resistor as illustrated in Fi
e voltage between the two resistors
.

,
gure 4.3. In this case Rl + /?

f
can be adjusted 2 is a constant, but their ratio
.

VV\A-

l
1

Figure 4 2 Voltage divider circuit

.
Figure 4J Illustration of a pot being
.

used as a voltage divider .

age cS r f8 are given by the basic resistance equations (volt- Current Divider .
Figure 4.4 illustrates a current divider, in which the current
from the current source is split between the load resistance /?, and the shunt resistor R.
_
en-
Ml ei

i (4.52)
(' , - 0
L =
2 R2 (4.53) 0

hC nfX,C C at the e, node is

Ffenrc 4.4 Current divider.
'i
2 = 0
-
'

" (.ons for thc

(4.54) In this case, the node equation reveals that the source current /0 divides be-
-

f) lotion resisto
can be substituted into the node tween the two resistors:
L l. + /-
 Chap. 4 Electrical System s Sec. 4.3
Passive Circuit Anal
ysis
112

actual voltage at the current source to the com. Substituting the component
113
relate.!*
.

n,e compos, equations 1 eqUat10 into the node equation

em.*,-

, we obtain
currents:
ponent e
I -
(4.59)
1
,

R s
1 (4 67)
.

Rearrangement yields the foil

I)
(4.60) voltage is indeed the Sum „f .her„ \X~* ates that the „„tpul
e

yields
i

equations into the node equation

e
+

Substituting these two c omponent (4.68)

(4.61)
1 +
R:
+
I)'
R*J (' F1)
. Rl RJ
Notice that each voltaee is attPnnot c
in this equation, we obtain the inal result: three resistors were J Tl .
T exampte, i, a,,
Aeain usins the load cur rent equation

f
age
1
= l
>0
a
-
10 (4.62)
'
/ ,
R + rl 1 + RJK
Circuit. Bridge circuits are used in many sensing a
s

Notice thai if RL RS is zero, then all of the source current will low into the load re- strain gauge circuit, the electrical resistance in one or more of the branches or legsInofa
pplications.
f
hes inf i nity, no current will go to t he load resistor. If RL is the bridge varies with the strain of the metal or surface to which the gauge is rigidly
sistor. As RL Rs approac
resistance, half of the current will go to the load. attached. This change in resistance causes a change in the voltage differential, which
equal to the source
can then be correlated to the strain Figure 4.6 illustrates a typical bridge circuit
.

Summing Circuit. Figure 4.5 illustrates a summing circuit, in which the out-
.

put voltage is the sum of two input voltages, e, and e2.

1
F3 AAA R R
vVV v
s

r
f
AAA
f

9 v

Figure 4.5 Voltage summing circuit

Figure 4.6 Full bridge circuit
The three component equations can be written in terms of the indicated volt-
ages and currents: e divider, so the differentia, voltage *
TJtC bridge is composed of two voltag
'
i =
3
(4.63) can be expressed as the difference m e, and e2. (4.69)
I Se = e,- Pi

(4.64) (4.70)
Je= R, + Ri *****
k«,. value/? Plus a small increment in re-
*

(4.65)
If we observe that the res istance R2 B a basn
e i , .

we can state t hat

sistance. SR. then
eqUati0n at ,hc interconnection of the three components follows: (4.71)

h + h - '„ = 0 (4.66)
 Chap. 4 Electrical Syste
ms
Sec. 4.3
114 ssive Circuit Ana,vsis
*

s are equa l
, (R
(/?, = R=R
=F 2= R) ,
then the bridge equa .

115
[f all four resistance Sor mmtteo
lion reduces to
f T0 equation, the initial vnU ,

t
8R + The differential equa,i 011386 e (0) 0n the
'
Ae = -e (4.72) 0n
can also be written
as a transfer function:
e from e* to ground can be calculated by considering two
The equivalent resistanc (4.79)
of Terie esistors operated in parallel: This result could have been nKt
treating the second resistance ***** circuit equat.on by
_
jR1±M!h±I (4.73) Example 4.1 Rr Ri, 8 a,Vlder as a "pactive impedance 1 rn
(R, + R2) + (Rs + ra)
"

.r

The circuit shown in Rgure 4 7

If all of the resistances are equal (with value R), then the equivalent resistance is
.

sary to give a settling time of 2 . 5 milLecondr '

' Capaci,ance neces-

simply R-

3 Resistance-Capacitance Circuits i-vw -,

43
. .

I
p .

Capacitors are generally used in circuits either to ilter out high-frequency signals or 6 c
f

to store energy. In these cases, the settling time or the dynamic response is of interest .

Figure 4 7 .
Resistor-capacilor circuit .

/?C Circuit. Consider the simple RC circuit shown in Figure 4.7 in which a
resistor and capacitor are connected in series. Before analyzing this circuit, we r - 2 lTm
r - 7 .CirCU?-for'k6the time
5 4 ms. Solving
.
COnStanttheniS yields
capacitance T = RC- settling time is " thu.
should determine what we want from the analysis. For example, we might be inter-
t 2.5/410-3s
ested in the voltage across the capacitor as a function of the supply voltage. If we
_

C= =- -

= 78 125
ideniify the voltages and currents as shown we can write the component and node
,

equations as follows. It is important to note that capacitors are not built with very precise tolerance:
component equations: The value of their capacitance might be ±20% or worse Therefore, don't go to the dis- .

tributor and ask for a 78.125 /if capacitor. You might ind a 68 ;xf. a 100 /if, or a 220 yi

f
'

In
* =
I

(4.74) capacitor: but you won t ind a 78.125 /if capacitor. If you need the settling time to be

f
R precisely 2.5 ms. then you will have to buy the closest capacitor that is smaller than the
desired value and add resistance to the circuit to get the settling lime exact. Note fur-
ic = CDel with & (0) (4.75) ther that, since the capacitor has a wide tolerance band, you will have to trim the resis-
node equation: tance in each circuit to get vour precise settling time. However, often the settling time
does not have to be exact, and a capacitor close to the desired value will be acceptable.
lR = ic (4.76)
Dual RC Circuit. Figure 4.8 shows a circuit made up of two RC circuits. In
Substituting the component equations into the node
equation yields this case, we might be interested in the voltage e2 as a function of the input voltage
The component equations are
= CDe i (4.77)
R
Rearranging results in R\ t .

f
'

yW T
m% . RCDe\ + <?i = e0 (4 78)
.

:
o
FlpirctS Dual/?C circuit.
wuiwiani t - RQ and a steady-state value e equal ,
 Chap. 4 Electrical Systems Sec. 4.3
Passive Circuit Anal Ysis
116
117

(4.80)
Ri Oe2 = ic2
C2 with e2(0)
(4.92)
= C.De, with ,(0) (4.81) Using the remaining two com P
'n

(4.82)
eliminate ci -d ia in tav„r 0 ft:; ~
'wo "Ode equation. we can

'
«2 R
De, = - (-L . 1 .
= C2De2 with e2(0) (4.83) (4.93)
'
a

The node equations ar e

(4.84)
C2 Rlr e
i (4.94)

(R2 _ lC2
(4.85)
Z T - ,(0), „hich are .he k„ow„
notinrK Hirectlv into the node equations and re- 43. .
4 Resistance-Inductance Circuits
S KSSLs only .he vouases Che cicU,t
.

"
arra Solenoids, relays automotive ignition coils, and automotive fuel injectors are all ex-

r
,

(4.86)
[R D + (1 + i?,/ )) ! = ( /R2)e2 + e0 amples of components that exhibit RL circuit behavior. The inductance comes from
the coil of wire that is used to make the magnetic circuit and the resistance is usu-
[R2C2D + l]e2 = e1 (4-?7|
,

ally due to the resistance of the small wire used in the coil .

Often, the solenoid is driven with a constant voltage source in which case we
Since we are interested in e2 as a function of e0, we can substitute the second equa- would be interested in the current in the inductor and how long it would take to
,

tion for e, into the irst and rearrange to obtain

reach a steady state. For example, consider the circuit shown in Figure 4.9. which il-
f

[RAR2C2D2 + (K.Q + + i?2C2)D + l]e2 = e0 (4.88) lustrates a solenoid with an inductance L and a parasitic resistance R.
This is a second-order differential equation in e2 as a function of the input e0. As 0

such, the required initial conditions are e2(0) and De2(0). Since we only know the ini-
tial charges on the capacitors, 6,(0) and e2(0), we must determine the initial condi- I
tions of the differential equation. The component equation for the second capacitor
gives the derivative of as a function of the voltages e, and e2. Since this equation is
true for ail time including time / = 0, the required initial condition of De2 can be de- L
,

termined: '
l I Figure 4.9 Solenoid circuit.

e2{0) = known and ei(0) = known (4.89) re

The equations for the components a
z)e2(o) = A
e zJ!M (4.90) so - ei (4.95)
R2C2 R

To avoid the difficulty (4.%)

of determining the initial conditions (which could be LD
Si h 7 \ h,8hCr 0rder Circuils) lhe governing equations for this problem
'

r h 1t7' ' fCr,VatlVe

,n Stale-0fSpaCee andf0rmat- Notice froof e2 theappearorigininalthecomponent
1

rua,ions ' d The node equation is quite simple: (4.97)

the de"vative
- equations
S r , f

r as staie variabies and u-the two Since we want to derive a n

need to eliminate iR and ev WDK rearranging yields
i with ?,(()) (4.91) tion into the inductance equat.on
C
 Chap. 4 Electrical Systems Sec. 4.3 Passive Circuit Analysis
119

118 Starting with the inductor equation 1

(4.98) node equations, and simplifying yieidsSmB tW0 resistor equations and the two
R
R

nt f T = L/i? and a steady-state current

reveals a system tim
e consta (4.104)
equation Notice from this equation that thp tim .
of state current is + rTk S 15 + and the steady-
EjMmpleU
Solenoid Coil Respo
valve has a
nse

resistanc
inductance of 6 mh. Cal-
e of 100 o'hms and an mdu 24 volt source. high Rp. then the time C f «« a relatively
A coil for atime
solenoid " '
current would remain the same re uUiLT f V "*

conS,an,. is
UUg
given by
="«
the p
T
O rr
e "
revious eq uation. n
purpose of this approach is t drive ?h " o e ? ;Soleno,d actua,ion lime-
a
.
.
Ste
*
TT e time constant which
which case
case the
the electrir.l
electneal
! Tu en0,d W,th a constant currenl
pan of the actuation time would be verv fast
n
in
L
- =
0.006 h = nn.mc
0.06 ms J
.

=
R 100 ohm
-

43. .
5 Resistance-Inductance-Capacitance Circuits
ms. The steady-state current required is
1tv«
nc cpiilinp
seiun'6 time
is 4Tor 0.240 Even though simple passive RC or RL electrical circuits (such as that of F.gure 4.8)
_
j4volt_ = 024amp can be represented by second or higher order differential equations, such circuits do
r " 100 ohm not exhibit resonance or overshoot, nor do they induce oscillations; in other words.
the roots to their characteristic equation are not complex. Complex roots are found
for circuits that have a combination of R. L. and C components. Tuning circuits, sig-
,
A t Rmire 4 9 with a voltage source that has an as- nal filters, and similar circuits use inductors and capacitors along with resistors.

Series PLC Circuits. The classical RLC circuit is shown in Figure 4.11.
ure 4.10.
R e 1
v
Jih

c
1
<c Figure 4.11 Series RLC circuit.
* L Figure 4 10 High-voltage drive for
.

RL circuit.
T e component equations for this circuit are
Co 1 ! (4.105)
The component equations are R

g0 " e! (4.99) (4.106)

.
-
idll with/ O)
R i) LD
(4.107)
ic = CDe1 w ith $0)
g) - (4.100)
The node equations are (4.108)
' (4.101) ' R S 'L (4.109)
'-

LD
k = 'c
The node equations arc the node equations and eliminating «,
'
/<!) '/(I (4.102) Substituting the
yields the differential equatio
U
'
hi
=
';, (4.103)
 Chap. 4 Electrical syste
ms
Sec. 4.3
120 Pass-e Circuit Analysi
s

[LCD2 + RCD + * 60 (4-110) 121

H differential equ ation, as discussed in section E 3 of .

This is a classical second-oroe rtqu\Tes the initial conditions on e2 and D e

Appendix E.Be solut.on ot tq man pii|ation of the component and node equa
'
.

which in turn would requir capacitor equation gives an expression or c

r ' s we observe ",e fo"owin8:

f
figure 4 12 Parallel RLC
e,(0) = known an (O) = known (4.111)
d/. .
.

circuit .

Parallel fLC Circuits :

f
,

(4.112) lelin a circuh as m„s,ra,ed. in

in a circuit ac
,
.

Fr
c 1
- P-l-
116 comPonent equations for thi s cir-
n is system can be put into the state-space form by noting from the compo-
ltage e2 are differen
nent equations that the inductor current iL and the capacitor vo
-

*
R
tiated therefore they can be used as state variables. Using the component equations
'
(4.115)
for the inductor and the capacitor, and substituting the resistance equation and the
i = e'

£ ~ Id w,th ' 0)
.

node equations into the L and C component equations, yields the following state- (4.116)
space differential equations: «c = CDex with 6,(0) (4-117)
R 1 1
(4.113) The node equation is

1 (4.118)
2
=

Ch (4.114) Substituting the component equations into the node equation and rearranging
The initial conditions are the natural initial conditions
yields the classical differential equation for the voltage e , as a function of
, /, (0) and e2(0).
Example 4.3 RLC Circuit (4.119)
A series RLC circuit has an inductance L = 1 mh and a capacitance C = 10 /if. Calcu-
late the resistance R required to obtain a damping ratio of 0.707. The state-space representation of this system is found by using /; and as
From the previous differential equation for this circuit, we can ind the damping state variables. Substituting the resistor equation and the node equation into the in-
f

ratio and natural frequency as follows (see Table E-3): ductor and capacitor equations and rearranging, we arrive at
1
2- = RC and (4.120)

Thus , the resistance is

i i i
e, + 60 (4.121)
D = ~C ,L
~

2C RC RC

-
14.14 ohms 43
. .
6 Summary of Passive Circuit Analysis Techniques
ohm be stated m
Tfce steps for deriving a classics, differen tial equation from a circu.t can
value of resistance to achiev
"
SO each circui, wil1 squire a different
a simple procedure as follows:
Hmp,,,, rMu/- Dr„ l» sche-ic of ,he circ* and iden iry each ***** - ,
w.

ootle for a d will have .

ould op, u,r th L, choiceZ , n ,rim resislan each circuit. You

t

,
f

the circuit respofwes for damniJ . COSt 0f ,r,mming each circuit and the fact thai
each other , ***** around 0.707 are not much different from
 Chap. 4 Electrical Syste Sec. 4.4
Active Circuit Analv.i
ysis
122
1123
and provide isolation from th
3 . Assi g n a var i able
"
[ hat wilTbe considered positive with ai arro e innut w
this text; transistor operation is beyond iUsco "
1
show the d.rectio componenti considering the 0p'amp in
4 Write the equatton for CU[re =
_ /a = CDe,). ' 44 1 The Operational
p
. .

Amplifi
" STn
.
i ons for each signif i cant node (nodes that are not con- er

t
to a voltage source).
'

nectcd .
the component equations mto t he node equat.ons and reduce
f, Substitute
the St single differential equation, usmg the vanables considered and low input voltage meanVthat basic, iv ohms 1116 h,gh inPul ™pedance
n
to be inputs and outputs. th Inw nutnut im H ,
basically, no current is required by the amplifier.
It source Z v, T meanS thal lhe amPlifier can
voltage ve normal loads as an ideal
T c steps for deriving a set of i rst-order
f
state space differential equations
ocedure:
-

computation.
IT* h.gh gam allows the amplifier to b
.

e used as an ideal device for

from a circuit can be stated as the following simple pr As shown in Figure 4 13(a) the op-amp has mvertin
.

ea and ea and a voltage out g and noninverting inputs

.

L Draw the schematic of the circuit, and identify each component with a power supply e* and e" ( put e0. Normal uses of op-am ps require a differential
e .g. +10 volt and -10 volt)
the reference for the differential i and the noninverting input is
,

unique symbolic value (e.g., i, /?2. Q)-

,

in the circuit (e g
nput signal and is usually grounded The op-amp is
2 .
Assign a variable to represent the voltage at each node . ..

almost always used with an input impedance Z and a feedback impedance Z as,
.

shown in Figure 4 13(b) If the input is grounded and a differential f,

power supply is
.
.

3 . Assign a variable for the current in each component (e.g., /„,, i , /a), and used, the op-amp circuit symbol is usually simplified to that of Figure 4.13(c).
show the direction of current that will be considered positive with an arrow. The derivation of the transfer function for the op-amp can be derived from cir-
4 . Write the equation for the current for each component, considering the cuit analysis by considering the op-amp as a component with the characteristics just
impedance of the device (e.g.,//J, = (e, - e2)/Ri,icl = CDe,). discussed. From the notation shown in Figure 4 13(b). the following component .

equations can be written:

5 . Write the node equations foreach significant node (nodes that are not con-
i / Nnected to a voltage source).
"

(4.122)
psing the capacitor voltages and inductor currents as state variables, re-
6 .

Warrange the component equations in irst-order form (e.g., De, =

f

(4.123)
Di) = ...). Use the remaining component and node equations to reduce f

the differential equations so that they contain only the state variables and
the input voltage or current sources .

i
-

the num Wcl dirfe?ti a, CqUali0nS TeP™™ S the system will be equal to a
e

,"ductors « e circuit that are not connected in a triv-

.

al m I

t
"
to a voltage sour* It and 3 caPacitor connected directly
(b)
(a)

ACTIVE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

7

An active circuit has passive devices, but also has am

a,npll,;crj> tN fCUUirv a nowcr source m opetate plifying
Tims
devices (transistors or HlMM 4.13 Op-amp symlH>logy.
(gV Basic op-amp. (b)Tvru al appli-
-

cj-mc from the power source rather than an input volta the output voltage may ,

cation. (C) Simplilicd notat.on.

aevicc* are op-amps loyc gates, transistors
. ge signal.
and other devi
Typical amplifying (c)
,
ces that amplify signals
 (amplifier equation)
Sec. 4.4
- Ge; (4.124) Active Circuit Analv.i
ysis
"

. nnrt
ut port e'
e, of
oi the amplifier is 125
The! node equa tion at the mp I l4:1 0P-Amp Circui
i.-if*'1'"0 (4.125) Description
its .

Transf
to the node equa tion and rearranging yields runct ion
Circuit
Substituting ih e componen
t equations in
Sign Changer n -c
i

to = (4.126)
1 +

1 + Amplifier
G
*
small (compared to G, which is about 10 ), then the
If ,he impedance ratio Z/Z.. is
op-amp equation reduces to the classic result, Inlegrator
e =
C

*0 =
-|e ,
-
(4-127) t = RC
r

The reader should memorize this equation, since it is used often. R

Differentiaior
C
r = RC
44
. . 2 Typical Circuits 0

Tabic 4.1 illustrates a variety of uses for the op-amp with different impedances. No- R R

tice lhat resistive input and feedback impedances result in a voltage amplifier, a re- e c
Lag 0 (to + n
sistive input and a capacilivc feedback impedance results in an integrator and a
,
R
capacitivc input and a resistive feedback impedance results in a differentiator .
Other
combinations of series and parallel impedances in the input and feedback imped-
ances result in a variety of interesting transfer functions .

Tlie op-amp circuits described so far in this section can be used in more complex
Lead
circuits. The transfer functions for the op-amp circuits can be inserted in the circuit
analysis, since the op-amp acts as a voltage source that provides an isolation in volt- fi o- -AA r1-(y -0

1
ages. For example consider an op-amp driving a solenoid as shown in Figure 4.14. The
,
,
R .

circuit analyse for this system can be divided into two parts since the op-amp acts as
,
R
, (rD + IV
a voltage driver for the solenoid RI circuit .
Lead-Lag
eo~ r i
{Tf[>* n
or
n=m
HI
R
Lag-Lead
Tf = RfCf

C R-

rP
Bandwidlh-Limiied
Integrator rf*RX r

Ri
1 J
/
Bandwidlh-Limiied -

Differentiator
t »Z?.

f
n N 4.14 Op-amp solenoid driver .

124
 Chap. 4 Electrical Syste ms

126 Chap. 4 References

We have 127
Example 4.4 Op.Ami)U
'
! (4.128) A low-pass ilter is a circuit n

f
be .rea.ed aS a ser i es RL circu it, yielding "

m circui, can a irst-order Syslem hr 0 b,

'
l h'C'' ",e circ»'< ™'*es Inn.
Design o lXXtXr » ,

? ' " bmdW'd,h- PO'

f
p
(4.129)
(Rs + LD)
the solenoid current has the following transfer function: or .he Un* co„ P
s,am , "2 S
Tlius .

I
rad
= 6283
RfC
(4.130) Hie resistance values used in op am . .

Now consider the circuit shown in Figure 4.15, in which a sign-changing op- then the value of ca pacitance tSquTed i s
0f 10k for ,he
amp is used to drive a iltering op-amp circuit. The transfer functions for these two C =
1
f

circuits can be multiplied together, since the first amplifier acts as an isolated voltage = 0 016 af
.

6283 -10 100 ohm

source driving the second op-amp circuit. .

S
0 022 Mf and/a0,10n1,kohm
n 0-70
.
f
nCe
6 uf CapaCit0r iS n0t COmmon- we cou,d use 3 capacitance value of
potentiometer trimmed down to 7 23 kohm to achieve the de- .

*2
W 1 sired break frequency .

//
2 r
1 4 5 SUMMARY
.

Figure 4.15 Dual op-amp circuit .

In this chapter, we have identified the basic components of passive circuits-

The equations for the two op-amps can be written independently resistance, capacitance, and inductance-and have illustrated their fundamental nature.
as
Resistors dissipate power, while capacitors and inductors store energy. Techniques for
modeling passive circuits were developed, and methods were presented for the deiva-

r
2
(4.131) tion of differential equations, transfer functions, and state-space differential equations.
Operational amplifiers were examined, with particular attention to their cir-
cuit characteristics and capabilities. The modeling of op-amp circuits to obtain trans-
2 fer functions, ilters, and amplifier circuits was discussed, with the engineering design

f
e3 =
(R,CD + 1) (4.132) of typical circuits presented in examples.
Thus,
the overall transfer funct ion from e , to is
REFERENCES

4th ed. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliff*

= -

(4.133) 4 1 Bell. David A. Fundamentals off Electric

/
fhrtric Circuits,
urcuus,
(R4CD + 1) e' .

»ha, ,hc sign change, cancel each other

NJ'1988- a /.arcmV/l 6th edMacmillan Publishing Ca.
2 Boylestad, Robert L. Introductum to Orcm
,
4 .

New York, 1990.

 Chap. 4 Electrical Systems Chap. 4 Problems

129
128
Flectric Circuits. 6th ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood 4 .
2 A high-voltage resistor of 1 MQ k
teanc r

Introduction to t current and power in the resistor nnected 10 a 2 voltage source

.

W Ca/cuia« the
43 Jackson. Her rt
.
.
.

43 A stereo system is advertised as havi

Giffs NJ.l986 Hassui, Michael. Introduction to Circuit Analysis, Al|yn and
"

so
Paul
,

Q. and voltage the amplifier must be o uitm

0f music P01"" -
Calcu how much
4 NMtofer. speaker. H 11118 out 10 hi»vc that much power go into an 8-n
4 .

Bacon. Boston, 1990. ison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Ma

W. Electric Circuits. 4th ed. Add
.

4 4 A 100 ni capacitor is ch
.
arged to 10 v0\k r„; ; v
43 Nilsson.
James
stored in the capacitor To ,et a be.w I" Tr v 'the am0Un, of energy (in ioules)
Ronald E. Linear Circuits. Addison
1993. Wesley. Reading, MA.
-
1960. equivalent mechanical poUt al en
.

r " elevated above5 a reference

thC
4 6 Scon. mentals. West Publishing, St. Paul, 19x7, heicht In nth r u/orH H nuai ener8 y of a weight 0

4
.

.
V. A. Electrical and Electronics Funda
7 Suprynowicz, Itoit T *'*
,

te 1- be the equivalent
43 A large capacitor is used to store energy The capacitance is 1000 f and the volta
100 volts ge is
.

E
NOMENCLATUR .

Calculate the amount of energy (in joules) stored in the ca

better feel for how much energy this is calculate the equivalent mechanical
.
pacitor. potential
To get a
energy of a weight elevated above a reference height In other words, what mass (in kg)
.

rea must be lifted 1 m to be the equivalent amount of energy?

A cross-sectional a 4 6 In an electric vehicle, the kinetic energy of the vehicle in motion is converted to elec-
.

C capacitance trical potential energy by regenerative braking The vehicle has a mass of 1000 kg and
.

d distance is traveling at a speed of 50 km/hr. If the combined electric motor and controller is 90%
D differential operator = d dt efficient in converting the mechanical energy into electrical energy, what size of capac-
itor must be used to store the electrical energy at 120 volts?
e voltage
4 7 An inductor is used in a filter circuit to help suppress voltage transients During the
G op-amp gain .

start-up of the circuit, the 100 mh inductor experiences a current transrent of 3 amps.
1 current ior
Calculate the energy stored in the inductor during this transrent. To get a better teei
; complex variable;/ = V-l
( length
L inductance
n number of turns
P4.8. * WBKlfti T -Jnt
P power
Q charge R
R
R resistance
/ time
W energy Figure P4 Resistor circuit.
Z impedance for the circuit shown in Figure
for the equivalent res.stance
€ permittivity of dielectric 4 .
9 Derive an expression
6 magnetic flux P4.9.
M permeability
P resistivity of a material
t time constant R -
.

» frequency

P4.9 Resistor circuit.

PROBLEMS

4 .
1 A f«i»lor of 1 Ml has a voltage of 10 v placed across it Calculate the current. What is
.

the power diviipatcd?

 Chap. 4 Electrical Systems Chap. 4 Problems
130
131
in the circuit shown in Figure P4 10 with
. a
. ''e the modeling equations
b
. 've the differential eq
c State the initial conditionsn i "
1 °* 0f e«-
d
R
. State the natural frequency ,h diffe entia, eC,Ua,ion -

rati0
4 .
14 For the circuit shown in Figure P4 14 '
and the st of the circuit .

\0\
R R transfer function e .

All initial con'Xnsl So"10'6""8 eqUations and derive lhe

e

Figure P4.10 Resistor circuit. R .

in the circuit shown in

4 .
11 Calculate the amount of power dissipated in resistor R,
R
Figure P4.ll. .

Figure P4 14. RLC circuit .

/?,= ioon
4 .
15 For the circuit shown in Figure P4 14, vrite all of the modeling equations, select state
>/?3 /?2=ikn
.

variables
10 and denve the state-space representation for the system, using the natural
,

J /?3 = 220 a Fi re Resistor circuit .

dynamic variables.
4 .
16 For the circuit shown in Figure P4 16. write the modeling equations and derive the
.

12 For the RC network shown in Figure P4.12(a) transfer function for e3 as a function of e0 What is the static gain? .

4
.

D 6,
R E
R e, R2 e2
1- -
O

T
-

I
-

C, -p
o i-o o
Figure P4.12 (a) circuit. Figure P4.16 /?LC circuit.
fa) lb) (b) Dual /?C circuit.

a Write the modeling equations.

4 17 For the circuit shown in Figure P4.16. write all of the modeling equations and select
represen-
state variables based on the natural dynamic variable. Oenve a state-space
.

b Derive the differential equation of the form [tD + 1] , = Ge0,

.

tation of the system. State the initial conditions of the state variables.
c What are the mathematical expressions for the time constant rand the gain G? i. wiih apa,*,
4 1S Show, in Figure P4,18 is an ..C ccu
.

Suppose two RC networks are lumped together as shown in Figure P4 12(b). .

a.
Write the modeling equations .

b. Derive the differential equation for the circuit

.
known initial conditions e, ) and it{0).
c You might be templed to think that the differential equation for this circuit is sim- R1
ply the product of two RCs. Prove that it is not by asking whether
(tjD + 1)(t2Z) + l)e2 = e0? 1

4 .

13 Shown in Figure P4 13 is an electric circuit

.

L e7
f-AAA-t -
1 -* Figure P4J8 RLC circuit
*

0 $' l C
T
nd»,
ural dynam ic variables e, a
Figure P4 13
. /?LC circuit.
 Chap. 4 Electrical Syste
m
s
132 Chap. 4 Problems
S
4 20
.

SHmS 4
eline equalions
eqUali0n r ela,i"g OU,pUt ' T as
'
4
.24 VVr«e the circuit
shown in Figure P4equatio
23 ns and der"e a s,ale s 133
a funcnon of the inputs el and e2

f , o-wv-w C
/ 1
=

Rk = 500 n. and

s Rgure P4.20 Dual-input /?LC circuit i--i

R
4JI For ihe /?LC circuit of Figure P4.20, write ihe necessary modeling equations and select R

state variables based upon the natural dynamic variables of the system. Derive a set of p

state-space differential equations that has two state variables and two inputs What are .

the initial conditions of the state variables?

CL
4J2 Shown in Figure P4 22 is an op-amp circuit with impedances on the plus and minus inputs
.

Z
Fip,reP4 25 Op-amp ilter circuit.
4 -

26 Der/ve a state-space representation for the cir

f
.
f *
UK
r
n z
o e '
cuit of Figure P4 25
n
» -He moling
A '

r-vW-i
Figure P4 22 .
Basic op-amp circuit .

a
. Zfcmr the output equation en as a function of e and e . The amplifier has the char
acteristic e0 = G(e - e nn), where G » 1
n -

ap .

b
. Show that if all impedances are resistive and equal to the value R. then e =e e
E
"

4 23 -

Shown in Rgure P4 23 is an op-amp ilter circuit used to driv

.
0
n.
on a servo valve e an electromagnetic coil
f

a function of the Write the modeling equations and derive the transfer equation for L as
.

Figure P4J7 Op-amp ilter circuit

input voltage e,.
.

f
,

4 .
28 A full-bridge strain gauge circuit is used to measure the force applied to a bar by mea-
R

v-m -
suring the strain in the small steel bar. The strain gauge resistance elements are 350 t.

f
,

(
The bridge is driven with a 5 voll power source. As the strain is applied, one of the
bridge resistors changes resistance according to the relationship /?2 = 350 + cF, where
Fis the applied force and the coefficient c works out to be 0.7 t N (taking into consid-

f
eration the size and stiffness of the bar and the sensitivity of the strain gauge clement).
From this basic bridge circuit, a differential voltage Jtv can be expressed as a function
of the force to be measured. Since this voltage differential is very small, it is desired to
use an op-amp circuit to amplify the signal
in the
into the 10 voll range. In addition, because
bar. it is required to hltcr the meas ured
there are some unwanted vibrations
ncy vibration, which are expected to be a
force signal to eliminate the high-freque
hundred hertz. A irst-order system will suffice.
-20 N force should produce a 10 volt output
f
.
.c *** that a
Rinw P4 23 Op-amp ilter driving TTiC exact requirement
circuit, me overdid
a] from the op-amp circ . . a namic [inK. Mm
i hwWtheuniin
m onhls system, including the strain
signal uit.
.
f

solenoid valve
of 1 .
5 milliseconds. Draw a complete
 Chap. 4 Electrica System .

134

circuit .h impunor.
wilh nmDlitier. Derive n complete mathematical model of the 8ys.
r -
CHAPTER 5
[c bridge circuit witn «
gauge voltnge OUlput. Sfltrr va lues for „„ resistors and capacitors
nil rcsislors
low from Ibm inpul to
.

ht is lo he placed on the ourpul of an audio amplifier to show

low the iintensit
ixhin lig
li Mmfno from tho speiiker. You must select an impedance 101 lightbulby
4J9 A llashinn
mA
Fluid Sy stems
t,, w.11 no. f ou.pu. i.nPedance of .he amplifier, .hen there will be no
r Ltn 1 v if the m nce BtartS approaching the impedance of „Ihc
f

I d hlc inoun. of power will he going into .he light, and lc

n a c

EKd" I S wi" be degraded, llfis is dearly undesirable.

Zi* «" expression for .he vol.agei.ha the
.he light
speaker in ""Jsturbed
.
circuit (Fig.
(Figure P4.29(b)). The output im-
ure P4 2')(n)) and .he circui. loaded w
nodinoe K Of thfl amplifier is 8 0. and .he impedance of .he speaker, Rsmkir, is also 8
l A. ..lvalue of ligh. impedance Rlillhl is .here a I % degradation in the voltage going
f

to the speaker (i.e., a. wha. value of ligh. impedance will .he gain he 0.99 of .he undis-
'

lurbed gain)

K4
MM
Amp R Sitrutfi

5 1 INTRODUCTION
.

11vin i v \ :.> Audio amplifier circuit with light bulb (a) Normal audio ,

circuit of amplifier and speaker (b) Modified circuit wilh lighthulb.

,
Fluid systems range from simple systems involving luid low with valves and liness

f
f
such as garden hoses wilh noz/les gas lines and burners, and i;asoline pumps and
.

nozzles, to hydraulic and pneumatic control systems involving pumps pressure reg-
Assuming that the maximum voltage lo the speaker is 12 volts, can you ind a light-
,

ulators, control valves, actuators, and servocontrols. Industrial applications include

f

bulb with the correct impedance and voltage range in a catalog? If so what is the
wattage of the bulb?
t
lUtomation. logic and sequence control, holding lixlures, high-power motion con-
CM If an analog voltmeter having an input impedance R trol. etc. Automotive applications include power steering, power brakes, hydraulic
meler
of KM) kll is connected to the brakes ventilation controls, and more. Aerospace applications include light con-
circuit shown in Figure PO)(a) (which would result in the circuit of Figure P4,30(b)),

f
,

WOM the voltage I, that you measured be accurate? In other words would the voltage trols systems, steering control systems, air conditioning, brake control systems, and
m the circuit actually go down because of the loading of the v ,

numerous other applications [See Refs. 1-5].

oltmeter? If a digital voll- *"
mctcr having an input impedance of 1 Mil were used
be d egraded? woultl the voltage in the circuit
,
The main reason thai hydraulic and pMUMW syt t dw arc
.s ..,c ..cr dens v
» POg '
pared reir eleem.-mcchanical coumcrra,. 1

pun,,, and aeiuann. l leclromagnelic mo.or.

-

I
10 ui
WV , 1 i!
itiirt
AAA ll
I n n lagneuc lield s.mnanen and c J ™*
(
Lcn-
pA T inch of ac tuator. In hydraulic systems, .hm u
i Ml
0 47 kn < 3 R
ator is common in aircraft hXuIW svs.cms rc.uin.d 10
M<,n riKUrc ,14 MoasilI.l.mcn| 0f voit. mon in industrial applications. nKa,\ p . antaucisirueinthccon
1- ngc in a circuit (a) Undisturbed cir-
,
reproduce a given force output cnh;powcr. hydraulic pum, are
(a)
lb)
cuit. (b) Circuit with voltmeter
allaclicil
eration. as well the actuatio n ,

ol . tvn,
.

smaller than the counterpar

.
t
its ciouhU from the larger ratio ol lo
volumft Qectrom
. i|u|
K svstems
oftW .his me. h

require a ferrous metal to generate a ou- or acu.aK..

to move with the motor or actu«tor.i
 Chap. 5 Fluid SyStems Sec. 5.2
136
Properties Of Fluid s

associated with their motion, so they canno t accelerate quickly 137

have a large inertia ore responsive and have a greate
.

and temperature T can be stStated

atin
a t
Hence, hydraulic and pneum atic systems are m r tions): s follows (p,,, p
and T-o are the reference condi-
bandwidth of operation at the same power output levels.
A second advantage of fluid control systems is that the luid circulating to 9p

f
he actuator that is doing
and from an actuator removes the heat generated by t up
work. This heat follows the fluid back to a reservoir to be
dissipated in a better lo -
37
If,
(5.2)
The partial derivatives in this eauatinn
cation than inside the actuator. Electro-mechanical actuators and motors have lim- t, u
ited ability to dissipate the heat generated
inside the device and rely on free or
forced convection to the surrounding environment. Heat is the predominate dam-
aging mechanism in electric and electronic systems. Therefore, the reliability of f> =

1 + -Po)-a(r-r0)
electromagnetic devices is limited compared to that of hydraulic and pneumatic where
(5.3)
systems. |
Hydraulic and pneumatic systems generally have more significant nonlineari- BP
ties than do electric or mechanical systems, so we meet a new challenge in modeling HP

and simulating them. In this chapter, we discuss the luid properties and the various hp (5.4)

f
components common to luid control systems. Hydraulic and pneumatic systems are
f

treated concurrently in the text. 1 dp

a = -
(5-5)

52
The bulk modulus is the inverse of the compressibility of the luid and is re-

f
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
.

lated to Young's modulus (Thomas Young English philosoper on nature.

.

1773-1829) for solid materials. The bulk modulus can be measured by noting the
A luid is a substance that is characterized
by its inability to support a static shear change in pressure with a fractional change in volume of a ixed mass of luid:
f

f
and includes both liquids and gases. Liquids are nearly incompressible whereas ,
dP
gases are highly compressible Other than orders of magnitude difference in their
.

0 ="
(5.6)
density absolute viscosity and bulk modulus, liquids are distin
,
W/V0
their surface t ension effects In the presentation that followsguished from gases by
,

compressible luids are discussed in a com

.

incompressible and
, Here. /3 is the isothermal bulk modulus (or merely the bulk modulus) and can be
parative manner. used when the pressure changes occur at slow enough rates during heat transfer to
f

maintain constant temperature. The adiabatic bulk modulus t is related to the

f
521
. .
Density
isothermal bulk modulus by the equation

X*™: *: -- y "nder specified (5-7)

.

» rhance is rapid enough to prevenl signif-

,

m
and can be used when the f . ~( «r«ciii7

Tr isLv slightly greater than i .0

V (5.1) icant heat transfer. TTte
for liquids. -Ilie isothermal bu k us
J J i in Fi
j ental change m vo
(he
g ure 5.1. lume
522 Equation of State: Liquids The thermal expansion coeficient * jn of v0,unK s for , ixed
.

f
with changes in temperature and can oe e F .
** *
><. toStcX diS f PreSSUre and temperature An equation of
° mass of luid as:
f

'

dV/Vs
, An equation of SSr of a l uid.
.

d temperatures dees
DoJSS i
.

"
f

1,qUidS OVC o,,

ra ™& of pressures &3 X 10

1

F
te value of a
teon- Mor series expansion Ite IT! However, a relation derived pproxima
mperatura Tb, im-ird
1 1 r ,imitcd ran8es °< P ssure Hie thermal Z
.

.
er and l he thermal expau - - d from
f

y or series of density p as a f P for most liquids, as can be

nhscrve
ot)ser
unction of pressure
 Chap. 5 Fluid System s

138

500 a

400 1 X

r
r
300 K
JP.4
C \ J
* 200
w gasol me

E
I
100 E
o
5 f

50 100 150 200 250 Figure 5.1 Bulk modulus of typical

Tcmperalure (T) liquids (from the Lee Company). E

52 . . 3 Equation of State: Gases

E
The equation of state for an ideal gas is 5
-

P -

P = (5.9)
RT
U

where P and Tare in absolute terms and R is the gas constant. Most gases follow this =3

ideal behavior for considerable ranges of pressure and temperatures. Figure 5.3 -
-

J
1
gives the densities of several typical gases as a function of temperature at one at- - v

mosphere. The density at any other pressure can be calculated using pressure ratios k -

A gas undergoing a polytropic process follows the relationship

-

/ ' 3

3
B
= C = constanl (5.10) r
a

P >

where
c
y
n - 10 .
for an isothermal process 2

'
\Q n = k for an adiabalic process {k = ratio of specific heats) -

h ' n = 0.0 for an isobaric process

'

X
n = so for an isovolumetric process 5
I
7

m Sl forT 8 POlytr0pic pr0ce8s law we can interpret the definition of bulk

*"
-
-

-
s
7

(5.11)
2

king the partial derivative in this equation , 5

and noting that P = Co" yiclcis
 Sec. 5.2 Properties Of Fluids

141

Co"

(5.12)
6 = nP
The bulk modulus of a gas is thus (5.13)
that the bulk modulus of a li quid 1 0 0
0f ,he Notice
00010 l5m bar- whereas 8 for
co:
a gas is usually on the order of 1 to io b ar

0
52
. .
4 Viscosity
1(1

A:
The absolute viscosity (or dynamic viscosity of o a u
luid .o supper, a Z. r
boundarv. as shown in F sure S 4 (v k ik y luid and a solid m

f
.

f
x w.gUre D-4- ,s lhe coordmale direction normal lo the direc-
..

r
tion of low.) Mathemalicallv
.

f
.

CO
shear stress
M =
shear rale du/dy (5.14)

Density
lAvl
1

He

Figure 5.4 Viscous shear velocily

profile.

il

shear rate. viscosity to density:

uihf ratio of
ratio 01 absolute
The kinematic viscosity Hit
(5.15)
P -
z1

d
Tliis ratio often arises naturally as equations ar e develope .

. id decreases mar kedly with temper-

of a
ndtv oi a h
te viscosit) liqu
iproximatod as an expo
. .

Liquids. The absolu

ature. as shown in re .5. ' Jr. .he
Ml
(M)
250
nential decay, as described by thefo11
and A, is a tons.
ends upon .he hqu.d):
Tcmpcraiurc (0C)
200
reference conditions,
Denw,,"0"
ypicalgamlRcf . 71.
 m
Sec. 5.3 Reynolds Number Effects
B8
143

Gases. Whereas the absolute vk .

E)
tares that of a gas increases with temneJZr '
'
T decreases wilh lemP a-
mated as a straight Ime and T0are the Iw V™*™ can besl be aPPr -
is a constant that depends upon the gas): reference conditions, and AG
g
-
,

r .
= *, + Ac(T-r0) (517.
>> The viscosities of typical gases are given "

r
\ c
eg
a
gases is almost independent of pressure (S ViSC0Sily 0f mOSt
r i
E
6
r

D
o
U
52. . 5 Propagation Speed
*
j

H? 0 0f S0Und)-C
pends upon the bulk modulus and the densitv:
" -

0f a Pressure - a fluid de-

E
o

S
c
o (5.18)
CO

If! I The speed of sound in a typical hydraulic luid (e.g.. MIL-H-5606. red oil) is 1370 m s

f
a .
at 250C
:
>- The bulk modulus of a gas being perturbed at a high speed is the ratio of spe-
3 cific heats, k (see Section 5.2.6). times the absolute pressure of the gas. P Thus.
.

u /3 = kR and the ratio /3 p reduces to the familiar expression

s D
2 £J
'

o
-
. c0 = VkRf J ''

.
-
.. (5.19)
a

The speed of sound in air at 250C is 347 m s.

9

"
52 . .
6 Thermal Properties
a

t of heat required to raise the temperature ofd

03
The specific heat of a luid is the amoun
;
u

1a Z&nZ of the l uid by 1 deeree. The specif i c heat at constant pressure * C, an

f
-
t-
5 .
the specif ic
-

unit mass oi tnc nuiu i) t volume

j is C,. i nt rauu of specif i c heats, or

f
I
IS u
s

S
o the specific heat at constan
St
> f
.-' heat ratio k is
V

S a O
u
(5.20)
c 1/1

> k C .

o
*

.tlAs 1 04 For gases, k is larger

r

r I
"

3
E For some liquids, .he specif ic heauaUo is apProO T a,.e>..W.
s V
c
(e.g., k = 1.4 for air). s *4* ' ;Tn l-
IT)
5 3 REYNOLDS NUMBER EFFECTS >cn ti
is low-
B . in.n a stream of oil or water that

f
Ifasmallamounltt of colored dye is or formed by .he dye will lo.
,
tf
L1
o

f
>- - , rate would be «kW
ing slowly through a transparent tu
_
-

p 11 5 ?, I Z « § smoothlv with the luid. H ; -ou d break up and be .os,called tur

er '
bukn..

at which the filament colored by called swirling low «

o o o o
f
00 yA
S 2
.

O On OC r- \C

f
- O O O O

f t tial. smooth, streamlined low .s

f

r, 0i) aiiv<>. >ma -

1(( .

IIinuicHII
142
 Sec. 5.4 Derivation Of Passive
nts
145
144
In laminar low ,
the viscous l

f
n
O
turbulent low, the menial forces are Ltuhan 316 inertia,

f
-

"
*

f
30
Flow conditions are often defined h V,SCOUS forces -

Reynolds number N (Osborne Reynold pfr 13 dimensionless ratio called the

r
u

9 ber relates the inertial low forces ( axmSt engineer-1842-

enSlneer-1842-1912). This num-

f
wherevisthe velocity of the luid and d isTh the %iscous low forces ( = ndv) .

f
f
.

the physical situation. Mathematically cnaractenst'c dimension associated with

ilidv) v (5.21)
CO At small values of the Reynolds number the viscous forces predominate a
low is laminar. As he Reynolds number is increased the effecf of the IneniaTnd
,

fo thees

f
,

becomes sumciently great

& to break
"»taK uo
up streamline
sireamunea l r
now ,,,, in
in n
aeneral\ a flow is ,laminar

f
.
.

0
: when the Reynolds number is less than 1400 and turbulent when it is greater than
3000. Flow conditions in the 1400 < A/ < 3000 range depend on local conditions
r

and the previous low history, and the range is termed the transition range from lam-

f
inar to turbulent low. For Nr > 3000. the low is turbulent and has enerav loss due

f
to luid collisions and mixing. The two low conditions are very dissimilar. In laminar

f
Absolute low the pressure loss due to riction has a irst-order relationship with the low; itis

f
analogous to electrical resistance in which the voltage is linear with current. When
the low is turbulent, the pressure loss becomes proportional to the square of the

f
low, due to energy' losses associated with the Bernoulli velocity head. pu2/? . Obvi-

f
ously, systems with laminar low are far simpler than those with turbulent low: how-

f
f
LQ
ever, laminar low is generally impractical for most systems because of the low

f
0 pressures and small dimensions it requires.

NTS
5
.
4 DERIVATION OF PASSIVE COMPONE
„onK are resistance capacitance, and inductance. Each is

pneumatic systems.
54. . 1 Capacitance
Fluid capacitance relates how luid energy

f
General Fluid Capac tance. volunlc (cv.) shown tn Ftgure
D can be stored by virtue of ais
-
50 'i
57 the law of conserva tion of mass (
50 100 ISO 200 .
,

Tcmpcralurc (0C) stated as

(5.22a)
Ipm U Absolute viscosities of typical gases [Ref. 71. mnt, = j. dt
(5.22b)
net
 Chap. 5 Fluid Systems Sec. S.4 Derivatlon 0(
146
147
In Eq. (5 28) .
, V//3 is the
compressible luid becomes a caPaci»ance TherefnrP - ,
mes a efore- any 'arge volume of a
.

f
capactance; that i
s

CV .

In pneumatics (5.29)
Figure 5.7 Control volume for de-
,
an air tank used with a
rivation of capacitance. The continuity equation giy.c .f. 801 is « capacitance.

Hie net mass lowmnrr is the sum of the low entering (+) the system and the low leav-
f

f
ities of the system (the inlet low, outlet low, and
f

ing (-) the system. If all ofaretheconstant

dens and equal to p, the following equation results:

f
control volume densities)
V .
(5.30)
e „, = v + -p (5.23)

Tlie assumption that all of the densities of the system are constant and equal to p is Cohere . is .he posi.ion „, ,t%lt K e™
™ * ™l* Ai
justified for incompressible luids and is quite accurate for compressible luids if '
f

f
-*"

I ' '

pressure variations are not too large and the temperature of low into the control
f
volume is almost equal to the temperature of low out of the control volume. a

f
f

The p term in Eq. (5.23) needs to be expressed in terms of pressure. This is ac- Q SPA
complished through an equation of stale relating p to pressure and temperature and by
recalling the definition of the bulk modulus p = Pq dP/dp\ The equation of state is P
1 r

P = P(P,T) (5.24)
Figure 5.8 Spring-loaded piston capacitor.
Differentiating this function yields
A spring-loaded piston of stiffness k and area A as shown in Figure 5.8 can be
(5.25) used as a capacitor. By applying a force balance equation, neglecting inertial and
3P *. i* at frictional effects, we obtain
ASP-kx = 0 (531)
(5.26) where 5P = - is the gauge pressure inside the actuator. Solving for r yields
Using this result ,
we can express the low equatio n as
.

x
A
SP (5.32)
f

Q=V + ~p
13
|V (5.27) The volume of the cylinder is
(5.33)
y = A(x + x0)
*

familiar capacitance form

BB:r '
sedsys,ems ana,y5is
continuity equation reduces to the L ..nrpsenline
where x, is the minimum stroke representmg
the dea
V = Ax
d volume space in the actuator
(5.34)

and ittings.
f

Substitution yields
(5.28) A2 15.35)
detail that / - C( dplAt\ t~
Mde/d/) i
for electri cal syst ems.)
 Chap. 5 Fluid Systems Sec. 5.4 Derivation Of Passive C
0rTiponents
141 149
Note that there could be several i
*«. now be rewitten in inal form:
now be the minTin term should be written
n
l0Ws froni different temn., .
TT.c connnu-ty equauon can

f
presentation. rmen as sum of all nmlZ

f
lherefore -

(5.36) The internal . nput lows b"t's simplified in this -

(2 the internal energy of the control vol.Im

f
P

ll + k) which is a combination of the

ol volume can be expressed as
U ~ W Cj = p v C T
is ,heref"7 (

f
71,0 lotal capaatance
cr

anical compliance of the container. (T e "

(5-39)
Therefore, using the ideal gas law for the rl
JSS K Saand thepliantMcontainer
term is theorcapaat ance of
hc

express the derivative of the internal tntrT l the comro1 vol ume -
can
energy 01 the control vnin -
/S nt container.)
th a volume of
-

Hiuv luid "P30113"06 0" ing A increases the mechanical capacitance R dt1W
f

, ,creas
(5.401
lcrm.
u.d. Notice that o OMWg r the luid comprewibUity capaci-
By noting that C ~ R/{k

f
sing V or decrc asi 8P ,,
f

, and increa bar and for a |iquid 1S on the v

-

and
, nce. Note that 0 for a gas .s on the order
lance
.

order ofl 0.000 bar. Tliat is.

B = nPair for a gas (5.37a)
U =
F lW + V (5.41)
CP - RMk-l Z Tf iS P ,herefore -
by ing that
where
ergy (Eq
£ «(5.39))
J ubackt SUbSti ;Ullng (5-41) and ,he exPression for in rnal en-
~

isothermal or very slow process

n = 1.0 for an
.

into the energy equation , we obtain

n = k for an adiabatic or very fast process

(5.42)
(* - 1
/3« 10,000 bar for a liquid (5.37b)
I
Capacitors for liquids are called accumulators. Typical accumulators are [P + Vjj + PV
(k-\)
spring-loaded pistons, bellows, and gas filled bladders for hydraulic systems.
-

Since /3 is large for incompressible fluids, mechanical types of capacitors are used. Rearranging yields a differential equation for the pressure inside the control volume:
To obtain significant compressibility capacitance with a liquid. V would have to V kR ( v £
be very large. Capacitance for gaseous syslems can be that of mechanical capaci- t i1
Pn, = + 7i- rj) 2*h4" -

- "
/ - uT
(*-l)
tors or volume-type capacitance, since (i is low for compressible fluids. {k - \) lv (/c - 1) V-
The effect of lluid capacitance must be considered relative to the rest of the Since calculation of the actual heat low is often difficult, it is convenient to

f
.y«icm, POT example, (he resistance connected lo the capacitor and Ihc bandwidth of heat How
represent the heat low by a percentage or ratio of qm to the maximum
interest determine how significant the capacitive effects are . This maximum heat low is the amount of heat transfer re

f
-

that could occur q

f
.

quired to have the temperature of the inlet low healed or cooled to equal the tem-

f
Capacitance of Gases
Whenever the density of the fluid lowing into the volume. If we use the variable r to rep resent the ratio of the
.

perature of the control we can express this ra tio as

f

control volume is different from the density of the luid inside the control volume actual heat low to the maximum possible heat low.

f
f

f
(due to high inlet pressure or to significantly different temperatures of the inlet gas 3 (5.44)
and the control volume) additional consideraiions must be made regarding the con
,
-
r =
9
tinuity equation and hence the differential equation for the max

I rol volume .
pressure inside the con '
u
- n-if there is lime for full heat transfer, then r - I.
If Ihcrc is no
In thi. caw the energy equation must be considered in addition to the cqua-
.

l lic imiximum
"
mi™ (5.22)).Hie heat transfer that might (5.45)
, , „ , :""" ;-'".ccon
tcm. neglecting kinetic and pot
v.,lumcIs</„„.||u-.IuI),v equation
ential energy termj results in idea, gas law and sonKaM.a.c
with the
.U
.
.r

Using this result with.he

.

9m i- c',.('''/,('/',
.

,l
"' '
) W (5.38) in the uhk
, ,.

i li manipulation, results
 Sec. 5.4 Derivation Of Passive C
Chap. 5 Fluid System s omp onents
151

S tn = P,4 ~ P A -

* "tl/ J - - VV

(5.46) For a low tube of constant area A ~ a

f
- ~

is pA€. n,e „ of ,h
I e : ZtZ
(5.51)
w 11
n = k(l -

r) + r (5.47) Thus, the momentum equation reduces to

ana
Z5. dt " 15-52)
Pr, = (5.48)
RT or

Tliis is the inal result that should be used for a gas in which there is a significant tern-
difference between the inlet gas and the contro l volume The
f

A v (5.53)
perature or pressure
.

variable r can be used to estimate how close you think the process is to an isothermal
where SP = Pl - P2,
or adiabalic process. Notice that if the temperatures are the same, the equation re-
duces to Eq. (5.30). A more sophisticated approach is to consider the actual heat Equation (5.53) is an inductive-Upe equation (recall that . = Udi dt) for an
transfer [Ref 5.13]. electneal system m wh.ch energy is stored by vmue of the low rate TT c ll in-

f
ductance is (p€)M; therefore, a long tube wuh a small cross-sectional area wuh a
5 4 2 Inductance
. . dense luid represents luid inductance, and

f
Fluid inductance is often called luid "inertance," since its effect is due to the inertia L = 15.54)
f

A
of a moving luid. Consider the one-dimensional low of an incompressible luid in a
f

luid line of constant area, as shown in Figure 5.9. A control volume can be taken, f This equation is valid for liquids and gases: however, if a gas is used, the density must
f

and the momentum (force balance) equation and continuity equations can be writ- be evaluated at the upstream conditions.
ten. The control volume can be ixed in space or can be moving along wilh the luid The significance of luid inductance must also be evaluated relative to the rest
f

f
and hence be a control volume of ixed identity Either approach will yield the same
.

of the svstem and the bandwidth or frequency of interest.

f

inal result.
f

Area = A 5 4 3 Resistance
r Area = A2 . .

rr
I
A luid resistor dissipates power and can have a large var iety of forms: lammar low

f
I P. A y
head loss res.s.ancc (mcrt.a-
(viscous-dominated low) resistance, orifice-type or

f
I
I

f
L
dominated low), and compressible low resistance.

f
f
Figure 5.9 Transient flow in a long n vtonra A lonfi CKoBtUS low tube such as illustrated in

f
lube fluid inductance.
,

Figur
,h C
titv Jl ti0n that f0ll0WS We wil1 consider a con ol volume of ixed iden-
deriVa
.
viscous low. f
[T. 1 maS8) niov,ng down the tube at a velocity v. The equation for the con-
n . i
f

nervation of momentum is
Q
Figure 5.10 Uminar low, viscous

f
d
luid resistance.
S Irw = dt (mu)fi; = mil -f

f
(5.49) SP =fi -Pi s

h hv a linear relationsh.pKbciwcon the pro

-

0> 0r):
1 ne external forces acting on
Laminar resistors ar c charac
the low Q (recall that
pressures; thus sure drop SP and
f

,
 Chap. 5 Fluid Systems Sec. 5.4 Derivation Of P
assive Compone nta
152 153

8P = RQ (535) R =
12M(
(eccentric annul
Herived rom basic principles with no difficulty, but is ndb
i 1+ ar
action approximation) (5 641 .

f
n

The luid resistance R can ° ofa general passage having hydraulic diameter
f

onlv summarized here. The resis of the luid) can be eXpreSsed as In laminar low resistance the "'

f
area A. and length.' (A115

f
number N, is low. Thus for laminarVn r nVu"115 are dominant- so the Reynolds
fi (general resistance)
,

R_ (5.56) number should be

"

and hence 1'near resistance the Revnolds ,

1000
where the hydraulic diameter is
4 area The establishment ofa fully develooed laminar n t .
(5.57) capillary. A rule of thumb is for
"

( o he 0f 0f lhe
* = perimeter
function of the Reynolds number
*
grea,er * more as a
Ite resistance of a passage with circular cross section of diameter d reduces to
(
128
K = i- (circular section) (5 58) j- > 0 0575 iV- .

(5.65)
TTfl

A square low passage of width w has resistance Example 5.1 Flow in a Capillary Resistor
f

R= (square section) (5.59) A hydraulic line is 1.0 m long with an internal diameter of 2 0 mm and has hydraulic .

w luid lowing in it. The luid has the following properties;

f
The resistance of a rectangular cross section of width w and height h is p = 840 kg/m3 . »- = 20 x lO"6 m: s. m = 16.8 x KT'kPa s
8u€ The resistance of a circular tube is
(rectangular section) (5.60)
\2Su( 128(16.8 x 10 kPas)ltn
-

*
12816.8 x IG '-kNs 1m
(1 + A/w) R =
tt!1 mm
4
_

10-i:mJnr
A popular approximation for small values ofk/w is 42.78 lO'kNs
III

= -tt (rectangular section approximation) (5.61)

An annular low passage formed by concentric tubes with the outer tube hav-
f

ing an inner diameter of d and a symmetrical clearance of b on either side of the in- n
equation 8P = RQ)-
'

ternal lube has resistance

N '
-
~

Av RAv
v
R =
(annular section) (5.62)
ust have a S T
'

rrdb
To be laminar, the low, m
inar low with aaa 3 1

f
.

imum pressure for lam

f
A popular approximation of this function for small values of b/d is
fiP< r - = ~
~

2nininis
R -
(annular section approximation) (5.63) d . . us kP , (W5 psi). which .s a rcla-

cntncity of e' then the resistance

.
The maximum allowa
lively ,ow pressure U. hyd uhc sy.
h. P S S- «" -
ch.
sands of pounds per square m
 Sec. 5.4 Derivation Of Passive
Chap. 5 Fluid Systems
154 155
ing the Bernoulli equation the cnnti„
An oriice with a very short length in the direc- we obtain the equation COn,'nu.t
,

y eqUati0n
the preceding as,
.

f
Orifice Flow Res,sta"C ln„ low characteristic when operated with turbu '

assumptions
head loss
-

tion of low gives rise to a

.

f
f

lent low. d incompressible, frictionless low through an

For the one-dimensionai. si
f

f
Bernoullj equation can be ap- Due to the vena contracta /l3 < 4 s-
(5.69)
oriice shown in Figure 5.U, equation is valid between sections 1 and 2 ,
f

™
pressed in terms of A2 using a contracti ! 1S eaSily measured< A, can be ex-
,

plied for most sect.ons f™ e stTeamhnes

can be readily identified; however, a nn -.
ffi
the low from section 1 to section 3 dneA Furlher-the acceleration of
be-en rons 3 and 4; thus'the equation does

f
these effects can be combined int J Z u SOme losses for real nuids- Both of
no lTpply there without considering energy losse. low equation becomes
o
har8e coefficienf Cd, so that the orifice

f
5P= P -
2ClA\Q M* 5 70).

where 8P = P[ - PA.
In considering the sign of the pressure drop and hence the direction of low we

f
,

(D ® ® Figure 5.11 Orifice low sections. can set forth a more appropriate form of the oriice low equation. We get

f
f
f
Accelerating flow is experienced between sections 1 and 2. The low is further SP = KQh\on(Q) 5 71a)
.

f
pinched down to the vena contracta (minimum low area) at section 3. The ex-
"
"
or
f

panding low between sections 3 and 4 causes a velocity head loss.

Q = M sign (5P)
f

'

Neglecting differences in elevation, we can express Bernoulli s equation for f5.71b)

sections 1,2, and 3 as

where
(5.66)
p 2 p 2 p 2 P
2 2
2CiA
By equating the lows at all sections the following relations for the average luid ve-
,
f

locities can be observed:

sign(j:)=+l if.>:>0
Q = Aft = A2v2 = Am = AAv4 (5.67) (5.72)
sign(.0 = -1 ** < 0
The ideal Bernoulli equation applies between sections 1 and 3. The geometry roughness,
of the exit from section 2 to section determines the relationship between the pres- e discharge coefficient Cd has a -* a y S f
sures at sections 3 and 4 If there is a smooth gradual expansion of the area of the
.

,
i

and configuration of the orifice a d e Propert s 8

onf.cc (a d.ffuser) then the static pressure at section 3 will be lower than the static
,

pressure at section 4, and more advanced methods must be used to calculate the low lfront
uid. The vlaue of granges -m h ?, ( = 0. 6 , while a smooth.
as
of and behind the onfice. A sharp eag
f
f

kfl f ; 1 0r uCe haS3 SUdden exPansion between sections 2 and 4, then

4
convergent nozzle could have C(( *W or viscousKloinmated re-
l y head l0SS. and the Pressure at action 3 will be essentially For laminar low, an oriice ha lcd m the laminar reg.on and
linear. Most orifices are P
eau

f
SeC,i0n 4

f
mca ur
mtdsurt / 4 and we cannot measure P
-

makes 0Ur emulations easier, since we can sistance and is thus

3 . Thus, hence follow Eq. (5.70) for N > 2000.
,

(5.68) Example 5.2 Oriice How Calculation aterg

has » t0 be o.M
f
A sharp-edged orifice
«y neads at sect.ons 1 and 4 are negligible Consequently, combin-
.
hole. (Thus, we expect the due
 Chap. 5 Fluid System Sec. 5.4 ~n
s 0, Pass,V6
156
157
low becomes choked the Mach
from Example 5.1 is used al a 1000 psi pressure drop. It is necessary to confirm that 'he
low rate.

f
,

low is turbulent and to calculate the Vlss « a constant (Q -T l0' and con -

f
be calculated from the or ifice equation as follows (recall that comp u
f

The low rate can vary if the upstream cond 11 Tan8e' hence- the mat
*
Since the luid
f
Ibf = Ibm 386 in s2) termined totally by thrun re m s now r = P-Q) can
0

f
:
-

I2SP n, itd1 /2- I000lbf/in 2 „ , _ in3 cm3 in the downstream (or eXi n
a

templatl * « de-
low, or the pressure C r

f
2
y 386 in/s In the analysis that follows the .
han about 2000 sure Pu to the pressure at the throat o ZlT hom the uPstr-m pres-
For the low to be turbu/enl. Ihe Reynolds number must be greater t the pressure downstream at a la rge low a ea T S
* " 3'
or
f

h
,u 8her 0r lower ,han the 'hroat
5

f
in
2 14 - 0.030 in pressure, depending upon the geometry fr nm

For example, a slowly expanding diffuse rT k 110 the lar8er exit low area.
.

s
= 2930

f
1

Av 706.9 x lO 6 in2 0 031

'

Since the Reynolds number is just greater than the critical value of about 2000, the low

f
is O ust slightly) turbulent.
'

Compressible Fluid Flow. The compressible luid low equation is similar

f
f
to the orifice low equation: however, it does consider the variation in density of the
f

gas. As such, the compressible low equation has a higher degree of nonlinearity and unchoked flow (5.74)
f

is quile involved. In aerospace applications, both of these equations are normally

written as functions of the Mach number N which is the ratio of the luid velocity
m>
where R is the gas constant, k is the ratio of specific heats, and P is a reference tem-
f
v to the speed of sound c0: ,
perature for the purposes of evaluating the coefficients.
If the downstream pressure is low enough, the throat pressure will be a mini-
(5.73) mum (as determined by the critical pressure ratio), and the low will be choked. The

f
throat pressure cannot be any lower than this critical value, even though the down-
(i

Shown in Figure 5 12 is a converging-diverging nozzle having a throat defined

.

stream or exit pressure could be lower. In this case, the low is

f
as the minimum low area In the incompressible low equation the 2ressiire dLQP
.
f

,
f

_
-

dctcrmincs the low; in the compressible luid low equation, the pressure
f

auo ,/ is thejmportant properly Thus, we can write the equations in terms of \RT*
r

the pressure ratio instead of the Mach number

iha. of .he uachoM, excep. .ha. .
he cH.ica,
Notice tha, .his equation is .den.ica, ,o
Pp ihroal pressure pressure ra.io is suhs.i.u.e d ' the low is choked is

f
aetermm
The critical pressure ratio that
r0 upMrcam P(/, downstream (5.76)
pressure
pressure

figure 5 12 .
Compressible flow
enuations for compressible low have been

f
nozzle
le the equations could have
no
.

Notice that the terms in the foregoing ex

grouped for computational conven enf' erence temperature T is introduced so
, *
,
nl
cannn,rr! T Tg TT of comPre}«ible luid low is that the Mach number been written in terms of RTj and then corrected by the square
Z JS '7 , "'< T.' ""'(minimum now area) "f the restriction For air. this
,
f
f

that the square root term can be

«.nd t.on
u 1 acontmuc,
.

cono. V x8* cx" st even if the d loW is ,hen ch«ked- low-choking

n m
.
ownstream pressure decreases. Once the
root of a temperature ratio (it tne a
n be calculated for
problem.
f

temperature) rather tha

 Chap. 5 Fluid Systems Sec .

5.4 Derivation Of Passive

nts

158 159

function of the ratio of specific tion into the incompressible flow e

b ri the oressure ratio is a
i. oked following equation results- on expressed im mass flow terms, then the
When the flow is cJ ; um flow available. The choked flow equation
heats. It is m Eq (5-76) for the critical pressure ratio is substituted:
.
m
- M .
[P P.)
CdA CdA P,

cdA v
m
1
yfkA
vr/
( v
"-
choked
-
flow, =
'
(5.77) Pi
.k
The temperature at the throat is related t *
\ RT Y r'r>' - P<
'
(5.79)

tant, which is a dimensionless func- ponential function, depending upon how m,, I u upstream temperature by an ex-
ible f l ow
Here A is the compressfic heats, k: equation cons further approximation, if we use the T .m tranSfer there is-However-as a
tion oAhe ratio of speci temperature in the incompressible equal on T 6 inStead '
of the throat
pier and gives good results when co« T 0" " Sli8htly sim-

Tte value of this constant is 0.4842 for air (* = 1.40);Table 5.1 gives/,, for other val-
ues of k.
cdA Vi?r
*
\r u
u\p u [pJ
p (unchoked incompressible approx.) (5 80)
.

TABLE 5.1 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW EQUATION CONSTANT, fkc.

k
When the downstream pressure is low enough to cause choked flow the pressure ,

ratio of specific heats compressible flow equation constant ratio in this equation should be replaced by the critical pressure ratio, resulting in
1 05 0 4368
.
.

0 4443 (choked incompressible approx.) (5.81)

1 10
.
.

1 15
.
0 4516
.

0 4586
1 20
.

1 25
.

0 4640
Since the critical pressure ratio is a function of k, this equation can be reananged in
terms of a constant A, for the incompressible approximation. The constant is similar
.
.

1 30 0 4705
to the function fkc for the compressible flow function. TTius, if the orifice is choked,
.
.

1 35
.
0 4781
.

1 40
.
0 4842
.
the mass flow per unit area is
1 45
. 0 4901
.

1 50 0 4957 (5.82)
.
.

(choked incompressible approx.)

Equation (5.74) or equation (5 76) should be used for compressible flow calcu-
.

where
lations. Recall that these equations are written from the upstream pressure to the
throat pressure (5.83)
.

Normally, we do not know the throat pressure; we know the exit or

downstream pressure Pd. Therefore our challenge is to relate the downstream pres-
,

k, as given
sure to the throat pressure In an orifice that exits into a large chamber the throat
.

,
ation instant
.

constant.
which is a function only of
pressure » almost equal to the downstream pressure and thus is more easily han- is the incompressible flow equ
le equation
dled. In a converging-diverging nozzle that has the proper expansion amilc and in Table 5.2. equations
* with the compress.b
A comparison of the "WfP flow fa choked, the /,
.

nun, the flow can actually be choked when the pressure ratio PJP is 0 9 or even
Ly a-J t h e fk i
.

fJv 1" ?LCaSC

m
"Miverging nozzle, more advanced analysis tech- reveals that
~t

r um" 12]-10 0f an 0rifice siting into a large area, we compressible equation s 0.4*" incompressible appro
A equation is 0.499 a differenc o
2 f,

te *
result& as
approximation .sm
t0
!rjLr iippr(,xi,"1|a,ion ,0 the compressible flow equation is possible by often easier to apply and gtves qu
.

rcarra n

Ztdensny atrrf' f l WW CqUation Used for ** orif i ce, Eq. (5.10). If we One of the advantages o
the downstream conditions a nd substitute the ideal gas equa- solve for the pressu res m ter ms
 Chap. 5 Fluid Systems Sec. 5.5 Summary
160

TABLE 5.2 ,MrnMPRESSIBLEaOWEQUATION CONSTANT, fki 161

/a-
k

f
ratio of speciic heats
incompressible low equation constant
pr-f i+

f
f
0 4908
(""choked approx.)
.

1 05
0 4928 (5.85)
.

1 10
0 4944
.

1 15
.

0 4958
.

1 20
.

If the low is choked and the l

f
.

0 4970
ow rate is known the

f
1 25
.

pressures are
.

0 4979
,

1 30
.

0 4986
1 35
.
.

1 40
.

1 45
0 4992
.

0 4996
.
CdA , P Pl (choked aPProx.) (5 86)
.

1 50
.
0 4999
.

and

m
P
40
(choked approx.) (5 87)
.

Incompressible
CdA
.

Compressible RT
30 .

i c
N

5 5 SUMMARY
.

2 .
0 h

This chapter has presented the fundamental characteristics and mathematical mod-
eling of luid systems Since luid properties determine the performance of a dy-
.

f f
namic system graphs of the luid properties (density, bulk modulus, and viscosity)
,

: were presented as a function of temperature The basic passive components are re-
.

0 -
3 0.4 05
.
0.6 07 08 09 sistance (composed of laminar low viscous resistance head loss or orifice low resis-

f
Figure 5 13 Comparison of com-
. ,
.

f
.

tance and compressible luid low), capacitance (composed of the compressibility of

pressible and incompressible low ,

f
f
F
f

equations the luid in a volume or a container that has compliance with respect to an internal

f
.

pressure), and inductance (the water hammer effect, composed of the inertia of
"
"

that because of the nonlinear nature of the compressible low e luid lowing in a pipe). These basic components appear in luid systems such as

f
f

f
calculate the low based upon pressures: the converse is not possible
quation, one can only water distribution systems and a water tower and also set the stage for modeling
f

control valves, actuators, and other components used in luid power controls systems
mcomprcssiblc approximation can be solved backwards as is shown next However, the
f

f
.

(hydraulic and pneumatic systems).

15 lesS lhan the crilical value required to choke, as given by Eq
,

th |U
.

5.80,
ure UkTT
sure is Known, the upstrethr0at preSSUrescan
am pressure is
be related t0 *e w ff the throat pres- .
.

REFERENCES

Shearer. Fluid o w* Con trol. TTie MIT Press. Cam

5 1 Blackburn. J. R.. G. Reclhof. and J. L

t
.

bridge. Massachusetts. I960. vi v 1. man

And if the upstream
(unchoked approximation) (5.84) 5 . 2 McCloy, D.. and Mar„n H.. TH. Con.rol,fM /W.
assure is known 'm
,
the throat pressure is
5 4 Wa,.on.John. „MPwrSysKm
.
™*' " '" ' * * ™
-

- -
 Chap. 5 Fluid syste
162 ms Chap. 5 Problems

5J Andersen. Blaine W. The Analysis and Design of Pneumatic Systems. John Wiley and P pressure 163
Sons. New York. 1967. Ptt
iterature. 2 Peltipaug Rd.. Westbrook CT. upstream pressure
5 6 TTie Lee Company. Product L
Pl throat pressure
.

5 7 Bolz. Ray E.. and Tuve. George L Handbook of Tables for Applied Engineering Scienc
.

e
e'

2nd ed. CRC Press. Boca Raton. Floida, 1979.

.

Pd downstream pressure

r
5 8 Ogata. K. System Dynamics, 2d ed. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey 1992
.
,
Pcr
critical pressure ratio
5 .
9 Kirshner. J. M. and Katz. S.. Design Theory ofFluidic Components. Academic Press New ,
q heat transfer rate
York. 1975.
5 10 Huliender. David A., and Woods. Robert L. Modeling of Fluid Circuit Components
" Q volume low rate

f
"
.

ratio of ,ho actual heat flow to the

,
,
Proceedings of the First Conference on Fluid Control and Measurement, FLUCOMpc '

Permagon Press. Tokyo, London, 1985. R nmd resistance; gas co maximum „„.

f
485 .

nstant
5 11 Keller. G. R. Hydraulic System Analysis. Industrial Publishing Co., Cleveland OH 1974
.
,
T temperature
5 12 Shapiro. Ascher H. The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Fl
.

Ronald Press, New York, 1954.

U internal energy
5 13 Fernandez. Raul, and Woods Robert L. "TTiermal Considerations in Fluid Power S v velocity 4 »
.
.
t '
y;. t
V volume
,

lems Modeling." ASME Paper FPST-Vol. 6, International

.
Mechanical EneinecrinJ ,
* 1
V
Congress and Exposition Nashville. TN, Nov. 1999. 8 -;

w width
,
.
,

W work -
'

/ r
- c-j
a thermal expansion coefficient

f
NOMENCLATURE
/3 bulk modulus
A area
(}a adiabatic bulk modulus
b clearance of concentric tubes
c0 speed of propagation of sound
/x absolute ( or dynamic) viscosity
Cd discharge coefficient of orifice low p density w. ..
,
t shear stress IJ
f

C* luid capacitance
f

Cp constant-pressure s v kinematic viscosity

pecific heat
Cg constant-volume
specific heat
d diameter of a circular cross section
dh hydraulic diameter PROBLEMS
e eccentricity
F force
5 .
1 Mention applications of fluid controls in the following areas:
h height a. automotive
*
spring stiffness; ratio of specific heat s
b . aerospace
i length c industrial
L luid inductance d consumer
f

m mass

2 ITuhrLpression for .he viscosi.y (Su.herland s equation) of a gas as a func.ion

#

m mass flow rate 5 .

n polytropic coefficient of the absolute temperature.

Nm Mach number y .
IT "(T +jA
N
, Reynolds number 1 1
 Chap. 5 Problems
Chap. 5 Fluid System
165
54
larger than the continuous flo*
crev stored in ih#» .

For air. c, = ll0oK t tot he range of vahduy and the

nse a spreadshee "<"e h0W much -elgh , ,
.

amoun
lf d , , ?rderab0Ve
,0 a areferenc how much
"

Calculate the ™\uc of c2.Vsc*P '

m g f of energy represen Cakulafe l VZ
o n of
e heigh, this
accural of the lincanzat.on mass) undergoing a compression. Use mg d all of the energy could be conv r,edt ? Wh,Ch a 1 lb mass n,ov-
miles per hour. 0nvened k met.c ener gy. Express your speed in
5 9 Consider steady
.

incompressible viscou nn„ a

,
,
-

low between lat parallel plates, as dP 0nal

rL , -
fully d loped laminar

f
Navier, French engineer nss o r .
,8UreP5 -

9 eNavier-Stokes(claude
1819-1903) equation for this c a ed l Ta.
s
r

En8liSh PhySiCiS,.
the situation is as follows: « = luid ve ,v -n L " "0 nclature for
'

luid at the eiven lor iinn , ' he ,

"t*™ ? = pressure of the

f
-

f
F
, """cnbionau there is no luid velocity component
' in the 'y- and z-
uidis/3/ = 1 4Xl06kPa. directions; however, the velocity in the . direction varies with thc distance from the
.

f
.
-
.

centerline y of the now.

y 1
v.- h/2
x 0 li
Figure P5.5 Air trapped in liquid u(v)
Figure P5.9 Viscous low in parallel
h/2

f
container.
-

: M plates.

Use the basic definition of bulk modulus to derive an expression for the equivalent
The Navier-Stokes equation is a partial differential equation. You must irst solve
a .

f
bulk modulus Assume that the container is rigid.
for the velocity profile at a given location x. This is done byiy solving the ec
equation for
b . Use the ratio x = V /Vj and normalize your result for the ratio of Pr/pL as a func- d'u/dy1 dP dx as constant) and integrating twice. Next you ca
dhi/dy2 (treating x and BP can solve for
tion of * and/yt. '
. .. .k- c.h u/ith rp«;nert lo x (notice that the vclo
f

c What volume ratio x is required to reduce the equivalent bulk modulus to one-
half the liquid bulk modulus? Assume that the gas is air at high frequency and the
mean pressure is one bar (100 kPa). What is the ratio x if the mean pressure is
20 / 10lkPa?
56
.
The radius expansion , R - /?0, of a balloon filled with a gas is directly proportional
to the internal pressure of the gas Let us write this proportionality as After you perform the '",egra"on a"a u as a parabolic func-
.

u( -Wr 2) = 0
6P Derive an expression for the total capacitance of the ballon that
= k(R - R(i).
Iditi o n. you shoul d have - veJity I over the
.

considers the change in volume of the balloon and the effect of compressibility of tants h 2 and W
the gas. (Volume = (4/3)7r/?3) tion of y (with cons
profile by integrating u(y) over y-
.

5 7 A circular lube of length € is used to hold fl expression for aP at as a func-

.

uid pressure. If the tube has an internal

diameter d a wall thickness t, and a Young's modulus £ derive (a) The capacitance
lt
,

of the lube ,
using an incompressible fluid, and (b) The total capacitance C r ,
which in-
cludes the volume capacitance of the fluid CF (with a fluid of bulk modulus /3). and
,

ihe mcchamcal capacitance CM. Write your result in normalized form Cr/CF, using
,
,

normalized variables .

Now write an expression for the normalized equivalent bulk modulus

c In parts a and b. the for „ inile P'a' of low velocity S. Based

f
f
resuU-
mg from the lube capacitance.

Vl .ndZrl
Pfcxun to More' eniS USCd Wilh an air P ssor to smooth pulses from the com-
ergy so that the instantan
eous flow rate for short bursts can be
 Chap. 5 Problems
Chap. 5 Fluid System s

166 167

„
, resiS,ance given by (Eq. 5.56) and the definition of hy .

5P = 'CQ2sign(Q) where/C = -£ _

b
. Using the model for the compressible low e
lar.square, rectangular ann resistance, as illustrated in Figure P5.ll I,s
X Z! eXpC~l quation

f
_
.

A capillar tube is used as a m « , a Reyn0|ds number (based upon av

leneih is 100 mm and "s aian f (500 x it f )/(e/d) as the critical Reynolds number
-

aT SZ I w PS
and delermme which is the best The iniiial
' wn in Egure P5
nd 3 instant p
* **
COnslanl) a
.

or variable P)
17.

erage velocity and line diameter; u i pressure is 100 kPa

.
.

gauge
for length. KM")

/ '
f Orifice. K
SP = P ~f,
W
Q
a Figure P5.ll Laminar low resis- 0 ( --/ P.* IDOkPa

f
tance. 8pi u = 820 10-6m3
(kPa) K = 20 5 I09.

40 - *

rn

20
drop allowable (in units of kPa), using air (p = 1.2kg/m ,/i - 0.018 x 10 kPas.
Repeal part a for oil (p = 850 kg/m m = 17 X lO"6 kPa s).
3
b.
,

0 L

5 12 Confirm all of the conversions and calculations in Example 5.2.

.
0 5 10 s
:
25 Figure P5 17 Volume of gas dis-
.

5 13 Water lows through an orifice that has a pressure drop of 1000 psi. The orifice has a Time (s) charging through an orifice.
f

sharp edge and very short longitudinal length: therefore, we expect the discharge co-
efficient to be 0.6. The diameter of the orifice is 0.050". Calculate the low rate

f
5 18 Ite system shown m Rgure P5.18(a) is a single-acting rolling diaphragm actuator with
through the orifice. Express your result in gallons per minute (GPM). Recall lhat
.

a spring return. There is no preload on the spring. The actuator is driven from a pres-
231 in3 is a gallon.
sure regulator through a fast-acting solenoid valve. In series with the solenoid valve is
5 . 14 An air blowgun has an orifice of 0.075" diameter. The back side of the orifice has been a small onfice. The system has been built and instrumented in the lab. The components
drilled with a taper, so the fluid experiences a gradual taper in front of the orifice. We have been measured, and their values are as follows:
suspect that this will result in a discharge coefficient of about 0.9. If the air pressure at
the gun is 75 psig, calculate the mass low (Ibm/hour) of air through the orifice, using the m = mass of actuator = 0 . 1 kg = stiffness of spring = 1.33 N/mm
f

compressible flow equation or its approximation. Convert this mass low to volume low = oriice coefficient = 23 8 x lO" kN sVm
8

A = area of actuator = 1774 mm2 /Q,

f

at standard conditions and erpre55 your answer in SCFM (standard cubic feet per

f
,

'
minute).
5
V0 = volume = 15.000 mm
.

15 Consider compressible flow through a nozzle that is choked The maximum mass low
d consider i ng the in-
f

for a given upstream pressure P occurs when the throat pressure ratio P /Pu is equal to
u t a. First, model the system, neglecting theblemeffects
5.17.)ofDerive
the mass
the ansystem dynamics equa-
the critical pressure ratio It is desired to calculate the expression for the critical
compressible low equation. (See pro in the state-space format, and™™- state
pressure ratio. Express the equation

f
tions for the actuator. l pressure and P™1™ **' "
In order to derive the expression for the critical pressure ratio, ind the maximum of
equations that can be usedbles
for the interna tem, considering he mass Demed
f

the function by taking the derivative of the square root term of the compressible low Next, model the sys
based upon the state varia of the system, and state the equates for pressure an
s7ce representation
f

equation with respect to the pressure ratio and setting the result equal to zero. Tlien
a state
solve for the pressure ratio that satisfies this maximum condition, which is the critical bles
pressure ratio. The mathematics here is tricky be sure you have a positive exponent. position as a function of the -a
Did you obtain the result given by Eq. 5.76?
,

b . ObtPlot
ain theiP, simul a ted -
and Z. Compare " , i mental response gi ven in Rgure
£oS*S or taken into l responses? consideration

r
5 .
16 Derive Eq 5.79. a
. .

f
P5.18(b). What can you suggest and experimenta
S
«mur
e lrPr.CSSCd andI5di8i,al
diSCharged ,hr0U8h an orif i ce to atmospher i c pressure. .ha. would account for the « Z « ** - *

prewulrt .mule
Kthe 0la s whether mass would be
n
,0" simulation obtain the transient response of the 1 *™
tank Phi your results for the following cases:
1
,

c From part b. discuss which n

how could you determin
from the equalion
.

. .

U-ng the model for the incompressible low equation this case?) and
f

important.
 Chap. 5 Fluid S
168

Dead volume.
Piston mass. M SHapter 6
y
j .

Therm3l Systems
8P

Stiffness <
oonness, j
5P. .

f= 0
-

Solenoid p
'

Nonlinear dim

oriice. AT,,

f
Rcgulaicd Pressure
20kPa

(a) Configuration.

i 1 1 1

20 - = 20

z
fkPa)
(mmj
0
10 6 . 1 INTRODUCTION

00
I

10
J

20
I I

0 low rate. The thermal effects are oS S J !

f
.
.
. 30 40 50
age capacity.
,
.
.

Time (seconds)
Thermal systems have a static and dynamic behavior similar to mechanical .

(b) Transient response .

electrical, and luid systems but in some ways they are quite different from these
,

f
FiRurc ps 18 Spring-loaded diaphragm actuator
.
other systems. Thermal systems are similar in that they exhibit resistance and capac-
itance effects
can be analyzed by circuit analysis, and have dynamic responses that
,

can be characterized by system time constants, etc. However, they often require
nonlinear variable-coefficient, or distributed-parameter models. Also, although
,

thermal systems exhibit resistance and capacitance, there is no thermal inductance.

The analysis of thermal systems often requires the combination of three tech-
nologies: thermodynamics, heat transfer, and luid mechanics. In our presentation in

f
this chapter, we will idealize thermal systems for applications that result m l.near
systems, in order to emphasize the similarity to systems discussed '" P vious chap-
ters. When these simple models are not sufficient, the reader shou d consul, com-
prehensive treatments of the various aspects of heat transfer [Refs 1-5J.

6 2 BASIC EFFECTS
»u Isvstems
l sysu.
are thermal conduction, thermal con-
The basic effects exhibited by therma m
*
vection thermal radiation, and ,herma'
. Jariab,ei or the potential variable, as
will consider temperature to be the
 Sec. 6.2 Basic Effects
Chap. 6 Thermal Systems
171

170 The proportionality constant

b sed in degrees C b
-

terial. Thermal conductivitv U , K terined thermal ~ .

Swedish astronome J 'V k'of the ma-
discussed in Chapter 2. The J ine (Andera Celsius. Table wtL 1 61 for a
riety of metals that
fa, degrees T n. British physicist. 1824-1907; Gabriel number of insulators.
l7(,I_44: Lor d Kelvm is ,686_i736: William John M. Rankine, English Figure 6.2 indicates that therm .
0f 3
Daniel Fahrenheit. German pny varjable that re|ates to the f l ow some metals Figure 6.3 shows C l T is a of temperature for
0f ™* ''
engineer. tIk heat flow rate Qh has the units of power, e.g., joules vanes wnh temperature and how Cc S,T y ? 8ases is one order of
magnitude lower than that of liquids
seeon
"

or Bto (Bri tish *« 2dSSn all display an algebraic relation equation w.ll be variable if IhX l
50°F); the result will be nonlinear e t oTs
the COefficient in
iS Very high (8reater
er's
between the temperaturenoand toe
effects.
' SThea flow; therefore, these effects represent ther- .

dynamic
mal resistance and have 450

tion
62 1.
Thermal
.
Conduc 4()0 Pure silver

is the ability of solid or continuo us media to conduct heat. TT* Copper

Thermal condudicn t m the d.rect.on of heat flow
heal iransfer Q, is related to the temperature grad.en
e illustrates one d.mensional heat transfer;
-

17 dx as shown by Figur e 6.1 (The f i gur

,
l case would be two or
three-dimensional heat transfer.)
a more genera e and heat flow in a ma-
The steady-state relations hip between the temperatur
Fourier's law of heal conduction (name d after the French mathe- Gold
terial is given by 30). In this one-dimensional 300

matician and physicist Joseph Fourier, 1768-18

relationship, the heat transfer per unit area is related to the temperature gradient in
the direction of heat flow by the equation
(6.1) a

' Pure aluminum Aluminum

A dx
-

« 200 V
direc-
Note that the negative sign indicates that there is a temperature drop in the E

lion of flow.
Brass

V platinum
100 h

Iron

< Type304
Uranium Siainlc-is sicci

800
I

0 200
-
200
0
Tcmpcralure <X)
V
\

ceHa
i

ngnc 6.1 Conduction heat transfer Figure 6J condu

Uenhard.an |
in a continuous material.
rerI ,byJohnH .
 TABLE 6.1 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

Thermal conductivity ( \
Properties at 2930K or 20°C or 680F
200 K 2730K 4(K) K 600oK 800° K 1 000oK
.

-
730C 1270C 3270C 5270C 12TQ P
32°F 2610F 621 "F 9810F 1 3410F k
.
kg/m'
W/(m K)
x 0.5777 x 6.243 x lO"2 x 2 388 x IQ-4
Element = Btu/(hr ft 0F)
.

x 0.5777
= (Ibm/ft3) = Btu/(lbm 0F) Btu/(hr ft 0F)
Aluminum 237 236 240 232 220 2 702
, 896 236
Antimony 30.2 25.5 21.2 18.2 16.8 6 684
. 208 24.6
Beryllium 301 218 161 126 107 89 1 850
, 1750 205
Bismuth 97 82 9 780
. .

, 124 79
Boron 52.5 31.7 18.7 11.3 8 1 63 2 500
.

. .
, 1047 28.6
Cadmium 99.3 97.5 94.7 8 650, 231 97
Cesium 36.8 36.1 1 873, 230 36
Chronmium 111 94.8 87.3 80.5 71.3 65.3 7 160 440
.
91.4
Cobalt 122 104 84.8 8 862 389
.
100
Copper 413 401 392 383 371 357 8 933 383
,
399
Germanium 96.8 66.7 43.2 27.3 19.8 17.4 5 360,
61.6
Gold 327 318 312 304 292 278 19.300 129 316
Hafnium 24.4 23.3 22.3 21.3 20.8 20.7 13.280
23.1
Indium 89.7 83.7 74.5 7 300,
82.2
Iridium 153 148 144 138 132 126 22,500 134 147
Iron 94 83.5 69.4 54.7 43.3 32.6 7 870 452
.
81.1
Lead 36.6 35.5 33.8 31.2 11, 340 129 35.3
Lithium 88.1 79.2 72.1 534 3391 77.4
Magnesium 159 157 153 149 146 1,740 1017 156
Manganese 7 17.
7 68 . 7 290, 486 7 78
.

Mercury 28.9 13,546

Molybdenum 143 139 134 126 118 112 10,240 251 138
Nickel 106 94 80.1 65.5 67.4 71.8 8 900,
446 91
Niobium 52.6 53.3 55.2 58.2 61.3 64.4 8 570,
270 53.6
Palladium 75.5 75.5 75.5 75.5 75.5 75.5 12,020 247 75.5

Continued
t 4

TABLE 6.1 (CONTINUED)*

Fhermal conductivity
ivity( \)m
Properties at 2930K or 20oC or 680F

2(K)0K 273° K 400° K 6(K)0K 80()oK lt00()oK

k
-
730C 0oC 1270C 3270C 5270C 7270C
9810F 13410F kg/m1 J/(kg 0K) W/(m 0K)
32° F 26rF 6210F
-
2 X 2.388 x lO
"
4
X 0.5777
X 0.5777 X 6.243 X 10
= (Ibm/ft3) m Btu/(lbm 0F) = Btu/(hr ft 0F)
Element Blu/(hr ft 0F)
133 71.4
72.4 71.5 71.6 73.0 75.5 78.6 21.450
Plalinum 741 103
52 860
Potassium 104 104 48. /
21,100 137
51 48.6 46.1 44.2 44.1 44.6
Rhenium 248 150
136 127 121 12,450
Rhodium 154 151 146 58.2
1 530 348
Rubidium 58.9 58.3 .

703 153
61.9 42.2 31.2 2 330
Silicon 264 L68 98.9 ,

234 427
Silver 403 428 420 405 389 374 10300 133
971 1206
Sodium 138 135 138 57.5
59.4 60.2 16.600
Tanla\um 57.5 57.4 57.8 58.6 67.0
5 750 227
Tin 73.3 68.2 62.2 ,
22.0
4 500 611
20.4 19.4 19.7 20.7 179
Titanium 24.5 22.4 ,

134
162 139 128 121 19,300 27.4
TXingslcn 197 1K2 Ii3
38.8 43.9 19.070
Uranium 25.1 27 29.6 34 502 31-4
36.3 38.6 6 100
31.5 31.3 32.1 34.2 ,

385 121
Vanadium 7 140
122 116 105 ,

272 22.8
Zinc 123 6 570
20.7 21.6 23.7
21.6
.

Zirconium 25.2 23.2

Zirconium zj. * " i i.*#iioa7hvPWS

Publwhmg C:ompany. a division of Inlcmalional Thomson Publishing Inc.

 *
TABLE 6.2 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF INSULATORS
Sec. 6.2
Basi
Properties at 2930K or 20oC or 680F Effects
k
a x iqs 07
kg/nr J/(kg 0K) W/(m "K) .

x 6.243 x I0'2 x 2.388 x W

'
4
x 0.5777 *
(m2/s)
\farerial = lbm/fl3 = Blu/(lbm0F)
3.874 x W 175
= Bcu/(hrfl0F) = ft2/lir
05 .

Asbestos 383 816 0 113

.
0 036
Asphalt 2 120 0 698
.
Saiuraied Saiiir
Bafcelite
. .

a a,Ura d waIer Water at

200 atm
1 270 . 0 233 .

Brick
Common 1 800 S40 0 38-0.52
Carborundum
. .

0028-0 034
2 200 5 82
.
lene g
.
.
ycol
(50% SiC)
Magnesile 2 000 .
2 68
Heli
.

(50% MgO) 0 U 02 .

Masonry 1 700
, S3 7 0 658

.
SUica (95% Si02) 1 900
.
0 046
.
.
1 07
Zircon (62% ZrOJ
.

3 600
.
2 44
Cardboard .

0 14-0.35
Cement, hard .

Sa
1 047 turaied SO,
Clay (48.7% moisture) 1 545 880
.

Coal
,
1 26
anthracite U70
.
0 101 0 1
a
,

1 260 0 238
.

Concrete dry
.
.
.
0 013-0 015
,
500 837
.
.

Cork boards 0 128

,
150
.
0 049
i 880 0 042
.

Cork expanded .
.
0 015-0 044
,
J 20 .
.

Diatomaceous earth 0 036 .

466 879
Glass fiber 0 126
220 .
0 031
.

Glass window 0 035

,
2 800 .

Glass, wool ,
800 0 81
50 .
0 034
.

0 037
100 .

0 036
200 .

Granite 670 0 040

2 750 .
0 028
Ice iO"Q ,

913 30 .
.

Kapok 1 830
,
2 22
25 .

0 124
Linoleum 0 035
,
Air and N, 1 Saturaicd steam
Mica 535 .

4- J -

2 900 0 081
Pine bark
.
.

342 0 523
Platter .

1 800 0 080 0 02 ,
Plcxiglas*
.
. .

1 180 0 814
Plywood .
.

590 0 195
Polystyrene 0 109
.

1 050 0 015
Rubber Buna .
.
.
. I 1
1 250 0 157 100
Hard (ebonite) (I
100 200 300
-

. .

.im 500 550

1 150 0 465
Spongy .
2 009
.

Temperature CC)
Sand 224 .
0 163
,
dry 0 055
.

0 0062
.

Sand moist .

Figure 6J Thermal conductivity of various luids. (This igure was taken from A Heal Transf
,

SawduM 1 640,
0 582 .

T er
extbook by John H. Lienhard. and published by Prentice Hall Publishing Company ©1987.)

f
Soil 215 1 13 . ,
.

Dry 0 071 .

Wet 1 500
.

Wood 1 500
.
1 842
.
-
0 35
Fourier's law Eq. (6.1), can take a variety of forms, depending upon the geo-
.
.
-
0.0138
Oak -

2.60 0 0414 metric shape of the system studied Common configurations are transverse heat low
.

f
Pine fir. ipruce 609-801 .

Wood fiber sheets 416-421 2 390 in a flat plate axial heat low in a rod. and radial heat low in a cylinder.

f
,
.
017-0 21 0 0111-0
2 720 .

0121
200
.
.
,
0 15 .

0 0124
Wool 400 0 047
.
.

Conduction through a Flat Plate. For a lat plate of thickness L and cross-

f
0 055
.

0 038
sectional area A shown in F.gure 6.4. if *, is constant over the temperatures constd-
ered Fourier's law reduces to
.

. - - . Mark k A
wiemational niomson Publishing Inc. dT . A*T .

AT ib.:)
I .

in which J 7"= T2 -
7",
 Chap. 6 Thermal Syste rris Sec. 6.2 Basic Effects
176
177

K+ R
irmprrarurt
where/?, = V(M)and/? = , (6-6)
/ Surface
tcmpcralurc
T2 Axial Conduction in a Rod r
sectional area A that has an insulated sS 6 6 Sh0WS a rod o{
'
mh L and cross

'
the heat transfer is only axial. Hie Fourier law lal 6 ' n0
"

1?
followmg result. ner law relatmg to this configuration ives the

r
I

Figure 6.4 Onc-dimcnsional

Area. A conduction through a lat plate.

f
(6.7)

Since it is more natural to think of the icmperalure difference as we do in cir-

cuit analysis. Eq. (6.2) can be rewritten to eliminate the negative sign as follows:
r,

kA 7
.

(6.3)
\0U

The temperature difference is 57 = T, - T

"

If we consider the heal flow Qh as the flow variable and the temperature difference L
Figure W Axial heat transfer in a
81 ms the effort variable, we can write Eq. (6.3) in the form of an impedance relation: rod.

(6.4)
l<
Radial Conduction in a Cylinder. A common configuration is a pipe with a
In this case, we take ilic Ihcrmal resistance R due to conduction to be
constant temperature source on its inside and outside surfaces, as shown in Figure 6.7.
L In this case the incremental area for heat low is 27rrL, and the temperature gradient

f
R (6.5)
kA .
is dT/dr. Thus, Fourier's law reduces to
Iliis leads to a simple concept for heal transfer in which wc consider thermal circuit
analysis of interacting thermal components just as we do for electrical circuits .
For
example, if we had a metal plate coated on one side as shown in Figure 6.5, the total
heat transfer would be related to the total temperature difference and the combined
Ihcrmal resistance R, + Rm (see Chapter 4) by
.
,

Conductivity. K

/
/

ion in a cylinder.
FlgUfftiJ 'i hcrmal resistance ol Heat conduct
igure 6.7
f

two plates
f
.
 Chap. 6 Thermal Systems Sec. 6.2 Basic Effect s

178

dT dT away from the surface T w 173

f6.8l fer from the surface temperCOnStant''n,Us lhe ov

(dr\ away from the surface The heaTlJ'
-

\rI
law of cooling,
SOme i«SS
neat lo* Qh per unit .S?
,S J131 heat trans-
T' 31 nce
.

f
f
d integration from the i area 415 given by Ne on's
AMuni.ng a constant heat flow, separation of variables an n -

wdc to the outside surface of the cylinder yields

(6.12)
*
MrJr) f6.9) and is illustrated in Figure 6 9 .

From this result, it is clear that the thermal resistance is 1*liii/i

IMrJr.)
R =
l-rrk,/ .
(6.10)

Jf the surface of Ihc pipe is coated with a material different from that of the Solid
rest of ihc pipe and is of thickness r0 rc, as shown in Figure 6.8, the configuration
-

Maierial
will be cauivalcnl
cquiva to a series combination of two radial resistances. Thus the total ,

heal transfer will be

(2,,= (6.11) RfBre 6.9 Convection heat transfer

nirjr ) \n(r0/r()
.

,
+
lirLk. lirLk ,
.

In Eq (612). the convection coefidenl h represents the overall effects of the

sssrs : from the surface to the luid s

f
lu.d to relocate the heat. TTte convection coeffident is a function of the velodtv of

f
f
he luid passmg across the surface and the velodty profiles near the surface. T e ve-

f
locity profiles depend upon the viscosity of the luid, the dimensions of the geomet-

f
nc configuration, and the velodty of the luid. Therefore, it is expected that the

f
Conducttviiy ,

convection coefficient will vary with the properties of the luid (thermal conductiv-

f
i
f

ity. viscosity, density, and spedfic heat), the geometric configuration of the solid, and
r

r/itwlcitl.vuy
the details of the free-stream luid low patterns.

f
f
In free convection, the luid next to the surface does not have an externally
, /

f the surface will change the density

f
I I driven low pattern. Instead, the ttemperature
to the
o
surface, and the differential density of the

f
of the luid immediately adjacen
ding l uid will cause a local mot ion in the presence of a

f
FlRiirc 6.8 Pipe with a coated sur-
surface luid and the surroun
.

face.
of the luid near the surface can cooperate to cause a net

f f
f
gravity ield. T e motion ion of the heat. In forced "Tf J* *

f
luid motion and. hence, a relocatand thereby carry away any heat transferred be-
6 2.2 Thermal Convection f
forced to low across the surface

f
' 1
tween itself and the surface. ld intuitively dear that forced
lT T" '" ?,hC prOCe88 0f transfer bctw<*n a surface of a solid ma-
' nt
n 1
i,,,UI,l ,,;',IS17 '"' licisurface.TTieactualprocessteoneol heat From your own
convection is much
P
more ''
effective man ir in heat transfer. If wewewamay
example,
| by corHluctHm between the solid surface and the fluid at the immediate
'
to cool a hot object, we blelectronic
ow on .toreQ™V £££ hea,
(he hea( ,ransfcr at the surface, we
e, .
once the fluid has been subjected to the heat trans- install blowers or fans on
,
If we consider the microscopic nt avfor0cool g diffcrenl
can see that the convection coeffice
*
: .
,
„,,„, | 11 . , . "'
'

pKiciss nvii iiu- temperature of the

.olid it T-the temperature of th e free-stream luid at some distance from that for heating the surface.
f
 Chap. 6 Thermal Syste Sec. 6.2 Basic Effects
180

a* h..p to convecion is proportional to the convection coeff, 62

. .
3 Thermal Radiation 181

L ur f awarea A and Ae .emperature difference 6T.TT.u. we may

t
S
m/M
e
lVreSunce due .o conveCion R as fol.o : Thermal radiation is the process of h
to transfer heat without the nr« , ransfer in which ih o

= HAST (6.13) solid. Unlike conduction or cor 0f 3 SU"0Undm m h 1"" ''S enou
one body to another C Z raS "an Zn« 3
'

Qh =
ST
R (6.14) the bodtes. T... thermal S J a „ y KS
A body of matter radiates electrnl P 6 ,n a vacuum -

fourth power of the absolute mZ

1
.deal blackbody of surface area Ah given byZS?*3healraletransfer
o
Phonal to th™e
*

R = (6.15)
= err
A
While the concept of convection heat transfer is very simple, the calculation of (6.16)
the convection coefficient is often quite difficult and is dependent upon the geomet- Figure 6.10 illustrates the concept of radiation h
eat transfer
ic configuration of the solid and low conditions. Further, the convection coefficient
.
r

is normaily variable in the direction of low, so we would have variable or dependent

f

Radiation
coefficients in the convection equation; however, it is often possible to use averaged
convection coefficients that will relate the overall or average heat transfer from a I
surface. Table 6.3 illustrates the typical range of values of the convection coefficient
for a variety of conditions and configurations. In free convection, the convection co-
efficient increases with temperature difference (which increases the buoyancy forces Surface
in the luid due to density difference). In forced convection, the convection coeffi- area. A
tkm M0 Radialion heal transfer.
f

cient increases with the free-stream velocity of the luid. The reader is referred to
f

textbooks on heat transfer [Refs. 1-5] for a discussion of determination of convec-

tion coefficients (expressed as a dimensionless grouping called the Nusselt number) The constant in Eq. (6.16) is the Stefan-Boltzmann conslanl. which has the value
as a function of buoyancy forces for free convection (expressed as a dimensionless
Rayleigh number) and free-stream velocity for forced convection (expressed as a di- . = 1 714X10-
.

= 56.68 X 10- (6.17)

mensionless Reynolds number) .

A blackbody is a perfect emitter or receiver of thermal radiation. Other sur-

TABLE 6 3 APPROXIMATE CONVECTION COEFFICIENTS h
.

faces or colors of surfaces have less emissivity than a blackbody. Thus, the heat trans-
fer to or from a surface that has an emissivity less than that of a blackbody will be
,

Fluid and condition Btu ce, it will exchange radiation

hrft2oF
x 5 698 =
.
watt
less by a factor Fr. Unless the body
fore,
is
the
isolated
net
in
heat
spa
transfer will be re lated to the dif-
111
with neighboring objects. There
Air, free convection
1 5 ference in the fourth power of the temperatures of each body. Knowing that not all
6 30 ther body lorccs us to
of the radiation that leaves one body may impinge upon ano
-

Air. forced convection

5 100 TTius.
30 600
een the two bod.e
-

Water, free convection

Water forced convection 10- 50 60 300 use a view factor Fr to account for the lost radiation betw
the net radiant heat transfer
transfer between
between two bodies at different temperatures ts
,

50- 1000 300 6000

Water, boiling
500- 10,000 3000 60,000 (6. IS)
Superheated ieam free convection
t

Superheated Meam forced convection 1 5

-

6 30
.

Steam 5 50
condenxing -

30 300
„
T, the low
,

Oil, free convection 1000- 20j000 6 000 120,000

,
where TH is the hig h temperature and
Oil. forced convection 5 25 -

150
30 atte raduttcn
It is interesttng to expre _
Oil. hotlmg 25- 500 150 3000
convection equation. In convection, - , , |luill somc distance a«.i\
250- 5000 1500 30.000
surface temperature and the free-stream temperature
 Chap. 6 Thermal Syste rris Sec. 6.3
182 Ste«C Therma, S
yster,s

rom the surface. In of tb gS wkh ramTtrkf0" COefficient as a funct

bWl-
ody TH and'f
the temperature S
f

« the low-temperature body TL. Therefore, there is

rquivaLTctnvecU fe the irst bod
on equation and the conCept of radiation to convection coefficient, the Id !r 0m radiation is much VW0 bodies ,f
y

f
.

f
nvect h
enough similarity between
neglected if the high tempedthan the acl
-

convection coefficient. If we consider the heat ual

low differential temPeXes 655 lhan ITZ*
Lnt t, as foUows (assuming TH > TL, and - TH TL). Can be '

ti
Fahrenheit with higL S "
f

(6.19)
624 Thermal Capacitance
We can factor the expression (7 - 7 ) and in Eq. 6-18 extract a term
"
. .

(TH - TL) to be the A7 term in the equivalent convection equation. The remaining
"

terms can be then rearranged in terms of TH and AT. Equating the result of these The ability of a substance to hold
o

operations to the form of the equivalent convection equation yields the following and behaves like a thermal capadtl rin!.!1 .k n of the ma ial

r
expression for the equivalent convection coefficient: mass basis the total heat storage abflitv i !
,

r.i heat is slaled on a P6

mass M of the object When the stored enlf 1° Specific heat Cp limes the
. .

of time such that t e derS

2

h
eq
= 4 7
"

"
2 7-//
J

T
_
1 AdTy]
41 rJ J (6.20) tiasmea function
is proportional to the heat low J T
of
Xem**m™ ™W *
chan
a

f
This expression can be used in two ways: to express radiation heat transfer as a lin- Qh = CM
dT
ear type of equation with a variable coefficient or to determine whether the effects ell
WW
(6.21)
of radiation can be neglected .
In stating this simple relationship we must assume thai th
Hie {ATITHf term in Eq (6.20) is negligible for almost all systems
,

e inlemal temperature of the

.

. The entire mass can be accurately represented by one single lemperature and thus, there is
(AT Ti)2 term is a relatively small term for most systems .
Figure 6.11 illustrates the no temperature gradient in the mass. This means thai the thermal conduction inside the
.

mass is very high relative to the transfer of heat by convection at the surface of the mass .

]</>
Equation (6.21) is a dynamic equation that is a differential equation Since it .

has the form of a low variable that is proportional to a rate of change of an effort

f
3 variable T with time the heat capacity represents a capacitance
,
.

The specific heat and specific heat ratio is presented for various substances in
Table 6.4.

I 6 3 STATIC THERMAL SYSTEMS

l b
JT =0 i

100 In thermal systems, we are interested cither in how much heat mieht be lost bv the
components or in the resulting temperature of a system with internal heat genera-
- - 200
3QQ
0' i 4
* involve thermal storage or capaci-
tion. Examples of thermal systems that do not
tance are illustrated in Sections 6.3.1 and 6.3 2 . .

-
200
63
. .
1 Thermal Conduction Circuits
2<*,
400 WK) KIM) UHM) 200
High Temperature (0F) Example 6.1 Conduction in a Rod P in which a 0.25 inch diameter steel rod serves
y*turt 6 11 R uivalcnt convection coefficient for radiati
.

Consider the system shown .n

.
mim
a water tank. Hk- one oo. Ion, rod
tdiation ho.ier

t
as a structural memher lo locate a sitam
.
 Chap. 6 Thermal Syste Sec. 6.3 Static Thermal Syst
ems
184
185
is insulated along lis length t
' o nr

crtt ;fir heal ralK).

Specific hea . oo\
Specific heat C
T ai f uxr
tank .s 100 F The0ng
water supply tank?
,he axis '
,
SSS,he
question is: How mu
.
surfacc h-
™1"6 is 220OF ch ho., wm
-

-
kJ/(kg0C) Blu/(lbm0F) " Wfl be transferred from the™* water

r
k - CJC,. much boiler to th
-

f
e

Solution For this problem we ca

nu
Liquids
2 36 0 565.
properties of the steel rod to obtain cond"ction equation Eq. (6.7) and the
.
.
.

2 15 0 514
clhylcnc giycol .

0 576
.

octane 2 41 .
.

3 93 0 940
propane .
.

(6.22)
0 998
salf water 4 18 .
.

From Table 6 2 we ind thai k = 2 Uhhk

.
,

m 23 B (hr ft Therefore, the heat loss is

f
water

Blu
1 00 0 240
.

1 40
.

air .

0 205
0 86 .

(6.23)
carbon dioxide 1 30
.
.

in
1 05 0 250 4(1 0 ft) 144
1 40
. .

carbon monoxide
.

2 26 0 540
1 31
.
.

methane .

1 63 0 390 or
1 20 .
.

propane .

Solids
2, = 0.941 hr
= 0.277 watt (6.24)
brick 0 92
.
0 220
.

concrete 0 96
.
0 230
.
This loss is quite small.
earth 1 26
.
0 3(M)
.

glass 0 84
.
0 200
.
6 3 2 Thermal Conduction and Convection Circuits
. .

paper 1 38
.
0 330
.

plastic 1 67 0 400
Exumplc 6.2 Plexi las plate
. .

wood , white pine 2 51

. 0 600
.

*
Consider the system shown in Figure 6.13. in which a piaic of Plexiglas that is a wall of a
Metali
container is exposed to an internal temperature T = SOX on one side and is subjected to
,

aluminum 0 90
free convection to room temperature. 250C on the other side. We want to know how much
copper
.

0 38
0 215
.

0 092
heal is lost and what will be the outer surfacc temperature T l\\c plate is 100 mm by 100
%
*
.

and is 6 mm thick. The thermal conductivity of Plexiglas is 0.195 W/(m 0K).

.
.

iron null
0 45
. 0 108
lead
.

Solution Since there is some very slight air motion on the outer surface, we will as-
0 13
. 0 031
silver .

0 24 0 057
zinc that the convection coefficient is 20 W/(nr K).
.
.

.
0 39
. 0 057
.
sumo

Area. A

l omiikiiMiv. K

9] ''
CoihIiu liviiy A
.
I
T ,

tion and con-

nv&O Conduc
vection from a plate.
1 Conductivity in a struc
1 tural rod .
 Sec. 6.3 Static Thermal
Chap. 6 Thermal Syst© Sy st ems

186
187

ffor m
tne con
c
duclion and convection can be calculated from -j.
E
-

0,6 resistances
Steel pipe
G -

L W (6.25)
kA 0195- -0.101110 10111
'

Rp"x
.

K /
I $0
i = 5 00
.

W (6.26) /
I

20- ,7 0.10 m 0.10 m

n he calculated as follows (note that AT°C = AT'K):
Therefore, the heat low ca
f

AT (50 - 25) "K

(6.27)
Insulation

(2A = 3.1 watts = 1.05 Btu/hr (6 28)

.

11,6 outer surface temperature can be calculated by irst equating the heat lows

f
from the Plexiglas® and the convection and then solving for T,:
l

5.00r50 q + 3.08[25°q
°
R T A-T-
-

T'
= R (6.29) 7
+ Rton, 3.08 + 5.00 Figure 6.14 Steam pipe
convection/conduction example.
T, = 30 9oC + 9 50C = 40 4oC
. . .
(6.30)
Therefore, the outer surface temperature, is closer to the internal temperature, since
Since the total thermal resistance is the sum of the individual resistances, the total heal
the resistance of the Plexiglas® is lower.
low can be calculated as follows:

f
Example 6.3 Steam Pipe
(220 - 75rF Btu/hr
Consider the system shown in Figure 6 14 in which steam at 220oF is lowing in a 6.0 foot
. (6.34)
f

(0.0127 + .000104 + .0566) 0F

steel pipe (2.0 inch ID 2.25 inch OD) with free convection to room temperature, 75 .
,

We are considering whether we should insulate the pipe. (6.35)

Q = 2089 Btu/hr = 614 watts
.

Solution The uninsulated pipe has three resistances to heat low from the inside to the
.

Now consider insulation that could be added to the outside of the pipe. If we use
f

outside: the convection on the inside of the pipe hfi the conduclion through the steel
and the convection on the outside of the pipe /, These resistances can be calculated „
. a wrap that has 0 50 inch thickness (3.25 OD. 2.25 ID) and a thermal conduct.vty of
from Eq. (6 15) and Eq (6.10) as follows:
.
.
0 06 Btu (hr ft T). the resistance is
.

0F

*
Hdjd _ Q36V- = 0.1626 Blu/hr
(6.36)

= 0 0127 (6.31)
. 2nkL 7iro06 B,U 6 ft
15(11 .

Ulu/hr
hr ft2 0F 7r2 0 in 6 {{ are additive, and the resu lting heat transfer can
Since the resistances are m
.
. are in ser ie. theyy
series,
R = H<Udt) _ 0.1178 I be calculated as follows:
27rA/. (6.32)
2 306 ft
'

104 Btu/hr (220 - 75rF Btu or 16.37)

t
hr ft "F " 1626) F
Qh = (o O»rr» + 0 .

16.38)
m
r=lfW watts
I 1?
II
0F
Q = 625 Biu
(6.33) reduct-onmheatlo.
h A = 0 056f
..
Btu sa
atton
.

,-
Btu/hr
lir7?°F 7r2"25 6 fl We note that th .
 Chap. 6 Thermal S Sec 6.4
ys,ems
188

189

6 4 DYNAMIC THER MAL SYSTEMS

.

m. are thermal systems in which t he heat capacity is ia

ic fhennal systems are "if
.
- h for there to . /ge
nvnamic
. „n r consideration is short enough for there to be a rate of
,„„, - k.,
T
7
enough or the nme
nme under tkbus c oi
u
enoueh during a prcx:ess. THe actual modelmg equations

o
chance of temperature mm «™
'

for su ch a process come from in log equarion, which is a second-order partial 7

differential equation m space d

Soiving equation for a vanety of differ
work. the reader 1S referred t0
ent configurations is beyond the scope
books on heat transfer [Keis. j lumped-parameter approach to solv
Under "f'" ;"'
-

ed-parameter model supposes that all of the prop-

ernes of thermal resistance and
an capacuance
h are lumped at selected points in space T

ions in time. Smce we are trying to

approxi
S mTr ate fa pa f'S
fMtem\e wi t h ordi n ary di f ferenti a l eq 8 u a.
must break the system into a certain number
the system into lumps arises only from .ts dy-
, R W Temperature variations
m a lai plate »-hh small Biot number

f
.

nai T eration since the steady-state solution to this diffusion equation results in have to consider the thermal conduction resistance in the solid Figure 615 illus-
Fourierflaw. TTierefore. we might have a single-lumped capaatance model or a
the Biot numlxr'T'01
is large,1{Nh5 " >3 0.1).andPlthenathere
te When the Bi o t in"umber
the solid.s sm
1
.

"
T tL RT
multiple-lumped capacitance model, depending upon the convection and conduc- the resistance material
tion resistances. is significant compared to the convection ,
wtll be a temperature difference
The number of lumps required for accuracy depends upon the relative values
.. . inside the solid material (in addition to a temperature difference between the surface
and the free-stream luid) In this case, we must consider several lumps of capacitance
of the conduction and convection resistances: the ratio of these resistances gives rise .

f
to the definition of the Biot number Nb (Jean B. Biot. French physicist 1774-1862). and determine the temperatures at several points inside the solid as a cnetion of time.

f
,

Hie Biot number is a dimensionless ratio of the conduction resistance to the con- The requirement to approximate the partial differential equation arises only from
vection resistance: the dvnamic characteristics of the svstem since the static characteristics do not ne-
.

cessitate internal nodes.

=
hL1
R com k (6.39) 64
. . 1 Single-Lumped Capacitance Modeling
Here.
Many applications in engineering in which the heal capacity is obviously significant
Lc = a characteristic length o f the solid material = VOlume
surface area
(6 40)
.
can be treated by the single-lumped capaatance analysis technique. In these cases,
the Biot number is small.
Le = thickness for a plate Example 6.4 Watermelon Warminj
L( = thickness/2 for a in Suppose that we arc interested in pred-enng be long a
f

L( = diameter/4 for a long cylinder

L< = diam
was initially cooled to 5 C
How long will it take to get to 63% ot tnc icmpc
n« from 5 C to 30 i*.«

eter/6 for a sphere

,
tenai isf theB"ot number is small f/V
< 01nf'then
very low comDareri ,n tK ( " .u <-n
*e resistance in the solid ma- r
>nVe
almon the same tempera n T?
,

*
? ,0n-and
r.
the entire solid material will be
Terence in the material bom aZ a™' Wil1 be a very smal1 temperature dif-
diffcrcnce will be from the surfer . u 0ther and the dominant temperature -

"
we can consider a sinele I S free-stream luid temperature. In this
P 'y of ,he wUd matenal VnTxLu ™™* and
nm
f

**
con the heat ca-
neal lransfer due to convection: we do not
 Chap. 6 Thermal Syst Sec. 6.4 Dynamic Thermal S
vstems
190
191
.nr and so should have a specific discrete nodes at which the emfa .
Men is basics
-

ide of a * tcrctore> f Cnvcction,

xm the specific heal C h cments are placed between .„ , ratUre wfl be deiermin.-.i n

t
h will be about 10 , .

f
two properti e s of e -t the Sn

r
.
p

f
d.s mc lumps for purpose s of W -P'-tcd int o

dividing
The accuracy
a rod mto a coUection of S " * * in hanica! systems
If the B.otof number
the results of course d XT
is no, small h
,

T" howCOnnectcd
en W «lcss
" spring
are used'
enw
musl tlivitic «>lid material intosev-
"

eral nodes. (Actually, a node is not a "

W 0.20 m node for convenience.) At each node th h T ' ?,s 8 surfacc«but we w«» call it
on either side of the node halfway to he Cap C,tance is presented by the mass
hLc
6
-
= 0.547
(6.41)
f
06 --
atcd with the distance between the n \ e u ' rcsis,ancc is lhl«1 " "ci-
.

w C pacitance modeling, we will suppose ihauhMh

' muUiP,c-,umM ca-
We will consider one-di,E "
f 5 8 arc h» n«
Although this Biot num ber is above 0.1. we still want to use a single-lumped capaci- thickness L with the len hTt ?, a
in 11 Bat Pla,e "f ™** ™*
r

tance model just to get a good estimate of time. 6Tr.ho h.r . conduct.on
2 1, the thermal . element
. dlh lar8ecomPa d to the thickness. From Section
The mass of the melon acts as a thermal capacitor. From Eq. (6.21), the heat
. .

s are divided into n elements as defined by

transfer from the capacitor is
(6.47)
Qh ~ W-j} (6.42)
Hie resistance is the conduction resistance associated with the distance between nodes
To solve this problem, we must equate the heat transfer released by the thermal capac-
itance to the convection heal transfer: (6.4S)
n kA
Qh = MC T, = hAfr - Zy (6.43)
ITie capacitivc elements have a mass of M n, and the thermal capacitance („ is de
Equation (6.43) can be rearranged to produce a differential equation in namely, scribed by the expression (see Section 6.2.4)
(tZ) + 1)7; = Tx (6.44) dT
(6.49
where di

MC
V
T - (6.45) wlicrc
hA
((v5(l)
This is a irst-order differential equation with a time constant of t The system will reach C = c,
n
.
n
f

63% of its response in one time constant Using the earlier-given numerical values, wc
.

can calculate the time constant as follows: Sources. U the convection coeflicicnts
Constant Surface Temperature sistance w.ll be small, forc
and
on each side of the wall arc very good, the convection re
MC 5k«4200 ji K = 9333 s
temperatures and dicre
the surface temperatures will equal the frce-siream tluid
7 = TT
UA
= ~«T
W
" -

= 2.6 hr (6.46)
f

act as ideal temperature sources. ni-.ie/driven In two

15 015 m
!

. a. MM
gure 6.17 illustrates the gener
temperature sources andatd.v. d ed M
.
. ,0

Therefore
it will take 2.6 hours for the watermelon to warm up to 20.7500 calu
be,, - I internal n..des whtch we nu.
,

Illc capac.lancc as-

Multipie-Lumped Capacitance Modeling be two surface nodes. IHc rcs.Mamx
'

b - KS. «
C the capac.tan
s(,cia,ed with each internal node .s l.

f
node is one-ha f of Cn. |jkc ., |Cmperatiire source, then mv
''"" SX IdTf S induction by replacing the con- | |(,wever. if the surface .ml1t;;a,U ;
re soua u a
.
can bc neglected (just as m electron
.

pacitance and remtance Z cements ZT With ,UmpC ;

Ilic thermal capacitance is concentrated at
.
d Ca
1 capacitance connected to a temperatu
 Chap. 6 Thermal S
ystem8
Sec. 6.4 Dynamic Thermal Syste ms

193

VKiated with node

Tl.ese equations can be summari2ed ,
A equations for each inton
nionor nod
n e:

0 Cjm [~2T +Ti+T

'
b]
n
(6.56)

r
(6.57)

r =
l-27
-'
C/«R
. .

+''
n ,
. -
. . -

!+TJ (6s81
r!
OX

rer a. .ha. node. For examp,e .

lhe T "
***
I

'I
(6.59)
/
In this equation, the temperature at the first node Ta, is the temperature found from ,

the differential equation for T and is coupled to the temperatures of the surfaces us
a ,

well as all of the other internal nodes.

Thickness
/
Convection Surface Temperature Sources. If the convection coeficients
on each side of the wall are not very good, the convection resistance will be large, and
there will be a convection resistance between the free-stream fluid temperature and the

4
temperature of the surface. In this case, there will be a significant temperature differ-
....

ence between the free-stream temperatures and the surface temperatures. Figure 6.18
illustrates the multiple-lumped-parameter flat plate with convection resistances at the
surface. Here, the capacitance associated with each surface node will be significant and
will be one-half of the capacitance associated with each internal node.
MKiiri-<i.l7 Tbmperaturei in a fl.il plate with constant surface lemperalurcs. The resulting circuit equations are as follows:
1
ics). nicrcforc. if the surface temperatures are prescribed (due to excellent convec- " (6.60)
imri) then we will generate a differenlial equation for each interior node as follows:
.
Resistance between 7., and 7 :

1
sislancc belwcen T and /':
, (6.51) (6.61)
R where

Capacilaiur al / (6.52) is the convection resistance.

(6.62)

Kesisiancc between r, and 7,/ : i Capacitance at Tf.

,
{Ta - Th) (6.53) 1 (6.63)
R
Resistance between T ,
and f;
Capacitance at 7V:
G..h " Qfc. = C
, ,
Mf h
(6.54) M (6.64)
Capacitance at Ta:
ttc«i«ancc between r„ , and T; 1
(6.55)
 Chap. 6 Thermal Systems Sec. 6.4 Dynamic Thermal Syst ems
195
194

MU„ associaied will, node

(6.69)

(6.70)

(6.71)
Th
f - 2/1 f I 1 \ T 7 1
it
(6.72)

Example 6.5 Temperature Response of a Stcd Plate

I

Use thermal circuil modeling to determine equations governing the temperature re-
sponse of a 200 mm square steel plate with a thickness of 40 mm if the inside plate sur-
face is exposed to force convection of water and the outside surface is exposed to free
convection of air. Assume the following physical characteristics:
r

W W
fc = 75- OOO-
w
Thickness
-L-
:
L = 0.040m >t= 0.040m

T T
R* r R* r R* T Rn T, Rn T R T k& M = 12.56 kg
p = 7850 l

- W- in

nam 6.IK Temperatures in a flat plate with surface convection. Biol number;

1
h.L
UKX)-P * 01)40 m = 0.533 (6.73)
Resistance between 7" , and T' Qn~i.o ' i-(T n-X
- T0) (6.65)
7> n, K
C
Capacitance at T : O -O = p M f (6.66)
0
wn-1,0 " ~T 'rt "

i« W 0 040 m
O 2 oil
.

(6.74)
0 013
-.

Resistance between T and T : (6.67)

75 1
-
'
i
ho ED iv

&.h(. laracr. wc will base our anMy

'

1
where (6.68)
ho

is Ihc convection resistance .

.
"Jf* "a'ions can he summarized into differential equations for each node Since the convccl.on is so g
(indudmK tK.lh surface and interior nodes) as follows:
 Chap. 6 Thermal Systems Chap. 6 Nomenclature
1S1
196

is equal to T,m the differential " ons or the 6 5 SUMMARY

f
land
temperature is consta
wall
This chapter has presented the basic th
with examples of their use in typical stoSS S lem modelini concepts, together
e:
svstem ar
(6.75) '

tion heat transfer were examined alone k1*140" conveclion and radia- - -

Lumped-capacitance methods of d\nam J, dynamic e{{ects of heal capacitv.

M -
Lti I T' + T'] (6.76) larities and differences between therma1 S ehng were Presented , and the simi-
t; =
=
-

These concepts are considered tnir.nK. tems and other dynamic systems noted
1
ther m laler sections of the book
.

f
.

(6-77)
REFERENCES
t - -\-T T' + T°\ (6.78)
6 1 Haberman. William L.. and John lam«P X
at- . „
£igw«rwg Thermodynamics with Heal
Transfer
i ransjer. PrentirP
trentice Hal
Hall. c , TCliffs NJ. 1989.
.

Englewood ,

7- (6.79)
r- w l ,+
/?J7; + 7;'+/? A0 .
62 .Holman, Jack P. Heat Transfer. 7th ed. McGraw-Hill New York. 1990. .

r
6 3 Incropera Frank P. and DeW.tt. David P. Fundamenwls of Heat and Mass Transfer.
.

These are the resistances between

Now we calculate the conductivity resistances. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons. New York. 1990.
each node: the total resistance is 5 times t
his value. We obtain 64 . Kreith. Frank, and Bohn. Mark S. Principles of Heat Transfer. 5th ed. West Publishing
0 040 m
.
Co.. New York, 1993.

» 00267 W OC 6 5 Lienhard. John H. A Heat Transfer Textbook. 2nd ed. Prentice Hall. Enalewood
» =i -

W i
=0 .
(6.80) .

Cliffs, NJ, 1987,

"
kA
75 - 0.040 m-
m0K

The convection resistances are NOMENCLATURE

1
= 0 025 (6.81)
X

-
= .

2
1000-y 0.040 m A cross-sectional area
and
Cp constant-pressure specific heat
Fe emissivity factor
-
= 1.00 (6.82)
w F v
view factor
25 -t t 0.040 m2 h convection coefficient
ient
The coefficienls for the differential equations for the internal nodes and for the outside h
eq
equivalent convection coeffic
surface node can be calculated from the lime constant: k thermal conduclivitv
L length
= 1 51 s (6.83) Lc characteristic length
T 10 10
.

M mass , , jfamttf
With the foregoing differential equations and the values for the lime constant Nb Biol number
and the resistances we can solve for the ive temperatures as a function of time. 1 n'5
,
heat low rate
Qh
f

f
.yjtem is a ifth-order state-space dynamic system with two inputs: the free-stream tem -

radius '" H B
f

r
peratures on the inside and outside surfaces of the lat plate
R thermal resistance
.
f

Ilm sccti(jn has discussed circuit methods for modeling one-dimensional thermal prob- T temperature
lems When working in two or three dimensions we use inite difference or inite ele-
,
x position coordinate
f

mcni methods (lor furiher information see the references at the end of the chapter.)
,
 Chap. 6 Thermal Syste Chap. 6 Problems
ms

198 199
(3) two panes of glass sepa
a hernial diffusivily
n constant

p density
sIefan-Boli7man
6 .
whue _ to
9 The radiator hose o
> * owe, „ P
:s:
n an automnhn.
T ime constant Tine internal diameter of the hose f Simi,ar t0
t

6 mm. The water on the inside is 1 ' lS len8th is ™

,
™n. and its thickness is
PROBLEMS ture is 50"C
6 10 A 3/4 inch iron pipe (iD = 0
.
.

Caicu.aie how ™ " .

1*
«,nducled trough the hose
«* .

hat conducts heat from

water. The internal water lemDeratnr i? 1050 inches) is used to ,ransmit hot
considered for use in an application t
.

75°?. Consider a pipe that is sSJin l ambiem air lemPeralure *

6 .
1 Several metals are ™n8 a s0|id rod of metal at room temperature. Prepare a en th
"
" conductivity of the following metals: aluminum, steel (use a . Calculate how much heat is \T
one l<f .b Tf
(PrraA r t
lransferred from the water to the air
table m f SS " metal has .he best thermal conductivity?
-

SSfiSrSf,hick,! - 'te " 'h=

iron), copper, s.lvcr.J diamctcr m would

f
r
'f ST i NoW Ca'C"late diameter " 0f r0d W0U'
to have the same thermal resistance per unit length as the
c he reduction in heat
6 11 A steel plate is heated with a to
loss with the use of th
.

rch. When we are interested in cooling the plate, we

best ccuiductor. Based upon the density of each metal, what will be the we.ght per unit can allow normal free convection we can blow on the plate with our breath or we
,

length for each? Which metal has the lowest weight for the given thermal res.stance?
,

can squirt a mist of water on the surface of the plate from a spray bottle Looking at .

Obiai,, a rough estimate for the cost per pound of each of the preceding metals from Table 6.3, comment on how fast the plate can be cooled with these three approaches.
industrial suppliers, and calculate the relative cost of each metal that is required to have 6 . 12 Derive equation 6.20.
the same resistance as discussed in the previous paragraph. Which metal has the lowest 6 . 13 A copper ball 1 inch in diameter is heated to SOOT with a torch .
Calculate how much
cost for the given thermal resistance? heat will be transferred at this temperature by radiation Assume that the ball is placed
.

Which metal would you use and why? in the center of a room with walls at 750F. Calculate how much heat would be trans-
6 . 2 Perform an analysis similar to that in Problem 6.1 for the following insulators used as ferred by convection if we were to use the upper end of free convection from Table 6.3.
thin sheets: asbestos, glass fibers, plywood, and woo Now, however, we are looking for
l .
What convection coefficient did you select? What is the equivalent convection coeffi-
the worst conductor (i.e.. the best insulator), the lowest weight for a given insulation , cient due to radiation from Fig. 6.11 (or Eq. 6.20)? How do these two coefficients com-
and the lowest cost for a given insulation. pare with each other and which mode of heat transfer dominates in this case?
14 Shown he pool has a
6J Derive Eq. 6.9 to confirm Eq. 6.10. 6 . allUWU in
III Figure
rig.Uic P6.14
ivj.it is
ia a
a swimming
awmimiiiB pool operating
vrH.H»..e in cool weather. T .
j . ,1 «attc Thp \i/nif»r Hpnih varies from
from 1.2
1.2 m
m to
t 3 m,
6 4 The actual convection coefficient can be calculated for a variety of situations using the heater that provides a heat input of qh watts. Tlie water depth varies
-

wale i
and the pool is 5 m wide by 10 m long. A pump runs continuously to keep the
.

dimensionless parameters of the Nusselt number, Prandll number, Reynolds number,

and Grashof number (Ernst Nusselt, German engineer, 1882-1951; Ludwig Prandtl, thoroughly mixed.
German engineer. 1875-1953; Osborne Reynolds English engineer, 1842-1912, Franz ,

Grashof, German engineer 1826-1893). Refer to a textbook on heat transfer, and slate
,

the definitions for these terms and the parameters they use .

6 5 The Nusselt number is a dimensionless ratio for the convection coefficient Continue
.
.
Siecl pipe
Problem 6 4 and slate the relationship between the Nusselt number and the Prandll
.
,

and Grashof numbers for the following convection situations: free convection from
a vertical flat plate horizontal flat plate, vertical cylinder and horizontal cylinder.
,
, Figure P6.14 Swimming pool
6 7
6 Calculate the amount of heat lost (in watts) through an uncovered window in a home.
.
SO dvnamics.
The temperature difference between the air inside and outside of the house is 20oC, ted
with moderate convection on each side of the glass The size of the glass is 0.75 m by ih the assumption that the pool can be trea
nd p
.

Calculate the Biot number, a

.

r
.

U m. and the thickness is 3 mm «

as a single-lumped capacitance m surf - .a
'
.

6 n ai
.

7 ft t| denired to replace a 1/8 inch glass window with a sheet of Plexiglas® .

What thick-
dcm of Plcx.glas' will be required to have the same insulation as the window has?
A dual-pane wmdow glass in a home is used to reduce the heat loss due to thermal
T
'"

f
oan
Skcd ,0 C,,mparC ,hrce
"

n
:,
tions: (I) the heat loss through a sin-
gle pane of glass, (2) the heat loss thro ugh two panes of glass touching each other, and
1
 200
Chap-6 Th- Chap. 6 Problems

fhc vaiue of the rime constant o f Ihe system. If a period of 0n . *

c Calculate take the chi/l off/ would you recomm endI,me n- 6 201
'
.

17 A tank 75% (by volume) f

stant would be enough time to
"

overnight? 'eaving ull of li

the heater on ai/ ihe time or turning it off in the direct sunlight on a hoi sum™nma P ,S (rom a warchouse and P ced
d State the expression for the steady-state temperature of the water If fk ter temperature were 250r arTlb,ent
were 20oC and the desired wa
.

temperature
heater would be require watts)?
d„
(in. /-
a/ Si 2e
"
hca.er would t>e requu-
perature. i>s 1100
mo?F (TT»e lank is in inside lhe wareh
ground in the cys iem and derive Ihe differential
.

Consider .he hea. 0f the pod fun of ambient temper .

.

Texas!) T e 0 «
solar i ™* the outside air tern-
equation for ' '
.ure. and the expressions for the a
900 watts/m 285 (BtuAir) ft You should considnsolation
=
for this particular da
Zi -He t teady ,hick. jSC of the water. If the pool j eon-
PU
source of energy over the exposed surface area ofertheihesphere y is
.

e
sun as a constant heal lo w

f
time constant and
,5 tn propane is 30.8 Ibm/ft . The density of steel is 490 Ibm/f 1 density of liquid
r
transfer to the ground s.gn.n
.

structed w.lh conc e wc use? cant?

propane is 0.58 Btu/(lbm 0F) The specific heat of steel ist30.Hie specific heal of liquid
.

t
.
energy plant. Wr,7e the modeling velocity is such that
low forced convecti
you sh ould use a convection coeff i ci
11 Biu/(lbm 0F) 11ie wind
.
.

6 15
.
on. ent for high free convection or
Model this system and derive a differential equation for the internal te
,

the propane as a function of the solar heal in mpcraiure of

given initial temperature). Calculate the li put and the ambient temperaiure (with a
me constant for th
long il will lake for the tank to be at its steady-slate temperai
e system, and state how
stale temperature be for the given conditions? ure. Whm will ihe steady-
Ambient temperature. 6
/ Surface area = A
18 Derive the differential equation for the temperaiure at the center of a can of soft dnnk
.

I Convection coefficient = h
you S SS ' nUmber f0r the 0f the ™ can, and Oo
f Mass of boiler = M
I Specific heat = Cp
ZSrforfor the
number , lu.d
1 ,n ,the1 can andCOnducti vi,y of *all of the can? Wha, is ,he Biot
can you use a single-lump capacitance model?

f
.

9k

Sffce tl IT l m a di-

'
me
drink K th.
drmk. If
USe the Pr0per,ies of wa,er ,0 approximate the soft
T ffan inside the refrigerator is running, i do vou estimate
the a.r ctrculat.on
Flame | the convect.on coeffiaent to be? Using an analytic solution to the differential equation.
Comianl heal flow input = q. plot the response of the internal temperature over time if the can is taken from room
Figure P6.I5 Thermal plant boiler .

temperature (750F) and placed in the refrigerator (40oF) What is the lime constant of .

the system? What is the settling time. How long will it take the drink to reach an inter-
6 .
16 Shown in Figure P6 16 is a mass suspended at Ihe end of a rod The mass is exposed to
.

.
nal temperature of 50oF? If the can were placed in the freezer section of the refrigera-
ambient lempcralurc and experiences heal Iransfer from the rod The rod is insulated .
tor (lOT), how long should it remain there to cool to 50°F?
but is exposed to a constant lem .

pcralurc source at the other end Write the model- .

6 19 Work problem 6.18 using digital simulation (see Chapter 9).
ing equations for Ihis syslcm and derive Ihe Iransfer function for the lem
.

Ihe mass as a function of Ihe ambient lempcralurc and Ihe temperature ofpcralurc of
.

6 . 20 Perform an experiment to determine the temperature response of water placed in a soft

State the expressions for the lim the sou rce. drink can as described in problem 6.18. Use any suitable thermometer to measure the
e constant and steady-state l empcralurc. temperature at the center of the volume of water. Before measuring the water temper-
M.iss m ature. measure the temperature of the air inside the refrigerator so that you will know
Ambient temperature
what the steady-state temperature of the water will be. Record the observed tempera-
.
.
7",

ture every 5 to 10 minutes for the irst hour and every 15 minutes thereafter. Plot your

f
I
heet, and compare it to your original gue ss of the convection
Convection h response using a spreads for the convection coeffi-
A.
,

coefficient. After seeing the data, can you use better values
the data more closely? Plot your revised theoretical response, and
area .

cient. etc.. to match

compare all three responses. previous paragraph, except remove theroom
can
C
'

onducliviiy A ntriiiMint as in" the

wrca. AH
,
Perform the same ex L
e mo
on.
L (several hours) and let it hea, to
?fo° 1 ..r .h,- mom beforehand.) Record the temper-
e
that has been in the refri eera,0r
.

°
Z thereafter. Od to cool-
«
.

s
temperature. (
ature every 3 to 6 minutes or
1 nd
J S » minutes) of heating compare-
Plgure 1*6 16
hernial syslcm
'
.
Suspended-mass
.
ss-sssirs
ing? Based upon
u... < « -
 Chap. 6 Thermal
System,

. > ! . fhr surface of ihc can durinR the initial healing, and see whcih-r CHAPTER 7
.
. ,1 flwf if vou plate a v.fl drink can on Us side in Ihc refrigerator i( ,

aintcnthn f
'
Mixed D\sc\p\\ne
6 22 A M lank k fahncaled using 4 mm '''cx-g walls, water on the inside of .he
.

SS nUiMd a. a conslan. .empcraUire of 26 < . Pie ambient room temperature is 22'r m Systems
We arc interested in modeling ihc transient heal transfer through the walls of the tank
, „.„. i. i srulden change
.ihere
r(H)m ,cmperaiure.
is a sudden changt in"'room
u temperature. The
Ihc inside of Ihc
.

the tank has water thai

ai is
I....
,,jivc „ amvection coefficient on the l
eubied with a P"'nP l'n0 wt rr ower end
oUlsjde of the tank has air that should have a con
-
. . .

„, bfMd convection convccIion with air.

,

vrel(on ..fficien. on - c P a
Bascd upon
tMitt the Blotnu J bc |omodc|thctCfnpcra,urcdis
S ol BW ,h",hc cMnvcc,i o n ,ransf
t wate5; temperature on the inside surface is const <:r is-
an.7
t

b .
Bmd upon .he Biol number, how many lumps should bc cons.dcred in thc lumped
parameter analysis?
,-no/-
.
.

i „i... ual. ivf'air Icmpcrulurc on the inside and ( air temperature on

.

ihc Klnn. If 7.5 rnm. nnd Ihc IhcrmHl COndUclivHy of thc l.tss is 0 75 W/(m C) The w.n- .

dowpnnc is 0.8 m hy I.I m. U is desired to calculate thc transient temperature dislribu- 7 .

1 INTRODUCTION
hon in Ihc glass with a sudden change in outside temperature in order to determine the
internal stresses caused by a temperature gradient .

Previous chapters have emphasized single-discipline systems in order to fully develop

a. Ca
leulM the Him number to determine whether a single lum ped-paramcler analy- modeling techniques for each discipline: however most practical systems actually repre-
,

sis is possible If I multiple .

lumped-parameter analysis is ncccMary how many sent a combination of disciplines This chapter emphasizes systems of mixed disciplines.
.
,

lumps should be used?

U . Sit Ihi differential equations to simulate the transient response of
tures of interest all tempera-
7 2 ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS
,

c
. If the outside temperature were suddenly changed from 2()0C lo 150C
simulation lo aihulatr the tr use digital ,

6
ansient response of all temperatures. Plot your results Numerous applications of speed and motion control in industry use electric motors.
24 Using numerical integration solve Ihc state-space differential e
.

There are a variety of motors, including DC (direct current) with permanent-magnet

.

Hxamplc 63 and plttl your results as a function of time Use T quations described in
,

wit i
,

with all initial conditions - 25"r What is the observed settlin m 50oC
Tom m 250C. .
l<m ,
or electromagnet operation, and AC (alternating current) with synchronous or in-
onlinearitics
< ompan" the observed sciiling lime lo Ih duclion operation. Thc permanent-magnet DC motor has the fewest n
c lime constant for gantime of Ibis system?
.

t
Mode individual internal to control to variable speeds. An ideal permanen
of these motors and is the easiest
-

har-
the next three examples.The mathematical c
magnet IK motor model is used in
"

acteristics are discussed in the following.

A DC electric motor has a natural relationship between its torque Tm and its
between its voltage / „ , and its angu lar speed a, [Ref. 1 ]. For an
current / . as well as lied torque, and
ideal mo or. the current required is directly proportional to the app lat.onsh.ps arc nor-
Ihe spec-d .s directly proportional to the applied voltage, ll ese re
mallv expressed as follows:
T. - K .L

203
 Chap- t' Mixed Discipline Systems
204 Sec. 7.2 Electromechanical Systems
K and Ky- are tualW same in both equa
f oroporiio l ir that they * * not
™ itsthereveals
same either num
,

that if speederi-
-

voltage as the oulpul current increases

, due l

the constants
suming 100% c '0110 1 The mechamcal load connected to the motor is an i
numerically and possibly some unknown load disturbance torque T nertia with linear friction
,

negligibly small lexibility Since the torque driving the loadlheis the
. connecting shaft
motor torque T
has

f
l
7 2.1 DC Motor Speed Contro and since the inertia friction, and the disturbance tor
, m.

balance can be stated a s que oppose motion, the torque

Without Feedback (Open-Loop Control) In many applications, it is desi
able to have a variable speed electric motor that can provide an adjustable speed to
Tm
Jmm - Bii>m - TL = 0 (7 6)
-

a process, which is then maintained constant. This can be accomplished with a Dr If we solve this equation for speed and use the other equations to solve for speed as
electric motor with a voltage controller, as depicted in Figure 7.1, a function of the input Ed and the torque disturbance TL we can proceed as follows:
,

+ B„. - T.-TL. Kl i l - ft (7.7)

f
JD + B + Qft. = r -T I (7.8)
Amplifier
r
conlroller Normalizing this equation with respect
-r to the lowest. order term of o)
_m
and stat- m

ing it in transfer function formal,

format, we can see that the speed is a irst-ordei
rst-order function

f
Friclion. B
of the input and the disturbance;
G/K RJK*
Incrlia /
..

(7.9)

i
K2/R0 D + 1
B \
1+ K2//?.
From this transfer function, it is plain that the static d f?
1 as follows (See Appendix E. Sec tion E.2 1 VTwo
Figure 7.1 Open-loop DC motor speed control. itv and time constant can be stated ondymamc) behav
oHhese perfomance factors are defined in terms of the static (n
-

The model for the motor is based on the ideal permanent-magnet DC motor ior of the system, (i.e.. with all derivatives equal to zero).
(we simply lei K ,
= Kv = K): I aa,m =
G/K
-
i ---
_
(710)
Static gain = Tf n
l B \
Tm = mm (7.3)
4= (7.4) (7.11)
The motor must be driven by an electronic power source In this case, we will
consider an electronic am .
Dislurbance sensilmly
-

sTli>_, T
+ _
B\
plifier or controller. An ideal volta
o deliver any amount of current at constant voltage; however
ge source would be able
real amplifiers lose
t

,
 Chap. 7 Mixed Discipiine Sys
206

/ Sec. 7 2 Electromechanical Systems

.

K2IR Q 207
Time constant = r -
(7.12) ll Vr thJ"at spmsPreCedin8
sma l tachometer SySlem *" a«x,m pUshcd
m proportion to the motor speed by the use of a
age that IS hnearly proport.onaJ lo the speed Notice that th.s cand produces voh
Tl,ese static and d>.amic factors are the bask perfonnance factors for the syste with the same behav.or as the DC motor,
or it couW be
.

oulS be a generat or
* .

sensor that has an electronic output. The gain of the tachsome other type of speed
ometer is h
With Speed Feedback (Closed-Loop Control) The foregoing sys,em age is , and the volt-
iv.u m load disIurbances that might be object.onable in terms of h
Z X l in the presence of torque disturbancesJhis old.
.

" Ef = hui m
(7.13)
t can be reduced by feedback of the actual motor speed as depicted i n
As before ,
the motor equations are
'
ibemrpose offeedback control in a system is to allow the output to track the (7.14)
input and to compensate for any error rom the command mput (the desired va|Ue and
f

of the output) and the actual output. In this manner, the system wtll take action to
correct the output when it is not at its desired value. Feedback is normally accom .
1
(7.15)
plished by a sensor that measures the actual output variable and sends a signal back In this case the electronic amplifier or conlroller has provisions for the i
,

nputs from
to be compared to the input. The comparison is normally done by what is called a the set-point and from the feedback voltage E
summing junction which has the ability to subtract the feedback signal from the r In this servoamplifier. the voltage
,
representing the desired speed E is compared to the voltage representing the actual
d
input signal to obtain an error signal The error signal is usually amplified to drive an
.
speed Efhy subtracting the actual from the desired.The result the error voltage c is
,

actuator, which in turn causes the output response

,

. amplified and is used to drive the motor to make the error zero or. at least ,
as small
as possible. The equation for the amplifier can be stated as
E m = Ge - RJ m (7.16)
where
*

Amplifier /
e = Ed-E (7.17)
comrollcr
Again assuming an inertial mechanical load with friction and a disturbance
/
Friction B. torque 7,, the torque balance equation can be stated as
T - Jwm - Bo>m-TL = 0 (7.18)

Solving this equation for speed and using the other equations, we can proceed as
follows:

Int-rlia.y
Jiom +Bwm = Tm-TL = K
(7.19)
rachomcicr

K2 GKh] GK T (7.20)
JD + B + - + w~ = ~ «l
R0 + Ro .

Normalizinc Eq (7.20) and stating it in transfer function format, we can see

that t SSS irst-orderandfunction of the inpu. and dtsturbancc.

f
>'*"<™
speed control with speed feedback ,
Ihe static gain, disturbance sensitivity,
time constant as stated.
 Chap. 7 Mixed Discipline System.
Sec. 7.2 Electromechanical Systems 209
208

72 2 DC Motor Position Control

B Gh\
.
.

(1 There are numerous applications in which a position control system is necessary. In

this type of system, the output position 0 of an actuator must have a linear response
to an operator s input command dd. as depicted in Figure 7.3. As in the previous two
'

i TZi (7.21) systems, a DC motor is used, except that a gear train is employed to reduce the speed
,
/ of the motor a>m as it moves the output inertial load 6.
D + 1
5 Gh\
x

=- AmpUncr
controlkT
(7.22)
I1 X2/«0 1+ E
Friction. B
/
i

Disturbance sensitivity = -it

(7.23)
dI L D =0
/ B Gh\ Posuuor
sensor

T
Time constant = t = (7.24)
/ B Gh\
(1 + F7F + t)
It is interesting to compare this closed-loop control system to the previous nirol system using DC motor.
n£ur«7J Position co

of this term U tn li,.: ,(K+ (G/,)//0 rm in the denominator. The effect (725)
Sl c. h eaCh Perf0rmance ctor. A reduction in static gain, while
no de
ever i
T h i rr T by '
Em =
(726)

constant. A rldLSn dV '

the disturbance sensitivity and the time
not vary as much if a dis
stant. A reduction in time
an input change or a
r
that lhe motor sPeed
n lTv™*™
PP S and lhus wil, be held more
the system win resPond faster i0.
con
'

The- **** Z
oal
nce- t'aster system response is usually a prime g
r

of a design
design enoin
engineer, .
£ = G(cd< Ef)- RoU
-

This system is used in

an example for sizing
as an e
and component selection
Chapter 10 .
 Chap. 7 Mixed Discipiine
210
Sec. 7.3 Fluid-Mechanical Systems
c Mt * nmition sensor could be a rotary potentiometer similar t0 „ 211

Sol" a constant voltage issupplied across the potentio

a
II linearly proportional to the angular pos,t,0n
Ihen the output voltage can I
position of the result, in that the static system performance and accuracy are determined by the
feedback element and could have nonlinear or inaccurate components in the forward
output shaft, t with a sensitivity of/», loop, yet still be very accurate in the closed loop The static gain is

f
.

Ef = hB (7.28) he c

The motor speed is reduced to a lower speed of the output shaft % by , .nn = o
h
(7.36)

gear train with a speed ratio Rs. {R? is less than I, wh.ch means the gear ratio { The sensitivity of the position to a variation in torque is the inverse of a stiff-
greater than 1.) Attendant upon the reduction in speed is an increase m torque fron, ness. Thus, even though a mechanical spring is not used in this system the effect of
the motor Tm to the output shaft We have: ,

position feedback is lo create an artificial spring effect, or stiffness, of the system.

(7.29) The static (D = 0) response of the system with no input can be expressed as
Tl = k50. (Don't worry about the negative sign in the transfer function, because the
disturbance torque is defined in the direction opposite to that indicated by the sign
(7.30) convention.) The static stiffness is
GKh
Angular speed, of course, is the derivative of angular position: (7.37)
90 |d=o VS
(O.. = 0
(7.31
The dynamic characteristics are (See Appendix E. Section E.3.1):
Neglecting the inertia of the gear train, and assuming some linear viscous
damping B in the drive train and inertia of the load with a disturbance torque T, we
can state the torque balance equation as
'
(7.38)
T9-Je-B9-TL = 0
(7.32)
Combining the preceding equations we can proceed as follows:
,
b + K2nR0R:) (7.39)

T. (7.33)
These systems are typically very responsive and very stiff.
'

\jd2 + Ib + -*L\d + gm] 0

GKc
(7.34) 73
.
FLUID-MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
ion
a „ , unHp variety of app lications involving precis
pSnisn a second-order
Sd function
8 Vn traofnsfer Fluid control systems are used s co V
function form
m

at'we can see ,he

the input and disturbanc f
notion control at
. high power J f luty to move heavy o bjects wdh
e:
and pneumat ic systems and . SioJprovide[Ref.
high power
2-5].
actua-
vcrv fast respons Fluid power "J
c 1 e veness
0 .

respo
don m a small volume, which g. s ns o Js h'Sh s>,tem 1S a seo
~
.
ovab e

0 =
(7.35)
+ <i± V(
( lGKh\

Ihc si* '

back gam '"' mdei de n f
"

n 0,hcr: 1" ffUnCtion

"
"
of put gain and the feed.
'
coeflicicnts/n is is a very interesting
 Chap. 7 Mixed Discipline Systems
212
Sec. 7.3 Fluid-Mechanical Systems
213
industrial applications. The valves can be spool valves, lapper-nozzle, or poppe,

f
l
valves. The feed back can be mechanical or electrica .

actua-
Fluid control svstems have numerous nonlmeanties that are sometimes hard
to avoid so they offer a good opportunity to study nonlinear modeling and simula-
tion. In this section, hydromechanical. pneumomechamcal, and electrohydraulic (7.41)
servo systems are examined. The force balance equation on the actuator takes into account the inertia, pres-
sure orces, and load disturbance In this system
.

there are no spring forces ,

and fric
73 . . 1 Hydraulic Position Servo tional forces are neglected We obtain
.

Shown in Figure 7.4 is a hydraulic position servo with mechanical feedback. This m= P0 - FL (7.42)
type of system was popular in light control systems for military aircraft in the 1960s The kinematics of the feedback lever can be calculated using ratio proportion-
f

and is very similar to automobile power steering. The servovalve provides a metered ing and superposition:
pressure differential AP0 and low Q0 in response to the position x of the spool valve .
b b
f

This pressure and low move the double-acting, equal-area A actuator to a position x =
a + 6
let b' = (7.43)
f

z The actuator is moving a mass M and experiences some unknown load disturbance
.

force FL. A rigid mechanical feedback lever is attached to the actuator and to the Notice that the motion of x is in the direction opposite that of the motion of z ,
so a

servovalve with frictionless pinned connections. As the input (or desired position) u negative sign must be used in the proportionality equation:
and the actuator position (or actual position) z change, the feedback lever causes the -

a
servovalve to modulate the pressure and low to the actuator, to reduce the errors x = let a' = (7.44)
(1 + 6 a + b
f

of the servo system.

Since these two equations are linear, they yield a linear combination when superpo-
sition is used:

a = eu - az (7-45)
' '

f
a
Starting with the force balance equation and substituting the continuity equation.
Servovalve
valve equation, and lever equation yields the following normalized transfer function:
'
b 1 IT
(7.46)
z =

F m K k,
i
A
Figure 7.4 Hydromechanical posi- TTie static gain of this system. G,, is the variation of the output z ™th respect to van-
tion servo system .

imiin X a!u jerlapped sp001 valve m has linear characteristics for dent of the characteristics of all of the other components.

l tZ TT *y 8 oe"m Sg V uJe gllinT and om! h

'
h
dZ (7.47)
u J dll
t

er hc actulu eXPreSSeS 0f PreSSUre 35 3 function of ,he noW tleliV-

*Po = Gpx - RQ
In the
r f7 z
o (7.40) be
S

m Mar lh eulus
,
t,,mp'icssibilily of hydraulic luid is small (i.e.. the bulk
mcnl

ha 4 bXT
f

' " '

r T
,hc (,utpul resis,i,ncc o£vMve) the actuator dz
- s n , ,
"
,hc and ,he *™ Bering one side of the ac p-o

nU,,,sly et',,:,l e low being pushed by the other side of the

f
 Chap. 7 Mixed Discipline Systems
214 Sec. 7.3 Fluid-Mechanical Systems
215

comes from .he fact .hat the distur bance force is defined in the di
I e native sian
-

if a load disturbance force FL causes a decrease in the output posilion z the valve
will be actuated and the pressure to the actuator will increase to develop a force that
,

This svsiem will oppose the disturbance force This will cause a stiffness effect that will tend to
.

reject the disturbance. This system is used as an example for sizing and component
M
(7.49) selection in Chapter 10 .

In this system, the actuator stroke starts at an unactuated posilion when the sup-
and ply pressure is off and increases to a null posilion as the supply pressure is activated
RA2 (assuming that there is no input or load disturbance). Thus we can use a position-ref-
(7.50) ,

erencing scheme that considers the state when the supply pressure is off (z0,y0,u ) and 0

then examine small variations 8z 8y. and &< in the positions around the null operation;
tor, and feedback can result in a very responsive, ,

The proper sizing of the valve, actua z = z0 + 8z (7.51)

extremely stiff servo system.
y = y0 + 8y (7.52)
732
. .
Pneumatic Position Servo
u = u
0
+ 8u (7.53)
valve connected to a spring-loaded actu-
A posilion servo composed of a three-way We will irst use a fully nonlinear model of this system and express the result in state-
ator with a mechanical lever feedback is illustrated in Figure 7.5. There are two as-

f
space format. Since it is very difficult to analyze the response characteristics of a
pects of understanding the operation of this system. First, a decreasing motion of the nonlinear system based upon its coefficients, a lineaized approximation of the non-
valve posilion y causes an increase in pressure, 8P0, which will in turn cause an in-

r
linearities of the system is used to derive a linear transfer function.
crease in output position 8z. If the input command 8u is held constant, the feedback
lever will cause the valve position to be returned to its steady-state position. Second, Nonlinear Analysis. The three-way pneumatic valve is a lapper-nozzle

f
valve [Refs. 5.6] with an upstream oriice of diameter d, and a nozzle of diameter dn.

f
5u
d the variable-area nozzle.
By assuming incompressiblemodellow for
in the i xed or i i ce an
the output low Q0 of the lapper-nozzle valve

f f
one can derive a nonlinear

f
as a function of the maximum supply low Q the pressure ratio 8P0 8P,. and a nor-
Input *

posilion

f
malized nozzle position variable. Sy/y,,. We obtain
Supply f 1 SP J. Sy\ 1 (7.54)
pressure
Feedback
lever
n 14
e. -
cf{ -t-A1 + x)m
Jh
_
SuppI)
orifice
where
d - (5\
F;hippcr
Q . - 4 > P
A K dy
No /lc
An -* v,

Pision (7.56)
aciuaior
0 o o o . = 4
Q n
n:

9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
T3 C
.2
02
0 0 0 5-8 e coefficents).
mum or null values (for nominal d.scharg
.
*
- mil!

.
Output f'
J1 -

posilion

(b)

-rf 7.5 I'ncurmilic position servo system, (a) Configuration of lapper-

'
"//l- pmuntik servo, (b) (icomctry of pneumatic
f

servo .
 Chap. 7 Mixed Discipline System s
216
Sec. 7.3 Fluid-Mechanical Systems
217

i = Va*
/4 C i = 0.80 (7.59) S nee air ,8 compressible the bulk modulus can be expressed as a function of
dn lls dn ,

the polytropic constant n (where 1 0 <„ < 1.4 depending

.
.
upon the speed of re-
sponse of the system) and the pressure inside the actuator:
= 0 671
.
(7.60)
5 /3 = n{8P0 + P ) (7 64) .

Since we are expecting very fast response we should use n = 1.4

Therefore, when we select the nozzle diameter and the supply pressure, the valve
, .

A force balance of the output motion of the actuator considers the inertia and
characteristics are completely determined. spring forces along with the pressure force and disturbance force A preload force in
This valve has nonlinear characteristics, as shown m f-igure 7.6. Fhe input vari-
.

the spring is indicated by the term k 2p While this is actually a nonlinearity and the
.

able shown in the igure is 8y y0. and 8y is varied between ±y0.

,

model would not be correct if the piston could retract beyond its retraction limit it
f

will be accurate for normal operation Friction is not considered.

.

The force balance equation is

MSz + k{zp + znuU + Sz) = A 8P0 - Fl (7.65)
The feedback lever is a rigid member with frictionless pin connections, so the lever
'
J rotates and moves the valve input position 8y as a function of the input position Su
and the output position Sz.The kinematics of the feedback lever can be calculated
/
using ratio proportioning of the individual input and output motions and then ap-
0
K plying superposition. First,
-
b h
811 let b' = (7.661
7 a + b a + b

a
Sv = 8z let a' = (7.67)
a + b a + b
'

Note that a' + t = 1 or that b = I - a

'
'
.

f
Since Eqs. (7.66) and (7.67) are linear, they can be combined using superpos.uon:
0
-
0 1

Figure 7.6 Nonlinear characleristics

QJQ.
of Ihree-way lapper-nozzle valve. Sy = a'Sz - (1 - «0«u
f

Applying the continuity equation to the control volume V of the actuator

yields the differential equation W in state-space form. However, we -U retain the to define the actu.
converting to state variablesx„x2. and .To do this, we win
V :
SP = O ~ y ator velocity ngjjj
(7.61)
-

a
lTh6
wh a?Ua,0r iS 3 func,ion of the "dead burner or the volume of Si„ce .He rcce ce
thcltroke 18 y retraCted V and ,he "
" P1 volume or the area times
,
"

V=K
. + Aizm + 8z)
ill (7.62)
Differentiating we obtain
,
of the input Su and the disturbance FL:
8z = v
V = A8z (7.63)
 Chap. 7 Mixed Discipline System s
218
Sec. 7.3 Fluid-Mechanical Systems
219

i = ~[ASP0- k(zp + znull + Sz) -

FL] (7.71)
M

n(SPn + PaJ .
= (7.72)
Bn V0 + A(znu„ + Sz)

! 0.5 h
d

Tlie initial condilions al steady-stale null are 5z = 0,?; =8P* = 0 671 = 0 and SP
, 0 .

8P We mention this because, without forethought, one might use all initial condi-
tions equal lo 0 for an input from the steady state. If one uses the wrong initial con-
ditions. ihe simulation will be wrong.
0

Linear Analysis. There are three nonlinearities in the pneumatic servo sys- i
-
0 i

tem just discussed. First is the nonlinear characteristics of the 3-way valve, and the QJQ,
other two nonlinearities are the volume and bulk modulus when they are used as co-
Figure 7.7 Linearized pressure-flow characlerislics of three-way lapper-
efficients in equations.

f
nozzle valve.
The valve can be linearized by taking a Taylor series expansion of the nonlin-
ear low equation aboul the operating points Q = 0 and 8y/y = 0 Evaluating the 0 0
.

(7.77)
f

original nonlinear equations at these conditions reveals that 8P /8PS = 0.671. If we 0

carry out the Taylor series expansion aboul the specified nominal operating condi- The actual volume is variable with the slroke of the actuator, and if we used this vari-
tions and rearrange the resulting terms we get the following linear approximation to
able volume in Eq. (7.77), it would result in a nonlinearily. We can approximate this
,

the valve equation:

nonlinearily as a constant volume V using an average or nominal volume. Accord-
*
,

8P0 = 8P - Gp8y - R Q ingly, we assume that the volume in the actuator is constant and is equal to the total
*

0 0 0 (7.73)
volume at the null position:
In this equation ,

(7.78]
8P
bpo = e it constant for the purposes of luid
[nr r = o.67i bPs (7.74) Even though we use an average volume and assum

f
capacitance, we mustconsider the rate of change of the volume with respect to time:
V = ASi (7 79)
.

r J y' „

+
= 0 .
441 (7.75) The bulk modulus of air varies with the absolute pressure. Again, this would
i

coefficient in the continuity equation. If wc use an average or nom

-

2 give a variable then the bulk modu lus is

nal value of pressure SP?, and consider it to be constant,
28P constant, and, the continuity equation is linear.
jB = n(8P.. + PaJ~n(SP:, + P.J ' ?
,

q: SP,
Vl + a [l + a*-a = 0-770 Qi (7.76)
ion again considers the ma ss, the mechanical spring.
Tie force balance equat
and the disturbance force:
Ihcse linearized characteristics are plotted in Figure 7 7 Notice that around the the pressure force,
point y'O, 6PJ6P - 0 671 and Q = 0 the approximation is very good com-
. .

is a l.near deference of the

, .
f

.
,, ,

pared to the nonlinear characteristics shown in Figure 7.6. an input to the valve that
Hie continuity equation (Sec Section IT* feedback lever gives 8z:
yields
5 4) for the volume inside the actuator
.

desired position 8u and the actuator output

 220
Chap. 7 Mixed Discipline Syste
Sec. 7.3 Electro-hydraulic Position Servo
221
Sy = a'Sz - (1 - alSu (7 82
7 4 ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC POSITION SERVO
Bv combining the continuity equation with the linearized valve equation and
.

tbe equation for the derivative of the volume, and then rearranging, we obtain an in. With the explosion of the use of electronics electronic controls and digital computer
termediate equation for the pressure in the actuator: ,

controls, there has been a corres

,

ponding explosion of the combination of electron-

8P„* - GPSy - R0ASi ics with hydraulic controls The well known strength of electronics is its ability to
.

Rp
or„ - y* (7.83) perform computation and control functions; hydraulics is well known for its ability
to operate at high power levels and lo provide responsive systems: therefore, the
combination is natural .

If we place this output pressure equation in the force balance equation, rearrange Shown in Figure 7 8 is an electro-hydraulic position servo system. An electro-
.

terms, and normalize, we can derive the transfer function of the position response to hydraulic servovalve is connected to an actuator that drives an inerlial load The .

the input command and the disturbance force: position of the actuator is measured with a position sensor, and the signal is fed back
to an electronic amplifier that compares the actual position to the desired posilior
and amplifies the error between the two .

+ -FL sp
Sz =
(7.84)
~

n
V*M , Jr 7 R0A2 /, K7i3*\ + . '
1 I ' -r- *
-
1 servovalve
t
In deriving this equation we recognize a natural grouping of terms as the static
,

stiffness of the system k This static stiffness, due to the mechanical spring stiff
s
.
-
r
ness k and the artificial stiffness formed by the closed loop feedback of the posi -

-
Position n
tion is.
sensor, h Figure 7.8 Electro-hydraulic position
servo control system.
= GpAa' (7 85)
.

where G Aa' is the stiffness of the system due to loop closure, and k/{G Aa') is the
p An electro-hydraulic servovalve consists of an electromagnetic torque motor
ratio of the mechanical (spring) stiffness to the loop closure stiffness In pmost cases that converts current into a deflection of the input of the valve. Quite often, the valve
this ratio is small
has two stages: The irst stage is a pilot valve that drives the second-stage main spool
.
,

lly a l apper-nozzle valve. The reason a two-stage valve is

f
In the derivation of this transfer function there is a term relating to the deriv- valve. The pilot valve is usua
used is lo reduce the force required for the electromagnet lo move the main valve. The

f
,

ative of z, + z0 which was omitted because D{zp + z ) = 0. Notice that there is also
a
,

constant term in the transfer function relating to th

0
lo move the lapper. The output
small lapper-nozzle valve requires a very small forceition

f
supply pressure and area. We would like this term loebe preload in the spring and the the main spool valve as if it

f
pressure from the lapper nozzle valve is used to pos
that the actuator will be at the null position: zero in the steady state so -

from the valve.

were a ram-type actuator and thereby proportions the output low

f
all-
The pressure-flow characteristics of the spool valve arelightly
almost linear for sm

f
around the null, since the spool valve is s underlapped and
dz signal operation lve pressure gain Gr lo the input
~

r r k ,
(7.86) '
can be represente d by a linear model using the va loss of pressure as a func-
sUffncsS:831" resistance Rllie model expresses the
SyS,em ,
G"
iS baSical,y b'/a' but is reduced '
the rati0 of current / and output
tion of the low delivered lo the actuator:

f
If we assume that the compressibility of the hydraulic luid is small (i.e
S i
(7.87)

f
when consider i ng the output res istance of the
ulus is large ng one side of the actuator
,
equal areas on both sides of the piston, and the l ow enlen
y"tm l,3, ,hird-0rdCr dy"™- - - "e seen by the denominator o( Eq. ,84.

f
 22?
Chap. 7 Mixed Discipline Systems
Sec. 7.5 Summary
223

inln teresting that the static gain is a function of the input gain and th
is independent of the characteristics of all of the other components: e feedback gain
8 and
Q mV~Ai
o (7 89)
.

The force balance on the actuator considers the inertia, linear viscous friction ,
(7.95)
pressure forces, and load disturbance; in this example, there are no springs.The force The dynamic characteristics are;
balance equation is
_
IK
Ml +Bi = AAP0- FL (7 90)
= \i-
M
(7.96)
.

The feedback is from a position sensor, which could be a potentiometer in which B + RA2 + kJ<o d

the slider is connected to the actuator motion. However, this approach has reliability (7.97)
iVkM
problems with the sliding conlacl in the potentiometer. A more popular approach is to
use a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) with an iron core moving inside The proper sizing of the amplifier gain valve, actuator, and feedback can result
,

two transformers that results in a DC voltage £, which is linear wilh position after the in a very responsive, extremely stiff servo system. With this high stiffness in mind,
A(' voltages are converted to DC The gain of the sensor is // (volt/in) and the voltage is
.
one can visualize the advantage of the use of the P-D controller to enhance the dy-
,

namics of the system. Notice that if k is very high-say, infinity-then the numera-
5

Ef = In (7.91) tor and denominator terms, D + 1, in the command transfer function cancel, so
The amplifier is a summing junction that subtracts the feedback position signal the system has no dynamics to the input command and therefore would be ex-
tremely fast. Of course, we wouldn t set the gain to infinity, but we could enhance the
'

E, from Ihc input command signal to form an error signal which is then amplified to
the current / that drives the valv In addition to the summation and am
e
system dynamics: this is always a goal of good servo design.
dynamic compensation is added to the circuit to im plification, a
.

prove the overall dynamics of the

troller orThis dynamic compensation is a proportional-plus-derivative (P
sysicm .

D) con- -
7 5 SUMMARY
ilter that causes the error signal to be summed with its derivative and
.

then
f

amplified. IIk- I' D control is accomplished by the am

me mathematics for the circuit can be stated as follows-
p in Figure 7.8 (See Chapter 4). This chapter has presented the modeling of mixed discipline systems-systems tic. in-
volving more than one discipline. Electro-mechanical systems, hydraulic, pneumalaced
and electro-hydraulic-mec hanical systems were considered. Emphasis was p
interpretation of the static and dy-
I (
(7.92) upon the overall system performance and the With this
namic performance characteristics, based upon the system parameters. obtain
» valve eLtior lT CqUalion and subs uting the continuity equ; knowledge, the designer can know what parameters or components to vary to
'

* 1
formance. A step upward in comp lexity has been taken from
the desired system per linear systems, and systems
-ion yields the fo
the chapters on basic mo deling in that servo systems, non
wilh multiple inputs were considered.

M n2 (B + RA2 1 \ (7.93) REFERENCES

+ D -t- 1
New
I h
*
wrf'
E. Openshaw. Direct Current Machi n es. John Wiley A S<m
7 .
1 Say. M. G., and Taylor,
York, 1980. m
H ZT CW,/ /' - John Wiley & k 1967.
force .s defined m the d.rection opposite that of the sign convention): 7 2 Mcaov.D..and Martin. Wiley and Son. New Yor .
.

7 3 Mcrn... Herbert E. Hydraulic Control Systems. John

ice Hall. New York 1989.
l>>c%i«ti k'BG G
.
p Ah (7 94) 7 4 Wa.ton. John. Fluid Power Systems. Prent PneumatKSystems.M
5 Andersen. Blaine W ne Analysis and Design of
. .

'
"' .'' .. nrt hcTpui ! '"
h ni c Variil,i ihe output: uui, respect to
,s ,,, 7 .
,

New York. 1967.

d,s«" ances and in the stead) state. It is very in-
,
 224 Chap. 7 Mixed Discipline Syste
7 6 Blackburn J.R.. Reethof, G. and Shearer, J.L. Fluid Power Control Chap 7 Preble ms
The MIT P
.
.
.

bridge. Massachusetts 1960. ,

ress' Cani-
225
T m motor torque

NOMENCLATURE
u input or desired position
v velocity
V control volume
A area
V
B linear viscous damping coefficient
0 volume of air when the actuator is full
x error of the servo syste m
y retracted
c input gain 5y valve input position or stroke
di
diameter of supply oriice y0 valve null position
f

d diameter of nozzle
z output position
£ voltage Zs; output position in steady state
Ef feedback voltage a normalized valve stroke
f, load disturbance force a* null value of a
G valve low gain
q P bulk modulus
f

C, static gain to rotational speed

G
valve pressure gain
p (od input speed (set point speed)
-

G ,
Ga amplifier gain (o
n natural frequency
h gain of the sensor a)m
motor speed
/ current d output position
J moment of inertia ed input position (set-point or desired position)
k mechanical spring stiffness I damping ratio
k$ static stiffness
K motor constant
K
, proportionalit y constant for the torque-curr PROBLEMS
K
proportionality constant for the voltage ent equation
,M mass -

speed equati on
7 1 A hydraulic cylinder is to be used in an application in which the piston will move at a
n polytropic constant .

Al* free speed until it bottoms out on a plate. During this extension there are no forces act-
pressure differential
,

,,

P ing on the piston (i.e.. no friction, no inertia, no spring). When the piston hits the plate .

atm atmospheric pressure it is to provide a maximum force to compress a part placed on the plate. At the time of
8P
t supply pressu re
the compression, the piston is not moving (i.e., its speed is zero). The hydraulic supply
SP pressure is 1000 psi. The free speed of the actuator should be 5 inches per second, and
0 output pressu re the compression force should be 300 pounds. Calculate what size of actuator will satisfy
0 *
maximum output lo
,
the force requirement. Calculate what low is required from a valve in order to achieve

f
Qo output volu w
f

me low the specified speed using the selected actuator.

Q$ supply low
f

7 2 Work Problem 7.1 using compressed air at 150 psi.

.

11
f

K R
. 0 output resistance r
7J A DC motor is connected to 125 volts DC and is used to spin a grindstone-The diame-
W ter of the grindstone disk is 200 mm. and the thickness is 15 mm. The density of the disk
. pecd ratio of a material is 3000 kg/m\The free speed of the motor (with maximum voltage applied and
T torque gear train no torque loading) is 1000 rpm. The voltage source that is used to drive the motor has
// load disturbance lorque an output impedance of 2 (1 (i.e., = 0 Ro*m)-
~

Neglecting the inertia and friction of the motor

motor asitself, derive a trans fer function for
a function of the input voltage
the dynamic response of the speed of the
 226
Chap. 7 Mixed Discipline System s
Chap. 7 Problems
227
Calculate the time response using Laplace transform techniques for a step input of
125 volts DC with zero initial conditions.
7 4 Work Problem 7.3 using digital simulation.
.
R
Rotaiional
7
. 5 Shown in Figure P7.5 is a DC torque motor connected to a mechanical load through a e \ Voltage
e
g
m inenia y
gear reduction. The motor produces a torque in linear proportion to the current deli v -
amp
.

ered from a constant-current source. The mechanical load is a disk with inertia 7 and a ,

translational spring and dashpot connected to the edge of the disk. Write the modeling R Motor
equations for this system, and derive a transfer function for the angular position of the
disk as a function of the input current.
c
f Feedback Motor position .
6
sensor Figure P7 7 Electronic position
.

Currcm
servo control system .

together the voltage command signal and the voltage from the position sensor.The oul-
put of the op-amp is further amplified by an ideal voltage amplifier Write the modeling .

equations for this system and derive the differential equation for the oulput position 0
,

\
Applied torque TA .
as a function of the input command e .

7.
8 In what follows, use the basic models for lows in the lapper-nozzle valve to derive the

f
normalized model for the lapper-nozzle valve discussed in Section 7 3 2 Plot the out- . . .

f
Disk, diameter = d put pressure 8P0 versus the normalized valve clearance a with no oulput low. Show

f
inertia = J
that the point a = 0.7 is a good trade-off from among the maximum gain, the minimum
mean output pressure, and the maximum linear modulation of the oulput pressure.
Show that the null output pressure is 0.671 8P Linearize this model to obtain the re-
S
.

Damper Spring sults given in Section 7.3.2 under the heading Linear Analysis." The parameters for
. "

low in the lapper-nozzle valve are:

f
Figure P7.5 Motor-driven
Mass m
-
sp0)
.

mechanical load .
Supply low: Q

f
'6

t sss %m s r j troT pfas ,i ,u s,r H a ed i n Rgur e

.

Maximum supply flow: Q .

=c *
A -y
7 . p p fasl's0 a dynamic filter is added
t

,
to ihe op-amo Thf m =m„ .

Output low: Qo = Q -

Q*
g SSgStoC-S *** ,

be syste. osin 8S,a,e-SPaCe °'

f
Nozzle low:

f
-Wv -
i
A
77 j2
Supply orifice low area:

f
Nozzle circumferential low area: An - trd
Inertia

f
m .

of the output l ow normalized to the maximum supp ly low, you

,„ your derivation

f
f
should ind a natural grouping of terms such as the followmg:

f
I

01
Figure P7 6
,
= A
_
Ik WM
.
Op-amp drive of small Normalized valve stroke: a r\d l dn
j
DC motor. ,

and the valve can stroke

7J Shown in Rgurc P7 7 is an ideal nr .
. . For symmetric operation he null position
, of the valve is y0.
<>* the oulput is fed back bv ,
* drivin8 an ' rtial load 7. The po- ±8y.
y a position sensor to an op-amp ,
which then sums
 Chap. 7 Mixed Discipline Systems
228 Part 3
Valve position: ) 1 = h + 8>
* 44 9
System Dynamic
_

Thu s .
the null value of a: a
"

r
.
/ dn
i ,„ he correc, me circumferential (or curtain) flow area An of the
Response Analysis
i
t.

' rl'
nozzle should.
be w
smaller Z
than the area A, of the Suppl, ortf
i ce. that is,
< 0 125
.

m cKneea
cvstem (Photo courtesy of Lo
Tactical M.ss.le System. (
.,

1 he US Army
-

Systems c -
 CHAPTER 8

Frequency Response

8 . 1 INTRODUCTION

The previous chapters have been concerned with the modeling of dynamic systems-
that is. the development of appropriate sets of differential and algebraic equations to
describe a system's behavior We now turn to the simulation phase which treats the
.
,

solution of the equations under specified input excitations and conditions Normally.
.

we are interested in three principal aspects of system behavior:

(a) inherent system characteristics and stability.

(b) response to harmonic inputs, and
(c) response to transient inputs.

In this chapter, we discuss the irst two of these; in the next, we consider the third.

f
(Response to random inputs is another area of common interest, but is not consid-
ered in this text.)
Many dynamic systems are subject to excitations that are harmonic in their na-
ture. Harmonic inputs may occur, for example, in mechanical systems or subsystems
that include rotating components or in electronic systems that incorporate oscillator
circuits of various tvpes. Frequency response describes the steady-siaie behavior of
the system to harmonic excitations over a range of input frequencies.
It is also possible to determine important behavioral chaniciensties ol dv
namic systems by subjecting them to harmonic inputs and observing the response
This can be done experimentally, analytically, or numerically. In this chapter, we
consider the analytical and numerical determination of system Irequenev response
231
 Chap. 8 Frequency Resp on.
232 v Sec. 8.3 First-Order Systems 233

rnMoIlv we draw on the closed-form results found in Appendix P

The roots A, of the homogeneous equation give us information about the stability of
h 1m to ev ew that material before proceed.ng with the d.scussmn that foi. the system and the speed with which it responds to external inputs.The roots can be
"V rcomputer methods designed to evaluate system frequency
en co r
real or complex, positive or negative and they determine the systems behavior in
ways discussed subsequently
,

;«Ponrnumerically and show their application to typ.cal problems of mterest to .

It is also useful to define transfer functions for linear systems. For systems with
the systems engineer. I
a single input, the transfer function expresses the ratio of the output response to the
input excitation, as determined from the Laplace transform of the system equation
if the initial conditions pertaining to the dependent variable are zero. The Laplace
82
.
PRELIMINARIES transform of Eq. (8.1) for zero initial conditions gives
[a s n + s- 1 + . . + lls + aa]X{s) = GU(s) (8.8)
-

a
Before discussing specific systems, we set out some preliminary general concepts

f
n

that will aid our understanding of the material that follows. The behavior of many Solving for the ratio of the output to the input, we obtain
dynamic systems can be described by ordinary, linear, constant-coefficient differen -

X{s) G
tial equations; the general classical form is 1 IT* =
1+. +
_

+ a0
(8.9)
n + a " '

U(s) a n
s s
X
+ + a, - + aQx = Gu{t) (8.1) If derivatives are present in the input, the Laplace transform of the input is repre-
sented as:

Solutions to the general form can be expressed as mi')) = gom* + t-i5' 1 +

-

+ + m*) (8.10)

f
'

x{l) = xh(t) + x (t) p (8.2) and the transfer function takes the form
k-1
The irst term on the right of this equation is the solution to the homogeneous X(s) G s" + i. ,s + - + + (8.11)
f

f
equation U(s) a s" + ll,_,s', 1 + -+ lja + la
'

f
f
d n-l X dx
"
dt"'
+ ... + a
i
dt
+ aox = 0 (8.3)
we next consider irst-, second-, third-, and higher order systems to determ me

f
The second term in Eq (8.2) is a solution particular to the type of excitation function their inherent characteistics and frequency response.

r
.

G«(/).The homogeneous equation expresses the inherent characteristics of the sys-

tem , which are independent of what kind of excitation is applied to it The solution
3 FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS
.

can be written in the form 8 .

[xh{l) = Ce" (8.4) 83

. .
1 Introduction
where A is determined by substitution into the homogeneous equation: lie RC circuu
uituii o, SecUon 433 is a Ef istics. t
v/t w Fiaurc
g s
s-
CAV + lCA-V* + . . . + ljCAc* + a0Ce" = 0 (8.5) consider its frequency response haract n 12)
t. uaranpr

ferential equation that governs it is Eq. (8.

f

Simplification reduces this expression to a polynomial in A: (8.12)

RCe, + e, = eQ{t).
"-1
l +a .
A + --- + llA + l0 = 0 (8.6)
f

' R

ac. . -

fcshc-
TfTh" r"" lherCfcharar
leCtedterinistheeq-ation,
natu since important behavior char-
re of the rootsof the equation If the .

X n U-n l"!. 'there are " different utions to the characteristic

o
c

S. Sutnsroti " eqUati0n " linear We Can SUPerPOSe lheSe indi-

n
- I s i
.
Kcsisior-capacuo
r circA

(8.7)
 234 Chap. 8 Frequency R e sPO
n
se
Sec. 8.3 First-Order Systems
Suppose the excitation voltage in the circuit is a harmonic function of time: 235

e0(t) = E cos cot Normally our irst consid

(8-13)
,

eration in dynamic
systems design is to ensure stabil-
ity, and we therefore are obliged to examine the roots

f
In this case, the governing equation takes the form of thc characteristic e
of the system. For the electrical circuit under consideration we note that quation
RCei + el = E cos art ,

f8-l4) t= RC and Gu n = E
where £ is the amplitude of the applied harmonic voltage (8.23)
Stability for this system requires onlv that
.

n nu
a negative coefficient on the I ZXl, , aVe pOSltlve values to guaranlee
8 3 2 Classical Solution
. .
-

Die amDlUurand ,h? r

/ term in ,hc ho™geneous solution.
respectiver * steady-state response of the RC circuit are ,

TTie standard form for the irst-order equation as described in Appendix E is

,
f

E
tx+x = Gu{t) B =
(8.24)
(8.15) VI + a,2T2
The corresponding homogeneous equation is and
TX+X = 0
(8.16) tb = tan H-wt] (8.25)
with solution
In examining these results ,

it is helpful to pint ttyt apipiimH. thf tespww divided

by the amplitude of the input function which gives the normalized output response
,

Substitution into the characteristic equation gives (8.17) .minKftiAo f r the cirewt:

E
A = -l/ 1
For a harmonic excitation (8.18) (8.26)
£ Vl + tuV
Gu{t) = Gu0 cos (oi We also normalize the frequency scale by multiplying the excitation frequency
Classica, so,"tion to this equation is (8.19) a>(rad/sec) by the time constant T(sec). (Note: In this chapter, we use sec as the ab-
"
"

breviation for "second" to avoid confusion with the Laplace operator 5: other chap-
x(t) = AeM ters use the SI abbreviation "s for "second".) Normalizing in this way produces a
"

+ B cos{(ot + 0)
(8.20) plot with dimensionless axes and extends the use of the plot beyond a single numer-
homogeneous particular
ical example. Figure 8.2 shows the amplitude and phase expressions plotted over a
where (transient) (steady state) range of frequencies of interest.
It is convenient to represent the response amplitude on a base-10 logarith-
mic scale:
B = Gu0 is.n
dB = 20 logJB/Guo)
I + «V (8.21)
Figure 8.3 shows the circuit response plotted in this way. Here the normalized am-
f
v - lan
plitude is plotted in deci bels (dB). and the normalized frequency is plotted on a log ihai
(8.22) (American Engineer. 1905- ) [Rcf. 8.1] observedhmic
irr ?d from,hei
nitia,condi scale. Henrik Wade Bode
natural symmetries and asymptotic behaviors are best displayed when lotv
logarit
s

scales are used in this way. and such graphs are therefore called Bode p
ClUmdC,rinC ,hc P'i'ude of h " ? W
a,t tranSient resPonse ,0 die
l?v mCS ,thc WrftcX reSponse to the harmonic input.
ea H
s

nc 83 3 Frequency Response
hc «P«ienSl t
", .
t

> h e
?Uati0n f0r thc irst-order astern is
WMerl K ,ht P<'ncntial ,cr 1 ° U,,0n
"
with increasing of the /?C circuit equation using t hc l aplacc trans-
f

"
* We next consider the solution voltage b
* ,S
**** Consequentl kZlT and ,ar8er fmc. and the form methods of Appendix F. Assuming that the initial value oi thc
y .

eVer achieve a steady-state condition Laplace transform to Eq. (8.1 3) yields

. zero, applving the
 Chap. 8 Frequency Res
236
Sec. 8.3 First-Order Systems
1 237
io .

j
08 .
£ -10 .
-

S 0.7
-
O -20

n o.6
-30
S - 0,5 l(r 10" 10

Normalized frequency *
an
S 0.4
4* i

| 0.3
02
o
.
-

i i T T 1

O I
.

K -30 h
i
00 .

0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 i> -60

Normalized frequency. <ot

rrrn '
o 7
;

i
10
0 -
Normalized frequency,

20
Figure 8.3 RC circuit Bode plot.
-

(b)

-
30 to provide an alternative means of obtaining the frequency respons solulion. Sup-
3 -40
pose we now substitute jm for s in the previous equation. Here/ - I is a complex
number and co is the excitation frequency- The resulting transfer function (TF) is
now written as a complex number:
-
60 (8.30)
-
70
U{ju)) jlOT + 1
-
80 Let us calculate the magnitude of the complex number in this equation:
MAG(£) _" (8.31)
TF = MAG (TF) = M -r M )
_

Q 2
3 4 5 6 7
Nonnalizcd frequency, wr (8.32)
TF =
(b)
Vl +
HKure 8 2 Frequency response of the RC circuit same as is obtained from the time history but is found quite
.

T e result we see. is the hase of this complex number , ; d

uuickrusing the trans
fer funct i on form. The p
whose tangent is the ratio of its comp lex part to Us real part an
i d by the angle
We velhisalgebraice
( (8.28)
f
quationfor£iw/wtoo is found to be
= tan (- ) -
,
(8"
ca*
'
Bid) a ly determined using c

f
o
,

(8.29) We see that this result is also the same as was previous
r uisfcr function of the s\stcm and
t

ZtZtLtt CT**? a"OWS US ,0 dele™ta= "» s°luli<'" for .,(/).

u
methods. - . .

"o.devd,
, , a S, K,i0n m O"P-Pose here is
1 of indmg the same timc-hislory solulion as before, but
f
 Chap. 8 Frequency
Sec. 83 Frst-Oder Systems 239

. ir
w£ « M «.
- hdp,u,.eSpedal,y ,reaUn -

higher order r= RC = 5000

volt
(I x 10 ) "
= 0 005 see
.

amp Toh
8j.4 Fr ncy R-por Simulation
From Rgnre 8_3.ihe cocner freqoency is = l.O-.thus.
simulation calculations are easily carried out using the tran = 1 = 200rad
Frequence response nnn

™*
We need only to sweep through the - sec = 31
,
Hz
*J5

function form of Wf™ each frequency, compute the value of

5C S2SS M»« a d its phase. Computati o .
.

wbkh means that the dn passes freqaoKks bek

rT atienuauoo or phase cfetonwo. niB des«n * easflN mocked bv changm* the 'atats o.
, 1 treat operations on complex numbers are very helpful
-

rm

T 3tinR daL mayThen be tabulated or plotted to provide useful RaiKlCtonK tbecon freqoetKyapordc Sapp e
pass frequet up to 60 Hz.Tbea the pnxto RC m« ber
S a
"s beLvior. Examples of this technique follow in S ithc corner freqoeocy appn n A -
ea
constramis could be employed to accompteh fj
ibe tnod&df<te«D go--
ih other s tcm
next two subsections. ,]
8 3 6 A First-Order Mechanical System
83. .
5 Low-Pass Filter

Sinusoidal input signals passing through a dynamic system are altered by the
namic characteristics of the system. This is shown in Figure 8.4, in which both the l?.he desired .em omp« is *e vetoar, oC *e
plitude and phase of the output x(l) are different from those of the input u(i). '

frequency of the output signal, however, is the same as the frequency of the
signal, as is shown by Eqs. (8.24) and (&25).
xii)
71/ tik b p.rst-order mechanical
s\-5tem.
an

can be shown to be
of the svstem
The equation of motion 18.36)
SyUcm rtu

or
taH
Oulpul Figure 8.4 Typical system response. mi+bv = by
he
we take t
n funcuon of a harmonic input, so
We note from Figure 8 3 that as the frequency of the input signal to the RC cir-
.
We want to know e sjxmse asa condilions):
cuit increases the output signal is reduced in amplitude and shifted in phase. Thus.
,

the RC circuit can be considered a low pass filter, in the sense that below a certain
-
uplace transform ofEq.CS
input frequency the input amplitude is reproduced almost unchanged at the output.
, s
V(s)
but above that frequency the output amplitude is much smaller than the input am- =

Y(s) "is + b
,

plitude to the system. Ibus the system only reproduces (without significant ampli-
,

tude or phase modification) signals with frequencies below a particular value.

«>*crve also in Figure 8.3 that the frequency response characteristics of the RC cir- Substituting ;wg>ves
cu. um be approximated by two straight lines on the scale of dB vs. log a>T.The knee mju)
..

he curve
«. above thiS called the comer frequency or break frequency Signals with frequen- .

e corner frequency are attenuated and shifted in phase on output.

r«f|ili g.| RCarcuM A =

r«~;l ( n hain, . a rcsis,or *=5000

quency re )on»e characlcnsncs of this circuit
0 and a caPacitor
.
c -1 ,he fre'
 Chap. 8 Frequency Respons
240
Sec. 8.4 Second-Order Systems 241

and
Notice in the foregoing example thai at low frequencies the coupling between
<f> = 90 - tan 1 - the mass and the input platform is low; the coupling increases with frequency up lo
o

j (8.42) a frequency of 1 /t = 1.75 rad sec At higher frequencies the ratio of the magnitudes
.
,

d Mechanical System of the output lo the input is essentially constant This means that the viscous cou-
I ample 8.2 Viscous-Couple
.

pling is so high that the two masses move as one. which is similar to the behavior of
The mechanical system of Figure 8.5 has a mass of 2.0 kg and a viscous damping con- a torque converter in an automatic transmission
slam of 3.5 N sec/m. Find the frequency response of this system using MATLAB.
.

Solution Referring to the Laplace form of the transfer function, we determine the 8 4 SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS
array of coefficients of Ihe numerator (num) polynomial and the array of coefficients of
.

the denominator (den) polynomial. For the case at hand, 8 4 1 Classical Solution
. .

V(s) =
bs
=
3.5s .J
Y(s) ms + b 2.Qy + 3.5 (8-43) The spring-mass-damper system of Chapter 3 is an example of a frequently occur-
ring mechanical system that is of second order. Figure 8.7 shows such a system sub-
The polynomial coefficients are expressed as row vectors in order of descending jected to a force that varies harmonically with time,
powers of j:
num =[3.5 0]
(8.44) [- At/)

den = [2.0 3.5] (8.45) m *-

f{t) = F0 cos oM
We employ the "MATLAB Systems and Signals Toolbox" function bode to per- Figure 8.7 Spring-mass-dampcr
form the required calculations that were discussed in Section 8 3 4 The interactive com-
. . . svslem.
mand is simply
bode(num den) ,
(8.46) The equation of motion of the system is
Tins produces a Bode plot directly on the computer screen, and the results are mZ + bi + kx = F0cosu* (8-47)

To put this system into the standard form described in Appendix E, we divide each
shown m Figure 8 6. The excitation frequency range may be selected automatically by
.

ihe bode routme as was done in this case, or may be supplied as an in

put array.
.

term by the spring stiffness k:

20 m .. . b . . . _ o _ (8.48)
-x + -

x+ x = cosw'
k k k
-

£ 0 -
Using this notation, we rewrite the equation in the form
I
; i + -i + a: = x0coswi
20
O

* is the displacement.
. men. that would result if the force were applied sta-
10 where .v,, = F„
Frequency (rad/scc)
licallv.Thc undamped natural frequency is
(8.50)
= yjklm
o 90

and the damping ratio is

h (8.51)
s

where
L L LJ
1 h=2\ km
- _

K)1
Figure 8 6
.
Frequency response of
first-order mechanical system.
 Chap. 8 Frequency Respons
242 Sec. 8.4 Second-Order Systems 243

is the critical damping factor. 50

.

The characteristic equation is f

= .
10

|7 20
30
(8.52) < 4.0 h .

40
"n
'

CO
.

7
~

3 3.5 .
50
Ml

TOs equation is quadratic in A with roots 30 .

£ 2.5
(8.53) S 2.0

y 1.5
or
i i.o
A
2
,
=

Wfl[-<r± v ij -

(8.54)
The homogeneous solution is 00 .

05
.
I 1.5

xk{t) = qe + Cf*
* ''
(8.55) Normalized frequency, w/o*.

The nature of the solution depends on the amount of viscous damping attributed to 0
the system, and stability is determined by the roots of the characteristic equation .
10

The system is stable if the real parts of the roots are negative. Stable systems have - 20 20
D
transients that die away with time and, when subjected to steady harmonic inputs, - 40
display steady-state responses. Note from the preceding equations that linear sec-
ond-order systems arc guaranteed to be stable if the damping ratio £ and the fre- §
c
-60 00

m
quency wn are positive constants. § -80
U ( is less than 1. the system is said to be underdamped. In that case ,
the roots
I -100
are complex conjugates and the homogeneous solution is harmonic. Thus,
,

I -120
A i 2
.
= i/Vw5) (8.56)
a .

- 140
v /
The steady-state solution to the second order system is given next while its -

,
- 160
frequency response is shown in Figure 8.8 for a range of damping ratios of interest.
The response is characterized by its amplitude and by its phase with respect to the
-
180
05 *
15
.
2 FigurcR Frequency response 01
.

second-order sysiem.
input. Wc have Nonmlizcd Mucncy. mf*

Acos{tot + *> (8.57)

VO - + (2
where w a>/w and the amplitude is
n

i parameters
u..
.a-«
A =
(8.58) sired operating state. dependence of the response o n the .
amount ol damp-
V(l - S?)2 + (2 )2 Observe also the strong rongly to frequency changes
fbc phase angle is ie present.
Lightlv dampedily systems
damped
respond
systems
very
do st
not. If .he frequency n O
while heav
sonance; n7 nr orcalcr. the oulpul amphtudc d\lt(.r>
bekm 0.5 »nd .he damp ng ' ;
..-

<t> = tan '(-2 o>/(l - w2)]

.

(8 59)
.
.
, ,rc ,s a,m«, „„ amplilkauon
Diet, rtxlt Tw m1 ing charactcris» cs of second-order systems are revealed in the
'

freaucnev r f . k
'
"
*hm ,hc excitation quency is equal to the natural
requency of the ,yMcm the output
.

response can be significantly amplified. This

 Chap. 8 Frequency Re s
244
PonSe
Sec. 8.4 Second-Order Systems
245
Example 8.3 Transmission System
A portion of a helicopter transmission support system is represented by a sprinfi.m
damper system such as the one shown in Figure 8.7. Find the mherent dynamic ch a
AmP = = o 298in 03in
.

(8.64)
teristics. If a harmonic excitation is applied at 300 rpm = 5 Hz with a orce ampli,
dynamics
S ml ofS.
the system
Sf1' VThe0blain 3 21 phase
Percentis P alion in the response due to the

f
of 2450 Ibf. ind the amplitude of the steady-state displacement response and th e
f
sponse phase with respect to the input. The part in question weighs 725 Ibf response
.

', and the

damping is estimated to be around 15 percent of the critical value (i.e., { = q
The physical parameters are *
"

= tan
20.2 degrees (8.65)
725 Ibf
k = 9950 Ibf/in and m = It is often desirable to operate a second order system at a resonance state The
-

386 in/sec (8.60] next example illustrates this .

.

Solution The static response amplitude is Example 8.4 Tuning Circuit

2450 ibf An electronic tuning circuit component is represented by the RLC circuit of Figure
= 0.246 m
Xo
-

8 10. The governing differential equation was developed in Section 4 3 5 and was found
k 9950 Ibf/in (8.61) .

to be
. .

First, we ind the natural frequency:

f

LCe2 + RCe2 + e2 = e0(0 (8.66)

9950 Ibf/in e0 R e, e-,
2 = 72 8 rad/sec = 11 6 Hz i-M/St-
725 lbf/(386 in/sec) (8.62)
.
.

Then the frequency ratio is w = co/o) = 5/11 6 = 0 43 ThU

P PO,nt ,S Sh0Wn o c
on the frequency response plot of Figure 8 9
We now compute the denominator of the response amplitude equation: Figure8.10 Z LC circuit.
~

= = WTmWW = 0 825 .
(8 63) For the given application, the parameter values are L = 0.1 mh, C - 10 /if. and
THe amplitude of the steady-state response is found to be R = 1 a At what frequency is the circuit luned. and how much damping is inherent
in the design?
Solution The natural frequency is given by
C0 1 9 1
1
6
= 10 (8.67)
(0 1 X 10-3ohmsec)(10 x 10 sec/ohm) sec
" "

- 4.5 w" " LC

10 .

'
20
4.0 (8.68)
-
-
30 = 3 .
16 X 104rad/sec = 5033 Hz
a 3.5 40
,
50 The circuit damping is
I 30 60

S 2,5 70
.
RC (1 ohmKlOjOO sec/oM 3 16 x rad/sec) = 0 .
158 (S.69)
f = "t" 2
t 2.0 -
Opcrai my
of a second-order sysfom excUed a, resonance .
5 1.5 T.e ampUficaHon of .he ou,pu,
proportional to
1 l> ?

00
i„H that 0 = 3 16. Design considerations for a crcmi ot th.s
For this example, we ,
V . , luninil frequency, the product L(

f
Figure 8 9 Frequency response
- CTI Sas „ W
I

Kt tT
.

rcq"cncy 2 for Example 8 3

to/%
. .

.
 Chap. 8 Frequency ResponS e

246
Sec. 8.5 Higher Order Systems 247
8 5 HIGHER ORDER SYSTEMS
8 4 2 Frequency Response
.

.he Wdal condHion. are Ze ro, .he Lap.aee Uan ap 8 5 1 Introduction

For ..e 'n w ch
.

. .

plied to Eq- (8 49) gives

.

A large number of practical engineering systems can be modeled using the first- or
X(s) = x0U(s) (8.71) second-order linear systems considered in this chapter. The solutions discussed in pre-
1 J vious sections are very useful in examining the behavior of such systems. There are also
a great number of systems and devices that require third- fourth-, and higher-order mod-
,

Now we compute the transfer function els to describe their physical behavior adequately These systems are considered next.
.

m_ X
(8.72) 85 . 2 Pneumatic servo system
.

2g
In Chapter 7, the model of a pneumatic servo system was developed. The system
contains pneumatic as well as mechanical elements and is shown in Figure 8.11.
and substitute yw for 5, just as we did for the first-order system, to obtain The following equation provides us with a description of this third-order system:
Xija) v
(8.73)
Uijw) l-(o2+j2£ o}
The system input is u{t) and the output is z(f).
The magnitude of the transfer function is found to be The constants in Eq. (8.78) have the following values for a specific case:
3
x a-
= 7.8068 x lO sec

A = (8.74)
a, = 2.9107 X KT '
sec
2
(8.80)
-

_
>

and its phase is a, = 3.0972 x 10 sec

= tan-I[-2 /(l - 2)] (8.75) y = 20.76 in/in

These results are the same as we found earlier using the classical solution and again Input
point to the ease with which the frequency response is obtained directly from the position
transfer function. ]
Supply
Example 83 Tuning Circuit Stability pressure Feedback
lever
Find the roots of the denominator polynomial of the transfer function for the circuit of Supply
Example 8.4 using MATLAB and evaluate the stability of the circuit
, .
orifice
Rapper
Solution The denominator polynomial is given by 1
den(5) = - + ?£+1 = -V + 10-5s + 1 (8.76)
So//Ic

Piston
actuator
nie row vector of the denominator polynomial coefficients entered in MATLAB is

den = (lO"9 lO"5 1] (8.77) m

Tlie roots of this polynomial are found to be GOO

| Output
Figure Ml Pneumatic servo system.
Au= -500 ±;31225 Soring position
(8.78)
orcuil is stable
,
since the real part of each root is negative.
 Chap. 8 Frequency Respons
248
Sec. 8.5 Higher Order Systems
In order to determine the requency response characteristics, we proceed directly t0 249

f
the transfer function representation of the system:
Z(s) *
above
lo calculate iHp JI!
;lhisi hI gUrC
h
n ,
"'r168
rvalion 8 SySlCm
by using nalUra, frC<1UCnCy iusl
the MATLAB funciion dn
= np
U(s) *
[ays + a s2 + + 1] (8.81)
We substitute ja> for 5 and determine the amplitude and phase of this complex num 85
. .
3 Torsional System
ber to determine the requency response. This gives a complex number representinp
f
the transfer function of the system. The magnitude of the number represents the sys -

tern response amplitude, and the phase of the number represents the phase of the
output with respect to the input.
Example 8.6 Servo Frequency Response
Determine the frequency response of the pneumatic servo just described, using MAT

Solution TTie numerator and denominator polynomial coefficients are expressed 're' I
specf ively, as 7 -

EVpn 8.13 Torsional system .

num = [y] and den = [a, a2 a, 1] (8.82) The iranslational counterpart of this system was considered in Section 3.3.4 of
Figure 8.12 shows the results obtained by using the bode function to ind the fre- Chapter 3. Substitution of J for m and 6 for x into the governing equation gives the
,

following fourth-order equation of motion for the torsional system:

f
quency response of this system. To accommodate the wide variation in the magnitudes
of the coefficients we irst use the MATLAB output format command to establish an
[J D4 + (7, + J2)bDy + J2kD2 + bkD]e2 =
,
f

exponential form for the values entered; format short e will specify the ive-di
mantissa in exponential form. git

f
[/rD2 + 6D + k]T (8.83)
Note that while this equation contains a fourth-order derivative the system is really ,

third order, since there is no constant term on the left-hand side of the equation. In
1 t Mill
the next example, we evaluate the system s inherent characteristics and determine
'

the frequency response behavior for a specific application.

Example 8.7 Torsional System
W -

Determine the frequency response characteristics of 02 in the torsional system jusl de-
scribed if the system properties are 7, = 1.5kgm2.y2 - 1.75 kg m2,* = 1200Nm/rad.
10 and t = 40 N m/(rad/sec).

f
10
I01
Frequency (rad/scc) Solution We first rewrite the equation of motion lo show e2 = w2 and the input de-
rivative terms: -i

If
0
iV: 3 + (/1+m&+j2kD + bk&= i7'02 + 6D + k]T (SM)
i -90 Now we ind the Laplace transform of the transfer function and then subslilutc the nu-

f
merical values into the numerator and denominator polynomials of the resulting ex-
pression:
CUs) IV + bs + k] (8.&5al
+ (yi + + + bk]
"

T{s)
f'
-

wjuency (rad/ W)
0
P'gure 8 12 QM + 4fe+ 12001 iS.S5bl
Pneumatic servo "
_ _

12 62553 + 130 + 2100i + 48.000

.

Tbi)
.

Bode plot .
.
 Chap. 8 Frequency Resp0
ri
250
Sec. 8.6 Alternative Forms Of System Description 251

"

7 hus. ' I-I Mill

num = [1.5 40 1200]
(8.86) \ m \\\\\\
den = [2-625 130 2100 48000] (8-87) = -50
I M

u inherent characteristics, we find the roots of the characien..-

quati
deno n-or polynomia,. Using the MATLABrou! LJJ-
Li
we obtain 00
line roots (den),
-

10° K)1 102 10'

A, = -4.3143 + 20.7008; (8.88) Frequency (rad/sec)
A2 = -4.3143 - 20.7008/ (8.89)
0 m
A, = -40.8953
(8.90)
» -30
The solution to the homogeneous equation is
m = Ci*' + +C (8.91) 0 -
60

The real part of all three roots is negative, so there are no growing exponential terms ,

and the system is stable. The complex roots indicate an underdamped component; thus, 10° m w
the complex conjugates A,, A2 represent a second-order component and can be ex- Frequency (rad/scc)
pressed in terms of the damping ratio and natural frequency of a second-order system.
Figure 8.14 Frequency response of torsional system.
From the discussion in Section 8.3.1,

X = a + jb = - £oi n + M.VW* (8 92) g.s* + - - + ft5 + ft, = num(5) (8.981)

den(5)
.

+ Oo
=

ansn + . . . +
Equating real and imaginary terms on each side of the equation gives ts
merator polynomial, and the as are the constan
a= and b = w Vl - (8 93) The ffs are the constants in the nu
in the denominator polynomial
n .

Solving these for the corresponding damping ratio and natural frequency results in be written in terms of the
.

roots o f these two poly-

The transfer function could also lynomial.Then the numera tor

(=
-

a
nomials. The zeros ~Zi are the roots of the numerator
product
po
of the polynomial factor s:

Vfl2 + b2 (8.94)
can be expresse d as a constant /C, times the
8")
fi/ + . . . + /V + ft, = + + tiD ' (* + zk) (
«„ = Vfl2 + b2 (8.95)
For the torsional system we find that are the roots of the denom inator polynomial, and K: is a
,
Likewise, the poles p -

constant. We may write (8-100)

C = 0.204 (».*) + . . . + a,* + a,, = K2{s + px){5 + />2) . . (* + Pn)
= 21 1
a,/
wfl . rad/sec in terms of the zeros a nd poles as
may then be expressed
Wc next determine the frequency response of this system The transfer function
function bode (num den) gives the plot shown in Figure 8 14. Using the MATLAB
,
.
.

(5 tz!)ML52LriLti4 (8.101)

8 8
ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
where/C = K1/ isaConStant-
Ihc mathematical representation of a system model can be ex Ettin.eM Pole-ZeroWerFunctionForn. torsional system in Example S
of ways, and each may have a specific benefit for a given ta pressed in a number fer function rcpr c niauon of ih ,

cusMon of the transfer function and its relation to fr sk. We saw this in the dis- irt
Convcri trans
f or a linear syst em, the transfer function in thequency response calculations.
pressed as the ratio of two polynomials: e Laplace variable s can be ex-
 Chap. 8 Frequency Response
Sec. 8.7 Summary
252 253

-
ZL2 = -13.333 ± J24.944 (8.102)
REFERENCES
-
Pi.1 = -23.403 ±/JI.184 (8.103)
pi = -2.718
- (8.104) 81 Network l945ade NetWOrk Analy515 and dback Ampliier Design. Van Nostrand,

f
a o nnles fx) are
The zeros (o) and the poie v ; j
plotted on the complex plane in Figure 8.15 . 8
2 Cannon Robert H.. Jr. Dynamics of Physical Systems McGraw-Hill, lnc,New York
generate this plot automatically.y.
.
,

us (nam, den) can DC useu e

,
l%7.
8
3 Goode Stephen W. An Introduction to Differential Equations and Linea
.

MATLAB function rloc .

,

Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1991.

,
r Algebra.
,

Imaginary 8 4 Ogata
.

Katsuhiko. Solving Control Engineering

.

Problems with MATLAB .

Prenlice
Hall. Inc., Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1994. .

8 5 Ogata, Katsuhiko
.

System Dynamics, 2nd ed Prenlice Hall. Inc.. Englewood Cliffs

.

.,
.

N J. 1992.
8 .
6 Palm, William 1. 111. Modeling Analysis and Control of Dynamic Systems. John Wiley
I- Real ,
1

& Sons, Inc., New York 1983. .

Figure 8.15 Torsional system poles NOMENCLATURE

and zeros.

The corresponding pole-zero form of the transfer function is a constant C - I

(j + 13.333 + y24.944)(j ->- 13.333 - y24.944) (8.105

A constant
(S) =

{s + 23.403 + ;I1.184)(j + 23.403 - /11.184)(j + 2.718) A matrix

At times, it is convenient to represent the system in terms of its state-space form, in b viscous damper constant
which an /tth order system is represented as an equivalent system of n irst-order dif- B amplitude
f

ferential equations. Appendix G discusses the conversion from one form to another. B matrix
The standard state-space form for linear systems is C capacitance, constant
x = Ax + Bu (8.106) dB decibel

where A and B are matrices of constants and x and u are vectors. Examples of the e voltage
state-space representation for specific systems can be found in Appendix G and in E voltage amplitude
previous chapters. (See Example 3.7, for instance.) Also see Appendix H. / input function, farad
F force
8 7 SUMMARY
.
F0 force amplitude
G gain
In this chapter we have discussed inherent characteristics for linear constant-
,
, h henry
coefficient systems and calculated the frequency response characteristics of those t current
systems. Both classical closed-form methods and numerical methods using MAT-
LAB procedures were introduced These concepts ind wide application in engi- ; complex number V-T
.

J mass moment of inertia

f

neering and a vast number of d

.

ynamic system applications owe their success to

design methods based on those principles .
A: spring constant
However
if linear, amstant-coefficient equations do not provide a satisfactory
, L inductance
system model the methods discussed here are not applicable It then may be neces-
,

.
if Laplace transform operator
.aryw perform a complete time response simulation of the system's behavior in- ,
m mass

!
n cxt
CaritieS T,me response and A simulation are discussed in the MAG magnitude
 Chap. 8 Frequency Response Chap. 8 Problems
254 255

r
82 T e irst-order mechamcal system of Section 83.6 has a mass of m = 4 kg and a damp-
Q amplification facto
.

f
ing constant of b = 3 2 N sec/m At what frequency does the output response ampli-
.
.

R resistance tude become essentially constant? THat is at what frequency is the output amplitude
,

/ time within 2 percent of the value that would occur if the input frequency were infinite?
8 3 A harmonic signal of amplitude 1
T torque and frequency 70 Hz is the input to a linear irst-
.

f
order system whose time constant is 0 5 second. What is the amplitude of the output?
TF transfer function .

What is the phase of the output with respect to the input? Does the output lag behind
s Laplace variable
the input or lead il?
u input function 8 .
4 Answer the same questions as in the previous problem except that now the system is a ,

U(s) Laplace transform of input function second-order linear system with a natural frequency of 21 rad/sec and a damping ratio
of 0.25.
v velocity
85 The spring-mass-damper system of Example 8 3 has an input excitation with a fre-
V(s) Laplace transform of velocity
.
.

quency that is equal to its natural frequency (resulting in resonance). Redesign the sys-
. r displacement tem so that resonance is avoided and so that the output displacement is no greater than
X(s) Laplace transform of displacement 15
. times the value that would occur if the load were applied statically.
solution The new natural frequency can be above or below the frequency of the input signal. If it
xh homogeneous is below, the system will pass through resonance when coming up to operating conditions.
x particular solution
p 8 . 6 A linear second-order system has a natural frequency of 110 Hz and a damping ratio of
y input function 0 37. What is the acceptable range of input signal frequencies if the amplitude of the
.

Y0 amplitude output is to be practically constant?

z output variable 8 . 7 It is proposed to attach an additional spring-mass-damper system to a primary spring-
mass-damper system as shown in Figure P8.7. Find the steady-stale amplitude of the
a constant
displacement response of the primary mass, and plot it with respect to the input fre-
p constant quency for the cases with and without the attached system. Such attached systems can
y constant be used to absorb unwanted vibrations. Comment on the effectiveness of reducing vi-
(o excitation frequency bration for this system. The parameters of the problem are:
(o
n
natural frequency wx = 200 Ibf w2 = 50 Ibf
a> frequency ratio (ol(on kx = 18,500 Ibf/in = 4600 Ibf/in
A root of characteristic equation c. = 20 Ibf sec/in = 5 Ibf sec/in

f
£ damping ratio
6 angle of twist r F0cos
/

d(s) Laplace transform of angle Attached

t time constant mass

<f> phase angle

/ . VTA Figure P8.7 Vibration absorber
t ohm, Laplace transform of angular velocity /
system.
7777777 7777
f

7777

the output e, to the input e0 for the circuit shown

tion relating
8 .
8 Derive the transfer func *

PROBLEMS in Figure P8.8.

R
I'

Where appropriate use MATLAB or other suitable computational tools to solve the follow-
,

mg problems Remember to correctly convert to and from frequencies in Hz and in rad/sec.

id r ?T TTM RC CirCUit (FigUre 81),hat has Parameters R = 8200 il 1 L
a
m.™ a M e'ch ,he "nplitude frequency response and determine the corner fre- F.«urePM RLC circuit.
«vo PrOX,n!a,Cly h0W l0ng does 11 lake the transient part of the solution to this
.
syMem to die out? H
 Chap. 8 Frequency Respo nse
256 Chap. 8 Problems
257

II

naiural frequency.
ampMudc of the mass?
2

S .
10 D "l"elhel a Develop the corresponding Bode plot us.ng data fro n,

rrrra quency of the system? the circuit so as to

S i S fluency byic30equation
percent,ofbutthekeep the dampmg rat-o at 0.707.
following systems. What are the ti
0 J

u .c r ,hP rharacterist me
l"
.

are the dampmg ratios? CoMf on the ri Figure P8 15 Torsional system

.

f
n
.

s T lhy of each. Solve by hand and check by digttal computat.on.

abi
8.
16 Determine the transfer function coefficients for the circuit of Problem 4.14 if:
a .
2x + 8i + 32x= I5u(t) ii-toii /?, = ioon

f
+ 0.02*+1 = u(l) \|
'

b .
0.0 li
c i + 20i + 25 = mu(l) . C, = 1 Mf C, = 10 uf

d .
10* + 600i+1000 = m(0 L = 5mh
e. 100i'+ 400* +1 = M(r) Find the eigenvalues and check the stability of the system If the system is stable,
,
.

f .
7z+5z + 2z+3z = 2.5fi0 determine its Bode plot .

8 17 Determine the transfer function coefficients for the circuit of Problem 4 16 if:
g. 5z + 2z+4z-3v-4v = BM , .
.

iJ + 3i; + 12w - 3z = 0 R = 5 t
, = 10ft

f
h . z+2z + 4i+5z = 4/(0 C = 10 uf
, C, = 22 fif
8,12 f/W the transfer function for each of the systems of the previous problem, relating the
L = 10 mh
output a: or z to the input u or/.
8 13 Find the set of state-space equations for each of the systems of Problem 8.11.
.
Convert the system representation from Iransfer function to state-space form. Find the
8 14 A mechanical system with an input /(/) and three displacement variables has the fol-
.
eigenvalues, and check the stability of the system. If the system is stable, determine its
lowing equations: Bode plot.
8 . 18 Calculate the eigenvalues, time constants and/or natural frequencies, as well as the
Zi + = fit) + 2z2 + 2z} damping ratios, for each of the systems whose transfer functions are as follows:
Zj + 2z2 = 4Z, - 2z3
=4 +9 6
z, + Szj = 5z, + z2
s2 + 2s + 2.5
Find:
b . TF(s) -
_

3 + 2 5j2 + ls + 2 75
a- The transfer function for/(0 as the in
b. The poles and zeros
put and z.W as the output. I
and write the transfer
function in pole-zero form
,
.

c TTie time constants natural frequencies and damping ratios ,

, .

t l S,a,e'SpaCe form of ,he s>'stem equations and the eigenvalues of the system.
' 11"
i-1r H ; T" F,8Ure P815 rePresents an electric motor shafting-and
'
-
* = s3 + 1.15s2 + 1.25* + 3
Z T lh qUenCy reSponse of ,he angular velocity 02 of the load in re-
k

2s2 + 1
system T> 31 ,he elec,ric motor- J a Bode plot for the
n u
mm /,h C 'T6 0n,
v
«. TF(J) =
F.nd (he roots of the characteristic equation The parameters of the problem are: s3 + 2s2 + 5s
.

. .
.

y'-3k8'n2 = 4.25 kg m3 1 2s + 1
h TF(5) = -T Tss2 + 8s f 4
.

26 N m/(rad /8C = 30 N m/(rad /sec) = 1500 N m/rad

 Chap. 8 Frequency Resp0n
25S

Jj +J
CHAPTER 9
h i
h . TF(5) = 4 + 2s
s 3 + 7s2 + Ss + 4
19 EMI each of the systems Of the previous problem in pole-zero form.
J Time Response and
8.

8J0 Com m each of .he systems of Problem 8.18 to state-space form using
a .
Hand calculations
Digital Simulation
b .
The MATLAB function tf 2ss.
1U1 Determine the transfer function for each of the systems whose governing equations are
.
iv follows:
a .
z+Sz = G (G is a constant.)
b . 2i
c 0.25;+7.5; = G sin wf j
d . z + 5i +4; = y
e . Z5z 3.75; = G
f .
; + 0.25;+0.5; = G cos a* |
tL22 Convert the equations of Problem 8.21 to state-space form.
JL23 Determine the frequency response characteristics of the output voltage for the electri -

9 1 INTRODUCTION
cal circuit shown in Figure P4.25. 1
.

JU4 An /?Ccircuit such as the one shown in Figure S l is to have a time constant of 0 5 usee
.

In this chapter, we discuss the determination of the time response behavior of dynamic
.
.

Design a 5 volt system that meets this requirement .

systems by both classical analytical solution methods and digital simulation. We seek to
8 5 A second-order system with a natural frequency of 120 Hz is subject to constant ampli- determine the response to inputs that are not steady with time and to plot the responses
tude harmonic input and must have a dynamic response that is no more than 35%
greater than the value that would occur if the input were static of system variables as functions of time so that we may better understand the behavior
What is the smallest
of a system through visualizing its response. When applicable, analytical methods give
.

damping ratio that can be employed when building this system?

«
26 An automobile is traveling over a closed-form solutions and provide a convenient means of evaluating the effect of vari-
wavy stretch of highway. The input displacement to
.

he tires 8 assumed to be a harmonic function As the car travels at different speeds the ations in system parameters on the response of the system. TTius these methods are
valuable tools for system design considerations. Closed form solutions for the fre-
.

, -

7JT?h ,npU, ,0 ,he SyStem Change& UsinS,hc model developed in Example 3.7 quentlv used linear first- and second-order systems are discussed in Appendix E. dures
sta
slate
t response of the aulo bodv:
d.a,a /i'"/ ,he iapyit fTe cncy,hat cau 'he largest s eadv- Digital simulation methods, on the other hand, provide convenient proce
A, = 20lbf M
for quicklv examining the response of linear or nonlinear systems to proposed de-
= lOOOIbf/in wx
sign modifications and are an integral part of many widely used, commercially dis-
'

tributed computer codes. These methods are capable of rapidly determining and
100 Ibf/in w2 = 150 Ibf b = 5 Ibf sec/in 1
-

plotting the numerical representation of the system response to a particular

dly.
set of
parameters. Proposed changes to the system also can be evaluated rapi

9 .
2 ANALYTICAL METHODS

92
. .
1 First-Order Systems
u.-
Consider ,he RC circuit of Secrion 4.M. sho.n in i gure .... TV gover n s eq

f
tion for the voltage t(f) is
f
 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital Simulation
260 Sec. 9.2 Analytical Method s
261
A
'

Co
AW
-

i () >
R .

C
r«4

07
Figure 9.1 /?C circuit. u
,

Efl
0 6 .

RCei + e, = e0(t) (9.1) M y 0.5

53 0.4
A eood measure of the system behavior is the way in which the circuit responds to a |
.

1 0.3
step inpul-a sudden excitation that commands the system to move to a new state. z

(See Figure 9.2.) I 0 2 .

01
0 2 3
Figure 9J RC circuit response to a
Normalized lime xlr
,
step input.

E
From these closed-form results we see thai the response is 98.2 percent of its ul-
,

timate value at an elapsed lime equal to four time constants or r = (4)(5 ms) = 20 ms.
,

If we require a circuit with a faster response we need to reduce the time constant. For
,

example, if we want a 10 ms response lime, the product RC must he halved by making

Figure 9.2 Step input. suitable changes in the circuit parameters.

We consider the case in which the capacitor is initially uncharged and the voltage TABLE 9.1 RESPONSE OF THE RC CIRCUIT TO A STEP INPUT
e0(() is applied or switched on suddenly. The input voltage changes from zero to a constant
value E. The analytical solution to this input can be found by combining the homoge-
neous solution with the particular solution corresponding to the step input. The solution. o 0 000
.

0 632
developed in Appendix E using the standard form of the first-order equation ,
is It .

2t 0 865
.

x{t) = x0e l/7 + GuJl - e l/r

(9.2) 3t 0 950
-

t/T)
-
-

4t 0 982
.

Here x0 is the initial condition on the response variable and GuQ is the amplitude of
,
5t 0 993
.

6r 0 998
the step. If the initial voltage is zero the circuit's response is
,
.

e.W = £(1 - e ) (9.3)

"

Kxample9.I IK'Circuit Response 922

. .
Second-Order Systems
Determine the response of an KC circuit whose parameters arc R = 5000 11 and i der systems to step inputs is an impo rtant measure
C = 1 /if if ihe circuit is subjected to a step input of £ = 5 volts How long does it \
The time response of second-or for the step response of a
lake f (/) to reach a steady value?
.
of their suitability lo a given purpose. Analytical solutions
second-order system are derived in Appendix E. Section E.3.2.
,

Solution I c time constant for the system is the product RQ as we have noted before:
Example 9,2 Second-Order Mechanical System
ter disk drive is modeled as a
r = /?C = 5000 ohm (I x | () ") = ao05 s = 5 ms A component of a compu
tern as shown in Figure 9.4.
nng. *.(/). .s given a
llic position of the end of theics sPof the ma., .huh mast he
top

input .ai we warn to know the response characterist

™11T Sh0 ,hc m St n of mul at the new position within I ms.
r
7 7 Chap. 9 Time Response and Drgrtai Si
"
~
= : =

'
TTTTTTfTTTTTTTTTTTTTT, cal svstem. n<sni -
* tbepea.
- 2
Solution Tbt equation of motion for this system is 0 001
. s
~

3000rad/s - 477 Hz

w ociMiwit mj as u> achKM? this trequencr iihic

93) m a sysiein is defined as the sntouxit ibe tmsic
We know that the damping is small and suspect that f < I. The analytical soiutinn"
steach -state vahie produced by a step input. The amount of o -enhooi
ttt rs isdosc
dtreexceeds
aly ea tbe
to the system damping The anahtk x atioosinp between d ited
,

r
f
Eq. r9.5> is derived in Appendix E. TTie solution corresponding to an und
nderdam
erdamned
ped ' v can be found b\' determining the fnst point in tkne at whichiethovershoot and the dampwui
tern wiih zero initial conditions is 'v
comes e vdoaty the system be-
~

sponsezero in response to a step input. Substituting this value oC time into the posiuoct re-
of the system yiekfc the peak value of die response
*,
(/) = G J 1 -e cos / -f /
-

sin (9.6J
.
The resulting expression is

where = A plot of the response is reproduced in Figure 9.5.

hor c - 020 (20 percent damping) this equation gives 052 which corresponds to
,
.

Ovcr«ihrx,f 2 percent overshoot To achieve the stated goal the darning will have lo be Unter
,
.

Solving Eq (9.10) for the damping corresponding to a 20 percent overshoot ves

.

i
-

{ - 0.46. the required s>-stem value to meet our objectives .

20 The important thing about Example 92 and the previous one is that significant svs-
70
Desired tem design decisions can be made using closed-form solutions No specific system .

value
1 parameters need be selected in order to determine behavior trends, since thev are
known in terms of the time constant or natural frequency and damping atio para-

r
2 ioM
meters. This illustrates the value of usine analytical solutions when thev are avail-
able. Closed-form solutions for irst- and second-order systems are summarized in

f
08
,

Tables E.2 and E.3. respectively, in Appendix E for easy reference.

5 0.6
92
. . 3 Higher Order Systems
IM r

02 In treating linear systems of higher order than second, we can put the system into
state-space form:
0 2 ! i = Ax + Bu(0 (9.11)
8 10 12 14 16 F*me9 S Response of an under-
Normalized lime w./ ,
damped second order system to a
step input
-

The homogeneous solution can be written in terms of the state transition matrix.
(Ret 9.11)
.

(9 »2«)
or. SS SSV: f0 Whe,her
Ctl0n 8 4 and lhe resu of A
lh e -sponse is oscilla-
ppendix E. we note that
x,(0 = S(f)x(0)
Here x(0) is the initial-condition vector, and the matix exponential is defined by the
.

r
(0

nmping ratio £ is (9.7)

h
I:
"' here h = iVhi,
homogeneous solution and the particular solut.on and is
c
(9.8)
jne critical dampi fi,cior ffth- i
| e dc cd shown , r '-- underdamped. the response will over.hoo.
"
(0 = S(/)x(0) + js(t - t,)Bu(t, W.) (9.i:c)
'
hc '"o" be achieved wi.hi m -u, ., mechanism « question, it is required
lnd overshoot not ex ceed 20 percent .
The
 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital Simulation
264 Sec. 9.3 Digital Simulation
265
my var i able use d for integration.
where v is a dum ions indicated in Eq. ( 9 12b) may not be practical 30
The exponential operat i
.

form for systems of any significant order, but w hen the input is of simple form
closed ted numerically, so that the re
(impulse, step. etc.). ihe procedure can be implemen -

her order systems is eas ily evaluated.

sponse of hig
Example 9.3 Pncumafic Servo Syslem
Find ihe response of the third-order pneumatic servo system discussed in Ch Si
5
en 7 and 8 to a step input.
t

Solution The system transfer function and its coefficients are given in Section 10 5
o .

|
<
0
and Section 8.5.2 and are as follows:
Z(s)= Z
(9.13) 5
U(s) [a + a2r + oti* + 1]
sec
"

a3 = 7.8068 X 10
"

1)
2 0 0? 1 15
a,3 = 2.9107 X 10 4 Figure 9.6 Step response of a
.
"

sec

(9-14) Time (s) pneumatic servo.

a, = 3.0972 X 10 2 sec

9 3 DIGITAL SIMULATION
y = 20.76 .

The numerator and denominator polynomial coefficients for this problem may be ex- 9 3 1 Introduction
. .

pressed as the elements of one-dimensional arrays as follows:

nam = [y] den = [a 1] (9.15) While many low-order linear systems can be solved using standard differential
equation solution procedures as discussed in Appendix E and Appendix F. numeri-
Here, num and den are row arrays containing the polynomial coefficients arranged in cal methods are advantageous when a large number of differential equations is nec-
descending order of powers of s. essary to describe the system or when the physical situation must be represented by
The MATLAB function step employs the matrix exponential method of Sec- nonlinear differential equations. In these cases, digital simulation is an indispens-
tion 9.2.3 to generate a numerical solution for Ihe response of a system to a step func- able tool. It is assumed that higher order systems can be transformed into an equiv-
tion of unit amplitude. We use the command step (num, den) to carry out the alent set of irst-order, slate space equations, and only irst-order equations are
-

f
f
calculation of the response of the pneumatic servo to a step input: Ihe results are shown discussed here.
in Figure 9.6. (Invoking step without any left-hand arguments produces a plot of the
response directly on the computer screen Note that when using this function, it is not
Figure 9.7 shows the solution to a differential equation (solidlline) and an ap-
method (dots).
proximate solution lo the same equation obtained by a numerica
.

dent
necessary to convert to state-space form; an option is provided to enter the polynomial
While a closed-form solution consists o f an analytic function relating the depen
coefficients directly. See the MATLAB user's guide for further information ) .

iables {x and f. respectively), a numer ical solution consists of a

Notice in Figure 9.6 that about 9 7 cycles of motion occur in the irst second. This and independent var f time. The distance between
.

scries of points x. obta ined at a discrete set of points tl o

f

corresponds to a frequency of is denoted by /i.The i gure makes c lear the strong de-
the time points (the time step) the size of h. Thai is, toward the

f
wn = (9 7
cycles/s)(27rrad/cycle) = 60 9 rad/s (9.16) pendence of the qua litv of the numerical solution on he
oscillation that t
.
.

which is the natural frequency identified in the frequency response plot of Figure 8.12. end of the record of time given, the analytic solution begins anime step is obviously
Notice also that the step response does not settle very rapidly indicating a system com- discrete time point spacing is unable to represent. A shorter l
needed in this region of the solution.
,

ponent with light damping. We also observe that the static amplitude value ultimately
achieved is equal to the static gain, 20.76, as would be expected.
9 3 2 Euler s Method
'

The methods presented so far in this chapter apply to linear systems that can . .

be easily described in analytic form In cases where anal nlial equation is given in which/(. U) may be a Un-
propriate or where it is simply more convenient to obtainytical methods are not ap-
.
.

a numerical solution, the

diRital simulation approach, discussed in the next section is used. ,
 Chap- 9 Time Response and Digital Simulation Sec. 9.3 Digital Simulation
266 267

/
i
.

h
Hfcurv 9.8 Euler integration tech-
nique.
i 7*1

Figure 9.7 Numerical integration of a dynamic system. Replacing dx di with f{x%t) we obtain

dx xM - xj + nfj + 2, . : 4 t ft (9.22)
= 0 with urtral condition .v(r0) = a-0 (9.17)
di
In Euler's method, we neglect terms beyond hf;, hence, the error caused at each step
This is an initial-value problem, since x{t) is given at some initial time t0, and we de- is proportional to /r. and is called the truncation error.
sire the solution values at succeeding times f. Equation (9.17) may be written as
/ x/ -i r'i-i
Example 9.4 EulerN Method
dx = f{xj)dt (9.18) Use Euler s method to solve the following two first-order equations. The firei display
exponential behavior, the second has a harmonic solution.
(9.23)
Suppose the time step h = t+j - fyis small enough so that the slope x = f{x%t) may x = -x. with inital condition .t(0) = 1, 0 =s f <: 5 s.
be taken to be the constant /(jc- , t) over the interval h. Then and
(9.24)
12 s
-

x
i
'

= AxiJi)\ dt = hf{xjJi)
rl

= hfi (9.19) C y = -3y + 10 sinr. with initial condition v(0) = -1. 0 s / s:

Solution For Eq. (923) we select a step size of /i = 0.5 s then
) -l-W-W (MS)
Thus, the new value of x , (j: +/) may be computed from previous values by the relation f = 0 5:
.
X,-** -
*
(9.»
, = 1 0: ,, = x. + 0.5(-0.5) = 0.5 - 0.25 = 0.25
(9.20)
.

= x. + hf.

This simple technique of integration is called Euler's method (after Leonard Euler. .
„,,
sM,iari until we reach the desired final time pcMnt. ( 5.
Swiss mathematician .
1707-83), or the slope projection method ,
and is shown in Fig-
ure 9.8.
We find:
Geometrically the Euler process assumes that the slope dx/dt = f(x t) is con-
,
,

rtant over the interval /i This assumption has obvious limitations

in using Euler's method ca .

The error involved .

n be examined by considerin
xd) (Brook T aylor. English mathematician 1685-1731). Recalling the Taylor series ,
g a Taylor series expansion of
expansion discussed in calculus we write ,

dx
'/.i) = (0 -i h + ... (9.21)
It , 2! dr !
 Chap. 9
Time Response and Digital Simulation Sec. 9.3 Digital Simulation 269
268

1 10
2 SOLUTIONS TO x = ~x, x(0)
TABLE 9.2

h = (exact) error {%
(Euler) A

().«
0 606531 17.56
0 500000 .

0 367879 32.04
10 0 250000 .

,
.

0 223130 43.98
I 5 0 125000 .

53.82
.

0 062500 0 135335
.
0 6 -Vfc
20 .

61.93
.

0 082085
.

25 0 031250 .

68.62
.

0 049787
.

30 0 015625 .

74.13
.

0 030197
.

35 0 007813 .

78.67
.

0 018316
.

40 0 003906 .
04 h X
82.42
. .

0 001953 0 011109 \
4 .
.

0 006738 85.51
50 .
0 000977
.
.
\ h = 0A

h = 0.
i x (Euler) x (exact) error (%) 02 - \
s

0 606531 2 64
0 590490
.
.
.

ft = 0.5 -
5 22
'

-
or
10 0 348678
.
0 367879
.
.

0 223130 7 73 0
1 5 0 205891
.
.
.
-

10.17 0
20 0 121577 0 135335
.

.
.

f(s
0 071790 0 082085 12.54
25
.
.
.

30 0 042391 .
0 049787
.
14.86 (a)
.

35 0 025032 .
0 030197.
17.11
.

40 0 014781 .
0 018316.
19.30
.

45 0 008728 0 011109 21.43

.
.
.
4
50 .
0 005154.
0 006738
.
23.51 exaci

h = 0.0125 h 0
I x (Euler) x (exact) error (%) 1

05 .
0 604622.
0 606531
.
0 31
.

10 .
0 365568.
0 367880
.
0 63
.

15 ,
0 221031.
0 223130.
0 94
.

1
20 . 0 133640.
0 135335.
1 25
.

25 0 080802 0 082085 1 56
. . . .
%
30 . 0 048855.
0 049787. 1 87
.
c
-

0
5
35
.

. 0 029539. 0 030197.
2 18
.

40 . 0 017860 . 0 018315 . 2 49.

45 0 010798 1
0 011109 2 80
-

.
. .
.

5 (1 . 0 006529. 0 006738 . 3 10.

- 2

/
Wc note from Table 9 3 that as the step size is halved
.

, the global error of Euler's method - 3

4

is approximately halved also Thus, even though the per-step error is proportional to It2.
.

nc global error is approximately proportional to h This difference of one power of h be- L0 ;

luiions to the tus t -

4
s
Figured So
TlT fr S71crrorf and ,hc 8»0bal error is characteristic of numerical solution melh-
s
4
-

3
o r(s)
Ii 1 " n ,! gC 0f Iha, re,a,ionshiP is quite useful for extrapolation purposes.
the coScSSoT n 1 ,heSC S,ep Sizes are extremely l ge in order to illustrate fb)
andXX mno1 cxpcct to obtain useabie sizes
 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital Simulation
270
Sec. 9.4 Systems of Equations
271
BAL ERRORS US,NG EU LER'S METHOO TO SOLVE i .-x,
TABLE M FINAL GLO
x{0) = 1 Kutta meth-
0 05 0 025 0 0125
05 0 25
.
0 1 .
.
.
.

of implemenlalion of their accuracy and ease

Step size/»(s)
.

26.0 10.2 5 04 2 51 1 25
.

53.8 .
,

(percenl)
.

Global error in .v(f = 2). A frequently used fourth order Runge-Kutta

-

the equation recursion process is defined by

h
Equation (9.24) was solved using the Euler method and a time step h = 0.5 s;
lculation.
XM = xi + -

{A + 2B + 2C + D) (9.29)
Figure 9.9(b) shows the result of that ca
where
93 . .
3 More Accurate Methods
(9.30)
Euler's method uses only two items of information to propagate the solution
from / to r-+1: the current solution estimate Xj and the function value or slope y}. If (9.31)
more information concerning the character of the solution is used, the numerical
results will obviously be more accurate for a given step size; that is, they will have
smaller per-step truncation errors. Many such methods have been devised over (9.32)
the years. Two are discussed in this chapter: the Adams method and Runge-Kutta
methods. ) D = fix, + hC. t + h) (9.33)
The Adams method (J. C. Adams, English mathematician, 1819-92) is typical
of methods employing three pieces of information to advance the solution. It uses Note that the arguments of the functions defined in B, C, and D are not necessarily
the equation points on the solution curve x{t). The per-step and global errors of this method are
*
proportional to h5 and h respectively.
.

x]+i = */ + « Qfj ~ fj-J (9.28) Example 9.5 Runge-Kutta Method

Solve the first-order problem of Eq. (9.23) using the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method.
which employs a weighted combination of the slopes at time and time to prop- Solution The problem is solved using the Runge-Kutta method as just outlined, and
agate the solution. With the Adams method the per-step error term is proportional
,
the results are presented in Table 9.4. Note that for comparable step sizes, the Runge-
'
to /r and hence the global error is proportional to h2 Note that the method is not
, ,
.
Kutta method produces results that are much more accurate than does the Euler
a self-starling process since solutions must be known at ijand at f., before the val-
, method.
ues at th, can be determined. When starling the process, the initial value is used for
the J, point but a self-starting techni
used to generate an estimate of th
que such as the Euler method would have to be TABLE 9.4 RUNGE-KUTTA (R-K)
SOLUTION TO r = -.v. .v(0) = 1
e solution at /, before the Adams method could be
initiated .

h = 0.5
934 i x (R-K) x (exact) error (%)
. .
Runge-Kutta Methods
0 606531
-
0.040
05 0 606771 .

0.079
.
.

0 367879
-

0 368171
Run Kun! S hcmt:T(afler 10
.

'
T information '
and is also self-starting is the 0 119
.

0 223130
.
-

0 223395
.

15
.

0.158
.

C D T 0 135335
.

nge, German mathematician 1856-1927.

-

-
20 0 135550 .

and W .
0.198
ainC hanH mathf,natiCian' 1867-1944). The Runge-Kutta approach is 0 082085
, . -

u
25 0 082248 .

on
.
.

0 049787
-
0.238
0 049905
i b r2 £
.

30
va termS in the series expansion of the depen- .
.

0 030281 0 030197
-
0.278

Tti '0 mC,,10d- .5resented Shortly, utilizes information

.

35 .

0.317
0 018316
.
-

40 0 018374 .

much le a " 0 357

.

«2S 1 0 011109
.
-
.

0 011149
ime-Step " ™* ,
*
.

45 .

0 397
0 006738
-
.
.

0 006765
s 21 overf the time step is now a diSCUSSed PreViOUSly'
.

50 .

«ncc curvature he solution

.

the ccounted for (Recall that .

 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital Simulation
272 Sec. 9.5 Selection of the Step Size
273

We solved this problem several times using the Runge-Kutta method with differ.
and the effect of the step size on the global error .s shown in Table 9 5 Here A, B, C, and D are vectors correspondin
em step sizes, .
.

Eqns. (9.37) through (9.40) above g to the function evaluations shown in

Note L as the step size is halved, the error is reduced by a factor of about 16. A fixed step size implementation of the fourth-
order Runge-Kutta method in the MATLAB langua
.

TABLE 9.5 RUNGE-KUTTA SOLUTION TO i = -X. x{0) = 1

in the file rk4 . m and an example of its use for systemsge ofis presented
,
equations inis Appendix H
this cha pter. given later in
I : , / x 05 0.25 0.125
Sal e or in x(t = 2), (percent) 0.158 0-008 0-00"46
9 .
5 SELECTION OF THE STEP SIZE

It is clear from Figure 9.7 that the accuracy with which the numerical solution is com-
94 SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS
.

puted depends upon the step size employed. A fixed step size that is too large can
give results either with large errors or cause the numerical process to become unsta-
The preceding methods may be used for more than one equation if we regard the ble. On the other hand, too small an h causes an inordinately large number of steps
symbols in Eq. (9.17) as vectors. That is. x and f are vectors, and we have a set of to be taken, which, in the extreme can cause large computational errors due to
,

equations of the state-space form: round-off. This happens because computations are normally performed with a lim-
ited number of digits. For example, the fraction one-third may be represented by
= \ = Dx= f(x 0 with initial-condition vector x(/0) = Xq
, , (9.34) 0 33333333 on a computer with an eight-digit floating-point word length. Multiply-
.

di
ing this representation by 3 gives the result 0.99999999, an approximation to 1.0. Re-
There is a separate definition of the derivative for each variable; that is. for n peated rounding off of results in this way. however, can cause a significant error
equations. M when a very large number of calculations is performed. Hence, as /i-»0. the number
of calculations required to reach a given time f; approaches infinity, and serious
X< - f\{Xi, Xj, .... xn, t) rounding effects can occur.
The preceding observations are illustrated in Figure 9.10. in which the global
X2 f2iX\ X2' . ,X t)
'
n'
error in a numerical solution is plotted against h". where p is the order of the
Runge-
method. That is. p = 1 for the Euler method: p = 4 for the fourth-order
(9.35) Kutta method, etc.
x ii ft i' . . xnt 0 Round-off
Truncation
The functions express the coupling between the solution variables In apply-
ing the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method to a system of equations we obtain the ,

numerical solution for the vector of dependent variables x, as given by the ex- ,

pression
E .

h tMUniity
x/+i = x/ + 7(A + 2B + 2C + D) (9.36)
where
Figure 9.10 Global error vs. V.
A
f(V/) (9.37)
95 . .
1 Selection of a Fixed Step Size
a
d of solving a system equ
-

(9.3S) step size for a numerical metho be

In selecting the l
proper
is to divide the res ulting waveform into enough p.eces to
tion, the primarythegoa
character of the wave accurately, w ithout resorting to ho use of
(9.39) able to resolve and thereby incurring Mg
rors
mhcant roun -off er
d
of points
,
an excessive number
dSnt dynamic must be considered in the selection of the step sue:
effects
) = fK ' hCt i h) .
(9.40) o
 : - so 9 .

274 Sec. 9 5

2
"

j b% the nam/ 1 d n m ic
the «pccd of ibe response, det eigenvalues may be as time
ihtma-.e/onnof ihe'
Hence, it
efi
Steo Size Based on Natural Dynamics. The dynamic response charaefcr

f
-

kuc* ofavvstem are determined b> the roots of its charaaemHc equatioiL The oc,

r
n nlJex.
can be real or comp
u.. and we can thmi of the system as bemg composed
T and -
of i™.

f
-

and vecond-order compr enis. Complex roots occur m conjugate pairs for
.

!aiv mH reaJ c/>effiaenis- Rea] roots correspond to irst- or second-order

f
m

componentv with a nonosdJlatory response to initia] conditions. whUe complex

jugate roots correspond to second-order system components with an oscillatory
sponse to initiaJ conditions. b the ogarithimc mean of the eigenvalues

t
The characteristic period for components with real roots is the exi
.

tune constant. The characteristic period for an oscillatory system is the period
(9.47)
responding to Us oscillatory natural frequency:
For the best results in determining the system response numerically, it is rec-
ommended that a fourth-order method such as Runge-Kutta be used and that the
This result does not provide the largest eigenvalue of
found using the approach gives very good simulation r
smallest time constant, or the period associated with the highest frequency of the dy- culate if the characteristic equation is known The step .

namic svstem. be divided into about 10 parts For real roots,

: 1 1
h = (9.48>
7= 10 A,
A

For complex conjugate roots

Thus, based on the natural dynamics of the system, the step size should be selected
according to the largest actual eigenvalue or according to the mean eigenvalue pre-
Recall from Section 8 5 3 that dicted by the coeficients of the characteristic equation. Since we have allowed seme

f
.

latitude on the selection, either approach will sufice.

.

f
Step Size Based on the Input Signal. In some cases, the input signal may
Ihus. contain hieher frequencies (smaller periods) than the system natural dynamics. Just
as before, we want to use a step size that will divide the shortest dynamic period into
] about 10 steps, and if the input requency o>m is higher than the largest frequency

f
OJ IAI found from the system eieenvalues. the step size will be governed by the input. If the
input signal is a complex waveform, the smallest recognizable period rm should be
vll tfr thtr S,iC lime Peri0ds are related t0 the inverses of the eigen- divided into about 10 steps: that is.
.- - -e-tenth ]
h = or h = (9.49)
IOoj 10

oTi S f uf fofTbeThree should be usei

a

."th the hi&lliUwMM

t
* 1,6031156 11 corresponds to the response
in orcter o rej th wale
vc
Wave,en8th)- which requires the smallest step Further, i. is usua,.y j uo Tm «
t

mkJSh '
i
6 er' for
? 56,001 steP sizes
order systems
for a syslem whose suitable.
,
the determination
 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital Simulati on
276
Sec. 9.5
Selection of the Step Size
277

50/' for a first-order system

l,hod would require much smaller step sizes to aeh.eve comparable accuracy. SOA to 20M for a second-order system
100/, to 500/, for a third-order system
Step Size for Nonlinear System Eigenvalues arc properties of linear
s . 200/ 0 1000/, for a high-order system
he strict sense Howe ;
systems If a system is nonlinear, it has no eigenvalues m t
.

These final time estimates are based on the natural dynamics of the system; if a vari-
the governing state-space equations may be reduced to a linearized equation using able input 18 used then they should be added to the tin* at which Jin lunct on
,

suitable approximations, and estimates of the step size may be obtained from thij pu
reaches an approximate steady state. In calculat.ng the final time use the step size
linear model. In linearizing the system, the parameters should be selected to give the based upon the natural dynamics
,

largest values for the coefficients in the characteristic equation. Notice that
.

for the ,

Example 9.6 Response of a Second Order System

purpose of selecting a step size, we need only the lowest-ordered normalized coeffi-
-

cient in the characteristic equation, so only a few terms in the linearized system may Figure 9.11 illustrates a spring-mass damper system which is given an iniiial displace-
-

ment of 2 in and is released from rest The system parameters give b/m = 0 5 and
need to be evaluated. .
.

k/m - 4. Find the displacement and velocity response from r = 0 to / = 10 s.

If linearization is too difficult or time consuming, we can resort to empirical
methods. The step size can always be selected by intuition and the simulation per-
I
formed with successively smaller and larger step sizes, until no change in the com-
puted response is observed. However, remember that a step size that is too large can m

cause numerical instabilities which could be confused with system instabilities If the .

J> h H Figure 9.11 Spring-mass-damper

result is reasonable in light of the physics of the problem we can probably move on , 77777777777777777> system.
to other things. Alternatively, we can use methods that automatically select and ad -

just the step size as the solution progresses. Automatic selection of the step size is Solution For a linear spring and damper, the equation of free motion is
employed in many commercially available simulation codes and is discussed later in
the chapter. /n v + fti' + fcy = 0 (9.50)

We convert this second-order equation into two first-order equations by substituting

952 Selection of Output Interval and Final
. .

Time the following definitions into the equation of motion:

Let xx = y (9.51)
In most simulations it is neither necessary nor desirable to print or plot the results
,

(9.52)
after every time step To avoid the generation of unnecessary output, results can be
. x2 = y

11, hP r 0nly 31 SpeCified intervals-1116 0UtPut interval is the time be- Then-t, = y
(933)

o Tr '"aI. 0? 0f dala' and 0f Course'11 must be integer multiple (9.54)

as follows: 8 n0 definite rU,es '
sug8ested put intervals are i = y = a:,
,

The equation of motion becomes

"
for a irst-order system
f

2h to 5h for a (9.55)
second-order system j
4* to 10/, for a third-order system J
4) can be expressed as .he derivatives ofand v, re
m to 20h for a high-order system Equations (9.55) and (9.5
spective to obtain t Jo first-order differentia, equations:
a function oHhe na VV '
ald l"8 fT *
the simu,ation and may also generally be h _
k .
xi
19.5*.)

t f SyStem- too, may be based on the

u n u x. =
solution s,cP I he (9.57)
steady state is gcneraUv diff ,. .
T t0 achieve a desired response or reach a x-, = - i
other information the foliowTn simulation-. however in the absence of
in. the notation of Section 9.4. we have
,

M"ired fmal time: 8 felines may be used for estimating the re- IblUiwine
 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital Simu|atj o
278
Sec. 9.6 Variable Step Size Methods
b A 279

(9-58) plot(t,x)
grid
xlabel('Time (s)')
ylabeK'Displacement (in) and Velocity (in/s)')
Now b m = 0.5 (1/8) and k m = 4.0 (1/s2) .
The two equations of motion and
their initial conditions are then Here, x smddx' is the name of the M-file thai defines the
i, = -0.5X, - 4.0x2 with (0) = 0
(9 60) We carry the solution out to a time of 200/i = 10 s and get a littlegoverning equaiions.
over three cycles of
the response. The results for the displacement and velocity of the mass are shown in
and Figure 9.12.
i = Xl with j:2(0) = 2 (9.61) 3

Displacemem
The natural frequency is
2
V*7 = V4 = 2rad/s (9.62)
S
Velocity

Thus.

1
h = = 0 05 s t 0
10V4
.

(9.63)

The system response was found using the fourth-order, fixed-step-size Runge-
Kutta method discussed in Section 9.4 and implemented using the MATLAB language j _9
in the function rk4 .m. (See Appendix H.) Two files are needed to solve the problem:
one to describe the differential equations to be integrated and one to initialize the pa- u _3
rameters, invoke the integration routine, and plot the results .

The differential equations are described by the file smddx. m (spring-mass- i

4
damper dx) which is as follows (note that the M-file name and the function name
,
I) 2 4 6 10 Figure 9 12 Spring-mass-damper
.

should be the same): ] Time (s) response to initial conditions.

function xdot = smddx(t x)

6 VARIABLE STEP SIZE METHODS
.

% file smddx.m 9 .

xdot(l) = -0
xdot(2) =
5*x(l)
.

x(l);
-4*x(2); 9
j In some instances, the step size dictated by the requirements outlined in
Section 9.5 may not be required, except over a portion of the per
iod during which
lime advances, the frequency conten t of the input func-
(% indicates a comment in a MATLAB M file.) the solution is found. As dynamic characteristics may
-

TTie file used to initialize variables call the integration procedure and plot the re- tion may change, or, in nonlinear systems, the system
from the earth to loop around the
change. For example, a space vehicle on a trip
,

sults is smd4 m and is as follows:

,

has a very different set of forces app lied to it when it passes

moon and return he earth and the moon. Thus.
% driver file for spring-mass-damper using rk4 m around the moon than when it is midway between t ize during the high ac-
% initial time .

it is easy to imagine the desirability of using a small step s

solution and using a large step s ize when ac-
t0 = 0;
celeration grad ient portions of the
% final time 9 celerations vary slowly. tion lime step as the solution pro-
t£ = 10
In order to be able to change the integra ade.
c:l
. ;

of the current accuracy of the ca lculated results must be m

xo r2]Ttor of initiai conditio- presses, some
estimate
different methods of doing isthisbeing
are employed. depending on the particular M-
available, One of 'h<
* and
step size 1 merical integration scheme that he next point m lime m two wa>x
h *
05; -

lt,x).rk4('smdd 'JH approaches

involves calculating the response at t
x', tO , tf, xO , h) ;
 ?80 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital Slmulatl
Sec. 9.6
Variable Step Size Methods
Rrsi Ihe new solution point is calculated in the usual way by advancing , 281
, + ft using a step of size h. Let this solution be xa. Then another approximation to ,he The true value expressed in term
solution all + his found by taking two small steps of size h/2. Call this second solu .
cated would be 0f the Woximate solution and the portion tru n -

tion estimate xr. . . . j u

The truncation error (per-step error) can be estimated by means of a Taylor Se Ir
vQb + ~Q
n

ies expansion for both cases. We use the Euler method to illustrate the procedure X{t + h r+

h
*
c
(9.72)
r

From Eq. (9.22). a Taylor series expansion gives

. „,,
h2 d2x I
x(i + h}=x(t) + hm + --

Y + (9.64) the tWO seParate expressions for

_

x{t + h) may be combined as

Employing Euler's method, we ind that the approximate solution for the new
f
point is 1 '

Q (9.73)
x
a = x(0 + hf(t) (9 65)
-
Also.

The true solution can be expressed in terms of the approximate solution and the part
that is truncated, which we call h2Q : a
.
*
(' + A) = xm+ h2Q (9.74)
Subtracting Eq (9.74) from Eq. (9.73) gives
.

, , . h2d2x + ... =xa + h2Q a (9.66)

0 = *c + 2G (l-2)
-*

. (9-75)
We repeat the solution but now taking two steps of size h/2 The irst step
,
.
or

f
gives
* t -

*'
( h\ h h2 20
* =
'
(9.76)
x
(9.67) 22 (21 - 1)
Therefore, an estimate of the truncation error that occurs during the step can be
Let the intermediate point be xb. The Euler method solution for the intermediate
poioi IS
computed from the two separate solutions calculated for the value of .v(/ + h):

(9.77)
xb = xit) + t /(I) ~
Lt- 2l-l
(9.68)
Since the Euler method is a irst-order method, the constant 2 appears to the irst power
The true solution at the intermediate point can be written as

f
in this equation. If the analysis were repeated for a method of order p. we would obtain
('+t)-' +|e * » + ... (9.69)
E
tr ~ 2" - 1
(9.78)

For the second step the true value at t + ha

,
for an estimate of the per-step truncation error.
can be expressed as
For the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method, we could estimate the per-step
x(i + h) = xb + h2 error by
1
2 Q + ...
c (9.70)
(9.79)
L r = 2" - 1
irrS"00 SOlUli"" »" + " 1- round by taki„g two steps using d that the per-step error
15
estimate is la e r

[£ during the solution proces. it is foun

than sonic
(9.71) putation
 282
Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital Simulation
Sec. 9.7
Solution of Nonlinear
ear ni«
Dlffe '
-

ent1al Equations
small the step size may safely be increased. A more detailed discussion of this 283
% driver ile for _ .
process may be found in Refs. [9.3] and [9.6].

f
" = 0; ass damper using
An alternative method of estimating the error mvolves using integration meth
-

-
ode45
tf - 8 ;
ods of different orders to calculate the estimate over a given time step. For example
.

,
X0 = [0 2]' ;
we might use a fourth-order Runge-Kutta method to advance the solutmn one time [tfx]=ode45('smd2dx' to
step and then repeat the calculation for that step using a ifth-order Runge-Kutta
f «
o . -

Plot(t,x(: ' x0);

'

i) '

f
, ,

method. An estimate of the error can then be found from the difference m the two hold

calculated values at the endpoint and a decision made about whether to change the Plot(t,x(: 2),' + m ,

grid
step size. Such a procedure is implemented in the MATLAB ordinary differential
equation routines, ode23 and ode45 (Ref. [9.12]). xlabel('Time (s)')
The preceding approach or something similar to it is an option in many simu- Vlabel,. Displacement (in.and velocity (tot,
lation programs. Automatic selection and control of the step size removes the need

r
to work through the step size requirements discussed previously and provides som e

measure of protection against abortive or unnecessarily expensive computations If .

thai nearly 20 time sleps „r , P "T 0, lhe NMi«

the time step requirements vary drastically over the range in which the solution is
valid, the extra expense required to calculate an estimate of the error in the solution
at each step may pay for itself many times over. It all depends upon the characteris- 2
tics of the particular problem at hand.
Example 9.7 Variable-Step Solution to a Second-Order System Displacemcm
If we increase the damping constant in Example 9.6 so that b/m = 5 1/s the system is ,

overdamped. and the response to an initial condition becomes nonoscillatory At the .

I
beginning of the motion a small step size is needed but as the response approaches the
,
I 0.5 . L
equilibrium position
-

,
much larger step sizes are sufficient. Calculate the displacement n x

1 ' M8"
c
and velocity response for this system .
0
-

Solution The equations of motion for the system are: 0°

°

w -0.5 =3
i, = -S Or, - 4.(k2 Vdocilv
.

with x,(0) = 0 (9.80) -

0
o
0
x1 = x with (0) = 2 (9.81)
15 Figure 9.13 Variable-step-size
TJe response was found using the MATLAB variable order error estimation method
-
.

- I 1 4 5 8 solution to an overdamped

S ZZT
Z ,Tr IH ' 6 ,0Pr0CedUre 0de45-nL
?ate ,he error 31 each routi ne *™automatically
steP and Runge-Kuttaadjustsfourth-the stepand Time (s) second-order system.

Zl 7" Sf'I?™11,6 defaul, Value for ,he desired Curacy of the so- 9 7 SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
As befo P ,
h,S 0ther eXamPles in ,he chaP .
.

cntial equa .o oT "T t0 ,he Problem: one to describe the differ- The behavior of many physical systems is adequately described by linear differen-
ro J TZZ n

10 initialiZe the Parame 11 the integration tial and algebraic equations, and the solution for the simulation response is usually
THe differential equations are described by the ile smd2dx m: a straightforward procedure using the methods previously discussed. However.
systems whose response must be described by nonlinear equations may present
f

function xdot = Smd2dx(t x)

% il e smd2dx in ,
J special difficulties for the engineer. Analytical solutions arc hard to l.nd or are
nonexistent for these systems. Different classes of nonlinear equalu>ns can beli.i\ e
f

xdotd) = 5*x(1) .
-4*x(2). 1 in markedly different wavs. Small changes in imttal condmons can
>cdot(2) = x(l,; U,' 1 onse, and since a nonlmear duteu-n-
duce disproportionately
' large changes in resp
h Tno fixeddgJnvalues. the proper step sue lor numenca 1 .mecrauo
a

the plotimKilsmd TlT Tl '

mav no be obvious. ThcMclorc. solving these systems mus
t be ****** -th
1 ou*1 's as loiiows:
,he '" ration procedure, and perform
 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital Simulati On '
284
Sec. 9.7
Solution of Nonlinear Differential Equations 285
ar
Hie ile defining the governing equation is:

f
systems.
E«n,p«e M Nonlinear ***** function xdot = cirdx(t(x)
consisting of a ,75 volt source a 5 henry J % file cirdx
Figure 9.14 shows an electncal « up to operating cond.t.ons. the resis-
. m

ductor L and a resistor *s % nonlinear circuit example

„
of the current because of temperature changes xdot = 35 - 25 *x(l)
tance varies as a function of the sq -

8*x(l)*x(l)*x(l);
ohms/amp2. - e equation gov
.

n.at is. /? = c, + . wher; J switch is closed is given in Section 4.3.4 of Chapte

C

ft r
-

The calculated current response of the nonlinear system is shown in th

4eming the current
Determine t0™**™
the response of the™
electnca current in the circuit. r Figure 9 15. The circuit reaches a steady state of a little more than I amp in about
.
e plot0 Iofs
The response is also found using the linear model and it predicts a steady operational
,
.

C current of 1.4 amp which is an error in amplitude of almost 40 percent There is also a
.

significant error in the lime to maximum response with the linear model .

i A'
14
.

0 ' Linear

12
.

Figure 9.14 RL circuit. 10

.
Son Unear

Solution The governing equations are: E 0.8

e0 - L - - Ri = 0 I 0.6
(9.82)
04 h
di ll .3, .

(9.83)
0 : .

= 35 - 25/ - 8/3 (9.84) (I

(HO 0 15 i) 2()
I) () 0 .
.

Initially there is no current

so /(0) = 0. The methods discussed in this chapter may be
,
Time is) Figure 9.15 Circuil response
used to ind the lime response of the circuit Selection of an integration step size can be
f

based upon the response of the linear system If C2 were zero the equivalent linear
Example 9.9 Response of a Pendulum
.
,

equation would have a time constant of 0 04 s; therefore a step size of 0.004 would be
.

, u tf fiwlv swincine pendulum bob (see

adequate for use in a ixed slep-size digital simulation of the linear model The iles

r
-
f

used to solve this problem are shown next

f

. Figur
TTic ile used to initialize variables, call the integration air resistance) is
the plotting is as follows: procedure, and perform
f

(9.851

% driver ile for nonlinear circuit

d + f-sin(*) = 0
r L
f

tO = 0; i
tf = 0 2; Using
.

xO = 0;
h = . 004;
. = 6
lt#xl-rk4('cirdx' tO tf, xO
Plot(t,x)
, ,
h) :
85) to state-space form, obtaining
,

J we convert Eq. ( 9 .

1 .88)
xlabelCTime (s) ')
ylabel('Current (amp)')
 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital SimU| ation
286
Sec. 9.7 Solution of Noni
inear Differential Equations 287
-
. x

[t,x]=ode45('pendx' tO, tf
plot(t 57.3 *x( ,
,
, X0) :
hold
:,
2).'w')
% initial condition 'b'
xO = [0 pi/2]';
[t,xl]=ode45('pendx' , tO . tf. xO)
L plot(t,57.3 *xl(: 2) , ,
'
w')
8 grid
xlabel('Time (s) ')
ylabel ('Angular displacement (degrees) ')
function xdot = pendx(t,x)
% file pendx m .

% pendulum problem
xdot(l) = -386 /40. *sin(x(2)); .

xdot(2) = x(l) ;

The results are shown in Figure 9 17. For small angular motions sin * may be re-
.

placed with 4> in the equations of motion, and they become a linear set of equations Fot .

a 40 inch pendulum, the natural period of the linear system is about 2 seconds .

Figure 9.16 Pendulum

.

10 I 1 T
Initial angle of 90 dcoree
80

x2 = xl (9.89)
60 h

If wc pull the pendulum back release it with zero initial velocity and let it swing, the
, , 40 h
initial conditions on the problem are
20
23 decrees
E
i{0) = 0 initial velocity (9.90)
and - 711

(O) = <A) initial angle (9.91) | -40

60
Suppose the length L of the pendulum is 40 inches The acceleration of gravity is
.

g = 386 in/s2. We consider two initial angles of 0.4 radian (about 23 degrees) and
,
80 h

v/2 radians (90 degrees). Determine the angular 100

i j

to each of these initial conditions over the first 3 position response

seconds of of
motion.
the pendulum (i 05 .
I 15
.
25
,

Figure 9.17 Response of pendulum.

Time (s)
Solution The solutions to the fore
tial release angles using the fourth-order
going Runge-Kutt
equations were computed for the two
a method. The MATLAB rou
ini- - Notice lhal Ihe period of the nonlinear pendulum system depends upon the ini-
tine ode45 .

m was employed to solve this problem and the associated files are as tial conditions. For small anelcs. the angle and its sine are almost the same. For large an-
follows: ,
however, they are quite different. The calculated penod is
gles of motion, d by linear theory, hut in-
approximately 2 seconds for the small initial angle, as predicte
illustrates an importani charac-
creases to 2.35 seconds for the larger initial angle. THis
lo T *
f0r pendulum "sing ode45 teristic of nonlinear pro blems, namely, that response c haracierist.es may M «ith the
7 shows the response oMhe
initial conditions in a non linear manner. Figure 9.1
initial angles: the elongation of the penod caused by the non
-

% initial conditio
lum to the two different
n 'a' I linearity is plainly visible.
 288 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital S'
'On

Sec. 9.8 Stiff Equations

9 .
8 STIFF EQUATIONS
289

System-governing equations which have eigenvalues that differ by several 0r e

magnitude are identified as stiff equaions. Stiff equations differ from the 6 rs of

t
discussed previously in lhal they impose widely differing time step require
s
1'0'15
niSo11
a numerical solution procedure and hence may present difficulties for the nielho(js
we have examined thus far. An example is given next. (See Ref. [9.3J )
s

Example 9.10 Stiff Equations I 0.5

03
Determine the time response solution to the following equations:

i, = 998 + 1998a:2 (O) = 1

(9.92)
05
i2 = -999a:, - 1999x2 (0) = 0 -
.

(9.93)
Solution In state-space form the preceding equations become
,
;
() 0 1
0 4
.

x = Ax + Bu
.

()-5 Figure 9.18 Calculated response for

Time (si
(9.94) sliff equations
.

r 998 1998]
A 3

999 -1999 (9.95)

l) 1 .
5 t
B =
0
14-
To compute the eigenvalues, we use the MATI AR a
gives the result MAI LAB proced ure eig (A) ,
which r

c .
0.5
A, = -1 A, = -1000
(9.97)
The exact solution is

x, = C,*? + C2e
-'

m"
(9.98)
= C3e '
+ Ce-'000'
«5-(9 99) .

bgoverned
T-hr by oX
-

" n 0 02 0 04 0.06 0.08 0.1 Figure 9.19 Expanded lime scale

; ma ud
.
.

"
o COmp0nentS and that their time constan,S dif- Time (s) for response of sliff equations,
the liir«ir«fS . Step S,ze requ'red for numerical integration is
ane-tenth
of the rec rocal of 1 TnZ
°

3 Step SiZe 0f ab0U, lhal the lime from 0.0 s to 0.05 s required 3ft lime steps, while lhal from 0.05 s to 0.1 s
took only 14 steps.
d to ireal stiff equations, since the usual
10 uS"000018 (9100) Special methods have been devise te the time consiants lor
methods may not per form satisfactorily. You should compu
idely varying time step requiremen is. vou may need to
the system, and if vou find w
™*lhe so,u,ion es other than those we have discussed. rentes [9.3]and
mfnedcd viewIZT
pand
olS
of Z Z u T.
10 theQ indi5cated i ni t ial
. m discussed conditions-aS deter'
consider usinu procedur
[9.10] have additional details
uorithms are available
conce rning suitable computation
from netlibMUom on the Interne . In addition. MATLAB
t

<hc irst 0.1 second of the res previously. An ex

ponse is shown in F gurc 9 19. Observe that
-

SIMULINK routines include methods suitable for still equations

f

.
 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital SimU|
290
Chap. 9 Problems
291

99 SUMMARY
.

e, E voltage
u ..r h** discussed determining the time response solution to dynamic sySten,' ET truncation error
-as wen as nuniericaI metht-Di8itai g gravitational acceleration
tTremphasized. and MATLAB procedures for mtegratmg ordmary differenti
f t
, G gain
introduced through the solution of a number o f sample problems
quadons were .

h time step
i electric current
k spring constant
REFERENCES L inductance , length
m mass

Q Qa constants
91 Acton. Forman S. Numerical Methods That Work. Harper & Row, New York 1970. ,
,

Q
.

9 2 Burden, Richard L., and Faires, J. Douglas. Numerical Analysis. 5th ed. PWS-Kent
c
.

R resistance
Publishing Co., Boston, 1993.
t time
9 3 Gear, C. William. Numerical Initial Value Problems in Ordinary Differential Equations
.
.

Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971. u input function

94 .
Hornbeck. Robert W. Numerical Methods. Quantum Publishers, Inc., New York 1975. , x displacement
95 . Jaluria. Yogesh. Computer Methods for Engineering. Allyn and Bacon, Inc., Boston 1988. ,
x exact solution
e

9 .

6 James, M. L., Smith, G. M., and Wolford, J. C. Applied Numerical Methods for Digital y displacement
Computation. 3rd ed. Harper & Row New York, 1985. ,
a constant
9 .
7 Ogata, Katsuhiko. Solving Control Engineering Problems with MATLAB Prentice .

y constant
Hall, Inc.. Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1994. ,

9 A eigenvalue
.
8
Parker, Thomas S. and Chua, Leon O. Practical Numerical Algorithms for Chaotic Sys-
,

tems. Springer-Verlag New York 1989. ,

,
\L logarithmic mean of eigenvalues
9 9 Press
.

William, Flannery, Brian P., Teukolsky Saul A. and Vetterling William T, Nu-
,
, , ,
Out inPut frequency
merical Recipes in C Cambridge University Press Cambridge, 1988.
.

,
(on natural frequency
9 10 Shampine
.
,
Lawrence F. Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations .
damped natural frequency
Chapman & Hall New York 1994., ,
</> angle
9
11 Takahashi Yasundo, Rabins. Michael J. and David M Auslander Control and Dy- tm smallest period of input signal
.
,
, .
.

namic Systems .

Addison-Wesley Publishing Co Reading, MA, 1970

.
,
t time constant
'
w t cS m J;™'
d 4' Prentice InC -
r damping ratio

PROBLEMS

NOMENCLATURE

A, B matrices
A B C
. , , D terms in Runge-Kutta method
h viscous damper dissipation constant
o
f critical damping factor 5 ms.) Design a DC eiecmw
C capacitance, constant is 5 volts.
 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital Simulati
"on
292 Chap. 9 Problems
293

. . vnuwe e occurs
occur in the circuit of Examp
le 8.4 if it is subjected to a sie
metho step
mai peak output voltagea 5 vol
. . n
92 .

.
9 .
10 Wrae and execute * d.g.tal computer program to numerically integrate a single irst-order
input when connected
input when « to 3 a iven a step input when the switch is closed The differential equat.on. Use the Runge-Kutta integration formulas as given in Section 9.3.4

f
TZ Zx Se- / differential equation describing the behavi r
.

f
ca
C
.

93 Find the numerical approximation to the solution ofx = x with initial condition
'v the
.
,
f (0) - 1.0. Integrate from f = 0 0 to » = 5.0 Use step sizes of h = 0 01. 0.1, 0.5. and
..m Us vSniethods lofind the solution for the output voltage as a fUn 1 0 s, and compare your results to the exact solution
.
.
.

etentua! steady-state value of the output voltage? 9 .

.

xe{i) = e1 at the point i = 5.

11 Use digital simulation methods to solve the mechanical system problem described in Ex-
.

ample 3.9 from Chapter 3.

9 .
12 Use digital simulation methods to solve the transient thermal problem described in Ex-
ample 6.4 from Chapter 6.
9 . 13 The equation of motion for a linear spring-damper system subject to a step displacement
input m0 is
0 8 i 2

bx + kx = ku(t) ii{t) = u a
Figure P9J Electric circuit.
Use digital simulation to ind the response in the interval 0 < r < 4(b c) if x{Q) = 0.

f
b = 2 Ns/cm, & = 100 N/cm. and u0 = 1 cm. Plot x vs. f.
9 4 Use analytical methods to determine the maximum displacement and the maximum ve-
14 Determine the analytical expression for the unit step response of the system described by
.

9
locity of the spring-mass-damper system described in Example 8.3 (see Figure 8.7) if the .

each of the following equations. Paid the time constant rof each system. What is the value
input is a unit step function force.
of the response at f = 3t ? Sketch the time response curve. Finally, solve the problem using
9 5 A second-order spring-mass-damper system is to have a natural frequency of 34 rails.
.

digital simulation methods, and compare your results with the analytical solution.
Design a system that will respond to a step input with an overshoot of about 15 percent. = 0
a Z+ 8z = m(0 2(0)
What is the lime at which the system reaches its maximum displacement?
.

9 6 Find the step response of the voltage e Ife 2i+ 3z = u(t) z(0) = 1.2
.
2 in the circuit of Problem 4.14 if the input is 5 volts
DC, the capacitors have no initial charge and the component data are as follows:
,
"

(Note
ft LAB L step assumes zero initial conditions for the
/?, = ion /?2 = loon m

Cj-i/tf c2 = io/tf 1 9 .5. SI the anal yt i cal expressi

by each of the following Z tZ
o n f o rthe umt =se ofthe
™*'
.st e mmed
t
L = 5 mh 1 damping ratios for each s>.tem. H the v P
9 .

7 Find the step response of e2 in the circuit of Problem 4 16 if the input is 5 volts DC the
capaators have no initial charge and the component data are as follows:
.
ZTJ mX simu,a,ion methods-and
your results with the analytical solution.
,

Ri=50 R3 ion

C lO tf C2 = 22af
c. i + 0.25i + 0.5Z = «(0 : (0) 7 e of cavity strikes a spring of stiffness

'
ly a'!'"?" e[ Hhown in Figure P9.16. Use both analy.-c
r
L = lOmh 9 16 An 8 Ibf weight free () n/s a
M 'n)c ualion describing a dym l velocity of 1U
.

anuc system is
7 lbf/in with an initia
*
+ 2z = 10 Z(0) = 2 0 .
V

W Write and succcsnfullv

H I .

f* yW Sy*? Ulilizing the EuIer method for the numerical in

-

" /

' -
- - (0) f a Z JZ "
c atio"- As a test problem, use /
Kiuurc P9.16 Sus,>cndc.l wc.g
ht.

«hc caiculatcd . . thc ' Ua""" rom t = 0.0 ,o , = 5.0 with /, = 0.1. with
,

77777 77777/
(-mment'on Sf S ¥0 7 * ' and ,he Pe "t or. Repeat ***
f

"

of the step siZe on the accur acy of the solution.

 294
Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital Simu| atio n
Chap. 9 Problems
295
and simulation methods to find the maximum downward deflection of the weight th
will occur. Be sure to include the force due to the weight in your analysis 20 Calculate the poles and zeros of e*rh
9
rrf .h .
.
.

'
in Problem 9 19. (See SecUon 8 60 & fUnCUOnS Jare given
917 Repeal the digital simulation portion of Problem 9.14. except let the input now be,
.

9
ramped step input with a ramp time of 7, = 1.25r. (See Figure P9.17.)
.
21 Der/ve the system equations for the circuit shown in Figure
' P9 21 and ind the transfer
function between the input voUage e and the output vo tage c,. SteSt

f
.,

e <» Ri

Ua
B - 0
Input. u{t) Figure P9.21 Electric circuit .

ii

sponse and plot it. What is the evenluai value of the output voltage if the input is 5 v?
Take /?, = 5Sl.R2 = 12 il. and C = 10 fit Use digital simulation methods.
9 22 A linear second-order system is described by the equation
-

'

z + 2C(onz + (o z = nit) . A

2
n

Time, /
If o)n is a known value, overlay on a single plot sketches of the unit step responses of the
Figure P9.17 Ramped step function .

system for damping ratios of 0.0.0.5. and 1.0.

9 23 Determine the maximum angular velocity 02 that occurs in the torsional system of Ex-
.

9 18 Repeat the digital simulation portion of Problem 9.15, except let the input now be a
.
ample 8.7 if the system experiences a unit step input torque. (See Figure 8.13.)
ramped step input with a ramp time of T, = 1 25t. (See Figure P9 17.) .
.
9 , 24 Suppose the spring in Problem 9.13 is nonlinear such that the equation of motion of the
9
19 Find the unit step response of the system described by each of the following transfer
.
system is subject to a step input
functions
Plot your results. (Here s is the Laplace transform variable )
.

.
bx + kx + qx2 = M0
TFis) = 2£±1L ' m
'

Find and plot the response in the interval 0 < t < W K) if * = 100 N/cnr
and
a .

a. Uq = 1 cm
TF{s) = l2*+ 5 «
b
J Z resuhs found i. (a) and (b). and - on m
'
.

+ ls + 2 75 S
_

2 + 25 .
p e
examine the response of ,he sysfem
.

MS Use d,gi,al simulation .o

c TF(j) = - ±2±±1 __
S 1 0
u
+
r+3 +s+2 A 25

d s + 25
.
TF{s) = .

+ 1 7552 + 1 25s + 3
.
.
with initial conditions
= position (cm)
A -(()) =-1.0 cm.
t TF(5) =
+ 2s2 + 5s
and
„-.eloei.y (cm/see)
f .
TF(s) = -__ __
2s+ 1
f£jM 0). 0.0 cm/sec,
+ 2 T5?T8rr4
_
_

' i l cm for / w

f
Find .he soiution for a step inpu ; (us,ns . o***

t
+
R- TF(f) - -__
__
_ 2j+J
+ 3 V3 + 9s2 + 7s + 5
.

h .
I f f v) . r+51z + 50 = 0
a .
 Chap. 9 Time Response and Digital Sin
296 Chap. 9 Problems 297

+ 3z + 403z + 401 = 0 9 31
. Repeat the pendulum response problem of Example 9.9, but let the second initial condi-
b
tion be 135 degrees. Find the period of oscillation for initial conditions of 23 degrees and
.

*
+%§++ m>f * **** '0 135 degrees, and compute the difference in the two periods.
9 32 Design a pendulum that has a period of 4 s when released from an initial angle of
.

em to a triangular pulse inpUt()|

, , , .ho resoonse of the following third-order syst ' 175 degrees.
.

MT uition r, (See F.gure P9.27). Here 7 is the period corre; : 9 .

33 Add aerodynamic damping to the pendulum model of Example 9.9, and compute the re-
The smaUest eigenvalue of the system. Hie m.t.al cond.t.ons are zero. sponse for release from an initial angle of 90 degrees. The pendulum mass is an alu-
. g to minum sphere 1.5 inches in diameter. Plot the pendulum angle as a function of lime for
u(r)
three cycles of oscillation. Does the damping cause a significant reduction in the ampli-
tude of oscillation of the pendulum?
9 34 If the mass in Problem 9.16 is 4 kg and its initial velocity is 0.5 m/s. select a linear spring
so that the maximum deflection of the falling mass does not exceed 0.1 m. Could a no
.
n-

linear spring be used to minimize the deceleration of the mass, but still bring it to rest in
the same distance? Use simulation methods to try out your ideas.
9 35 Solve Problem 6.24.
.

let the wall material now be copper. Consider two models.

9 36 Repeat Problem 9.35 but with temperature (see
one allowing for the va r i ation in thermal conductivity of copper
an average value for the con ductivity of a matenal.
Fieure 6 2) and the other using rty on temperature
i Comment on the significance of the dependence of a material prope
.

in this problem. .
.

Example 9.2 if the input

function. (See Figure P9.17.) highway when it suddenly encounters a 1.0
in

38 A small automobile is traveling along a eration. The input displace-

t
.

change
in the height of thed pavement
to be a
due
step
a resurfacing
function. Using op
the model developed in Exam-
I
ment lo the
tires is assume lot the response of the auto body tc
i
Figure P9.27
ple 3.7 and the following numerical data. /irf and p
Z + 3z + 28z + 26z = 52m(0
the step function input:
it, = lOOOIbf/in wx =20lbf
9 .
28 A spring-mass-dampcr system subject lo a step input u0 has a nonlinear spring. b = 5 Ibf s/in
equation of motion of the system is = 100 Ibf/in u>2 = 150 Ibf
my + by + fcy + qy1 = ku{t)
The initial conditions arey(0) = y(0) = 0. If m = 20 kg, 6 = 200 Ns/m. an
3500 N/m determine the response in the interval 0 < t < 1 5 s for the following
,
.

. . <f = 0 linear case

, ku0 = 350 N
b
. q = 5000 N/m2 , fcu0 = 350N
c
- q = 5000 N/m2 , kUu = 700N
Plot y(/) in each case and compare the results
9
.

.
29 The equation

6 + 0 20 + lOsin(0) = 100sin(20
.

»u»ed to represent the motion of a da mped pendulum excited by a harmonic to

Th ystem starts from rest Find the response in the 0- to 3-second interval. Plot A8
.

as functions of time .

W Duplicate the time response calculations for the eleclric circuit of Example 9.8 -
 Part 4

ENGINEERING
APPLICATIONS

Team)
courtesvo fUTAFonnula
Fom,ul,SAB RaceCaMP-
.

Higl,.P«to™a„ce
 CHAPTER in

System Design and

Selection of
Components

A Bachelor of Arts [or Science] Degree i

"cense (o acquire an education sa
10.1 INTRODUCTION

Gerald W Johnson 1957

.

,
Previous chapters have illustrated how to obtain a model for a dynamic system and
how to analyze the response of the system once the coefficients of the governing
equations are known: however in many circumstances, it is more difficult to deter-
,

mine the best values of the physical parameters than it is to model the system. This
determination of the coefficients is related to the engineering sizing and selection of
components for the system to meet certain performance requirements .

In any system, there are some parameters that are ixed, and we cannot change

f
their values. This is typical of loads and things to which we might attach control com-
ponents. Other parameters, such as power supplies, may be limited according to their
availability. Some parameters are parasitic in that they are a part of the system that
we cannot eliminate or whose coefficients we have no control over. Some parame-
ters directly affect the static and dynamic performance of the system over which we
have complete control; however, even when we think that we have complete control
of the selection of certain parameters, the availability of the components they repre-
sent may be limited to discrete sizes from various manufacturers (e.g.. the diameters
of pistons, the sizes of valves, the values of resistances, etc.).
In this chapter, we emphasize how to select the parameters and components for
engineering systems. To do this, we must irst have a model that accurately describes

f
or Then
the system behavior. TTien we
we must
must deve
deve lop operational
lop operational constraints,
consiramts, ranges
ranges, imn«
anfe

f
istics to help us select the values of the com-
performance goals or desired character number of criteria as the required number
'

ponenls. We would like to have the same

his renard helpful to normalize and rearrange the
of parameters. In this regard iti is extremelv
,

301
 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of c0m
302 8nts
Sec. 10.2 Voltage Power Supply Filter 303

equations to make them signi f i can t recognizable factors (Suri

terms in the system
the static gain, loop gain, impedance ratio, time constant, ratio of open-loop to *
l

loop factors, etc.). It is wise to initially idealize the system by neglecting fri? 12

hieher-order dvnamic effects, and minor degradation factors m order to determ

which coefficients have a predominate effect upon performance factors Once tfo? .

done, the coefficients can be selected on the basis of the performance factor o v

which they have the most influence (e.g.. feedback gain should be selected on ft! *
(volts)

basis of static gain, output impedance of an amplifier should be selected on the bas515
of the system time constant or system dynamics, etc.).
At first glance, this will seem like an open-ended process; and indeed, a god 0
spreadsheet relating the basic component values to the system static and dynam n 1 c
Figure 10.2 Output characteristics
performance characteristics and behavior is very useful and often necessary How i. (amps) of transformer power supply.
ever, in this chapter, we consider several examples and illustrate how to use certaii
performance factors and characteristics to help select the required component para- The transformer has limited current capability, and the output voltage e0 de-
meter values even when the performance is not stated or very obvious. as shown in Figure 10.2. Thus, the equivalent cir-
grades with the output current , f Ri
cuit for this system is an ideal voltage source es with an output resistance o
as

10.2 VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY FILTER shown in Figure 10.1b. This transformer can produce 12 volts peak-to peak with no -

= *) or can deliver 1 5 amp with a short circuit

load placed on the transformer {RL impedance (AVAi, = 12 volt/1.5 amp) is 8
.

An electronic power supply system shown in Figure 10.1a is used to provide a volt- {RL = 0). Thus, the effective output
ohms. The equivalent load impedance is 48 ohms.
,
,

age source for a circuit In this system, a transformer is used to convert 60 Hz 120 it allows currenthen
to
When the rectifier is forward biased (i.e.. when es > e0),
.

VAC (rms) to 12 volts peak-to-peak. This reduced voltage is then rectified with a
,

little resistance; when the rectif

i er is reversed biased (i.e., w
half-wave rectifier A capacitor is used to smooth the rectified AC voltage to a DC pass with very Thus, the ideal component
< £?0), it allows no (or at least very litle) current to pass.
.

voltage with some ripple (or variation in voltage) The DC voltage is then used to e
s
rectifi er and source resistance is
equation for the
.

drive the load circuit that is represented by the equivalent load impedance
(10.1)
We know the characteristics of the transformer and the equivalent load im- f
5
_
=
if e, > e0
pedance; our goal is to select the capacitor so as to provide a specified amount of rip-
(10.2)
ple in the voltage supplied to the load The larger the ca if es < e0
nppic (which is desirable); but at the same time we wantpacitor,
.

the less the

to minimize
,
willcapad-
be the i =0

ua-ons and the node eqna.ion are

milTnimum
m
J.0 SaVeIvalueC,ro 11capacitanc
S
b0ard Space and for cost considerations. Therefore,
e that will give the allowable ripple? what i s the T e Cher coraPo„en. eq (10.3)
a substan ia aPP Cat,0 WC alloW aPPro*i™tely 5% ripple. Admittedly, this U
a f
n
.

(10.4)
llusu c h f0r mOSt W ions in electronics; however, it doe s e

S ile P MdUrC makeS 3 m"re

nst graph when the output is plotted (10.51
i. - »c + 'i
he
.Ke following differential eqna.ion for >
e hined .0 yield
1>H These
two operational mode
6 (
(10.6)
 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of Compo
304 Sec. 10.2 Voltage Power Supply Filter 305

if e. < ec
(10.7)
"
P ng C,'CU,t Values a Emulation of this system reveals
the filtering charactenst.es of the circuit. Since we are interested only In the steady-
'
eo-
RLC th. fil r a v. .

We could s.mp y try d>

.

rv different
. »terem values of C in a transient response simulation untiu,
u we
state response we can start the sytem with the initial condition equal to the mean
an estimate of o '' (average) steady-state value of the output voltage. In this case, the mean output is
achieved a response analysis. (See Chapter 8 g- equal to the mean input times the static gain:
"l wh'en it is charging the capacitor is
.

"
t o 1
s
0 mean -
t'
\ mtiin
(10.12)
RSC
T = (10.81
{1 + rJ The mean input of a rectified sine wave of amplitude A is
The frequency ratio (the excitation frequency, 60 Hz, divided by the circuit
(10.13)
break frequency, w, = 1/t) is j mean
7T

R5C
if)
- = yv = (10.9 Thus, the expected steady-state value of the output voltage is
1 + 2 A 2 12 volt (10.14)
-

= 6.55 volts
/

Solving this frequency ratio equation for the capacitance C yields the following
criterion: «ith .his iniiai condUion .0 avoid dynamic nam
We should star, the simulation

dynam,c s.muiaUon or .his s i supT-

7?.
(10.10)
SSeclose'Sto ourSi
allowable va
). lue.
« .he Hppie is
If the system were linear which is very
,
excitation of the circuit at a frequency ratio of 10
would produce an output of -20 dB which is equivalent to 9.95% ripple (refer lo
,
14 I-
Chapter 8) Since the system is nonlinear (due to the rectifier) the driving frequency
.

is more closely approximated by a 30-Hz voltage signal instead of 60 Hz; thus, an ac- 12 h
tual frequency ratio of 10 will appear lo respond more like 20 in this nonlinear svv
tern
A
4 99%
frequency
.

ratio of 20 in a linear system would produce an expected ripp le of 10 h

.
,
which is close lo our allowable value of 5% Using the circuit values given
earlier .

,
we can calculate the ideal capacitance with a frequency ratio of 10: I 8
i

1 + 1 6
4X 10
8 ohm = 3868 \ii (10.11) I
ra<
60 X 2Tr
Of course ,

a capacitor of 3868 /xf cannot be purchased

rmally
norma
cause the
come in relatively coarse increments (1 2
As a matter of fact, capac>
2 3.3,4.7, 6.8. etc.). simp1?
.

I) D 03
.
0 10
.

Time is)
i»c the capacitors themselves are coarse The reason for this is that tolerances fot
. .
,

0f voltage supply fiUer.

rs are ±20% or worse; therefore a closer spacing of capacitance valu'- '
nea ,
10J TYansienl response
mnglcss Larger capacitors come i n better increments
r can he purchased ,
and a 3 ]
 306 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of r
0N
10.3 AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE SYSTEM Sec. 10.3 Automotive Brake System
307

Let us now consider the brake system typical of a race car The syste
.

ter cylinders with a bias bar to adjust the bias of braking effort in th
,
m has tw
e from a d S X S t : a,ios r
static weight distribu. oL onhe rr3/r0nVa"d
„"**
b "
** - «
**
The goal of an optimum system is to distribute the braking efforts betwe
and the rear in order to compensate for variations in the road surface
en ih
wearin
,
* pressure generated by the master ,J "
J"*'" dUrin8 ""demttai H.e.

tires, and shifts in the distribution of weight from the rear to the front du
ring h
This example considers weight transfer due to the dynamic o
tern and illustrates the practical modeling of a complete system. It perati o n 7 MSr rs:,orque a ,he~ s

t
example of how to generate criteria that are sufficient to size a
is incl ud Since this example is rather lengthy and involved the nomenclature used in
35
nents of an actual engineering system. nd select the analyzing the system is presented next.
,

compo -

NOMENCLATURE FOR BRAKE SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Tire
Pedal a acceleration of vehicle
Master
Caliper Ffoot force applied to pedal by driver s foot
m cylinder Fbim force transmitted to bias bar
3 Lp length of pedal lever to ball of driver's foot

Lb length of pedal lever to bias bar

i G mechanical advantage of pedal and intermediate lever ratios
m

g
Disk Sxf motion of foot
ool

Sxbias motion of bias bar

a mtf- u
yy, Yr length of bias bar to front and rear master cylinders
Yb total length of bias bar = Yf + Yr
ta) Xbfi Xbr bias of forces to front and rear master cylinders
F
mf> Fmr force to front and rear master cylinders
8xmf% 8xmr displacement of front and rear master cylinders when brakes are
applied
Dmf. Dmr diameter of front and rear master cylinder pistons = tt D 4 and
A mf y A area of front and rear master cylinder pistons
t

i
front and rear master cylinders
SPf% SPr pressure generated in
D;, diameter of front and rear brake caliper pistons
r

Df/,
D /4 W Df2f/4
2

/C area of ronl and rear braked rear

Caliper piSt0nS
I) =
cf

f
"

8x Sx displacement of front an caliper pistons

l
'

uid displaced in front and rear ca lipers as piston strokes

SV Sv volume of

f f
s

SV V volume of luid displaced in front and rear master cylinders as p

-

ton strokes
(b) displaced in front and rear master cylinder, due to
SV 51/ volume of lility
uid
compressibf th of front and re ar caliper cyl.n dcrs
L*. Lcr equivalent leng
 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of Comp its
308
Sec. 10.3 Automotive Brake System
309
th of front and rear master cylinders
t f
r equivalent leng
Vr Vr total volume of luid in front and rear brake systems (with nopre , m ' foot (10.15)

f
where G ,,,
is the mechanical advantage of the lever
ke luid
0 bulk modulus of bra

f
t of friction of brake pa d on disk
coefficien
d /„ offset distance to the cen ter of front and rear calipers
c-4
m
(10.16)
'

dII dI diameter of front and rear

.
brake disks For small angular motions of the pedal , the kinematics of the motion between the
„ nr number of disks in the front and rear foot and the bias bar can be stated as
ires
Z)tf, Z)ff diameter of front and rear t
(10.17)
Tf, Tr front and rear torque generated by one brake disk
f Fdr front and rear tire braking force generated by one brake disk The force from the bias bar is distributed to the master cylinders according to the ad-
Ff, Fr front and rear total braking force from both tires justment of the bar. as illustrated in Figure 10.6.
W total weight of vehicle and driver
h height from ground to the center of gravity of vehicle and driver
Z/, Zr distances from front and rear tires to the horizontal location of the
center of gravity 1 SP ,

B wheelbase of vehicle '

X X*, static weight distribution on front and rear tires y, V r
-

wf*
M , W weight on front and rear tires (including static and weight transfer)
r
F Km

G deceleration of vehicle in g's = -a/g

H coefficient of adhesion between tire and pavement

10.3.1 Foot Pedal Geometry and Forces L

Figure 10.6 Bias bar force
The foot pedal assembly shown in Figure 10.5 has an input force from the ball of the distribution.
oot that u amphfied by the pedal lever ratio to produce a force to the bias bar as il- the
,
A force balance on the bias bar
reveals .he relanon between the force on
n tr
that the force f ansmitted
8Ure- Fr0mto the
t0rque
biasbalances
bar is aboul e main pedal pivot, we know bar and the forces transmitted to the master cyhnders.
f

(iai8)
Sx
foot

Using torqUe balances

termine the forces to the J
ab u Jhe pivot
.

5)
be at 50% for the nom,na l *™"
maximum brakmgs,siluation. We have

Fm.- x„ em ** '

*» *
i
...

where
(I0.20a.b)

Figure 10 5
. Fool pedal lever to l1iaS
bar.
 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of Com Pone
310 Sec. 10.3 Automotive Brake System 311

and V, AmfLmf+nfAcfLcf Vr = Amr Lmr + nr Acr Lcr (10.28a.b)

or (10.21

the def l ections of the bias bar can be stated as fol,OWs % n nceof
phance
Ih! " intercon""tmg lines and the mechanical com-
of the lines themselves are neglected in the analysis
T e kinematics of
The displaced volume of the master cylinders allows us to calculate the strokes
mall angular motions): of the cylinders:
and 8xf00l = G [Xhf8xmf + Xhr8xmr] (10,22
?.Xbim = Xhf8xmf+ Xbr8Xmr m a .
b)
„ a 1
Lcf
, AmfLmf + nfACfLcf\
8Vm/ _
nf Acf +
Q j8Pf
8x
mf
_
=
fl0.29a)
10.3.2 Brake Hydraulics and Pad Friction A
mf 1

The forces to the master cylinders produce static pressures that depend upon the area n A L +(A L'nr + nrAcrLcr\ p
of the piston (neglecting any small friction due to the motion of the piston itself): fl0.29b) I

8xmr =

An,r

SPf=Amf
F
8P r = (10 . 23a b) ,

These strokes can now be used to determine whether the master cylinder has
These pressures cause the pistons in the brake calipers to apply a force to the disks enough stroke for the brakes and to calculate how much the foot moves:
by friction of the brake pads. This force is the pressure times the caliper piston area
nfAcfLcf+ 8Pf] Ua L + Sp}
'

(whether the caliper has one or two pistons). The center of the force is offset a dis- E (10.30)
+G Xbr
tance from the outer edge of the brake disk. The coefficient of friction of the brake 8xfool = GmX m

pad material on the disk causes a force to be transmitted to the disk

(force = /xft x normal force). Since there are two pads (one on each side), the force
is doubled. These forces cause a torque on the wheel by the action of the frictional
forces at a radius of half of the disk diameter minus the offset distance of the centei 10.3.3 Braking Forces on the Car
of the caliper piston.Thus the torque on the individual wheel is
,

= Cf[f - Tdr = Cf - d 8Pr (10.24a,b) I and are the torq ue divided by the radius of the tire.
The caliper coefficient C is twice the area of the piston (since there are two pads, JJL _
Tdr (10.31a.b)
each causing frictional forces on the disk) times the coefficient of friction of the pad \
_

tdr DJ2
each disk times the number o
f disks in the
Cr = 2 Acr fib (10.25a.b are the forces on
The total braking forces
The brake calipers deflect a small amount 8x when actuated and therefore displace front and rear: (10.32a.b)
a small volume 8V of luid in the front and rear brakes:
C
c
F =n F
f

"
A/S*c/ 8Vcr = n r
Acr8x
cr
(lO )

K d
Place
iLtrJ' J T di SPl a Ced
!heinVO,Ume
PlU the
u
mast
ofelr uid
cy, i nder'
quired 8Vn.
dueis equal
to the tocompressibility
the vol u me di0s- f
rear can be stated as
f

he luid « T
" 1 0f lhe V0lume of luid is elated to the bulk modulus o
u.d. /3 and the pressure in the system We obtain (DM) Ami
f
f

I10.33M

(10 ) = (3 2)
SV = 8V
cr
+ SP r
Fr

total volume of luid in each system isI Rivc

given by
f
 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of Comp
312
Sec. 10.3 Automotive Brake System
313

ship, me
Ty!31 brakin8 f0rCeS fr0nt and rear also ha- a >"ear -lation-
F =
- dor) Dlf Amf{l - Xhf)
(10.34) "
fCf{Ddf/2 - dof) D„AmrXbf ' (10.35)

This relationship is shown in Figure 10 7b, and the slope of the graph can be set with
.

the bias bar.

as shown in Figure 10.7a.
10.3.4 Weight Transfer with Deceleration
do

To determine what the car needs, we show , in Figure 10.8a a car with its wheelbase and
,

11
the location of its center of gravity illustrated. Figure 10.8b illustrates the forces acting
v
on the car. The force of gravity, Mg, and the deceleration force. Ma, act at the center of
SO
gravity of the car; the reaction forces at the wheels illustrate the force or weight on the
B front and rear wheels, as well as the adhesion forces of the tire with the road.
E
E
First, note that the weight of the car is the mass times the pull of gravity g:
3

I W = Mg (10.36)
Second, observe that the force due to deceleration a can be expressed as a
function of the weight and the normalized acceleration, or the acceleration divided
by the pull of gravity:

Pressure in from

la)

Y
ck

77777
-

z
f
-B

(a)
ti
c
0

Force on front lircs (b)

(b) dimensions and

forces, (a) Geometry of .he car
IM, 10.8 Car
fb) Forces acting on the car.
drrP eassures, (b) Stoppmg forceslhe(from
brakeandsystem.
rear) .
 314
Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of q 0

Sec. 10.3 Automotive Brake System

315

Ma = Mg =W~ = WG (.0 3]
,
where

The ratio agis termed the g s of deceleration:

'

+ Z = B and thus X + XW = 1
r .
wf (10.43a.b)
G = - A torque balance at the points of contact of the front and rear tires consider-
8 (10.38) ing deceleration, yields the weight transfer equations
,

A force balance in the direction of gravity relates the instantaneous Wei8h BWf = Z W + hWG BW = Z W - hWG
each set of wheels to the weight of the car:
l OB r r
,
(10.44a.b)
or

f r (10 39)
.

-X + G (10.45a.b)
A force balance in the direction of motion relates the deceleratinn t
~

lIunioth W wf W _ B
adhesion forces: eiire I
10.3.5 Tire Adhesion
WG = F
f+ F
w+ ~G
ox
r
w (10.40) Tire adhesion is somewhat like friction, except in friction we normally have relative
From ihis result we see that the sum of the forces from the tire adhesion is motion or slip between the two surfaces, whereas with tires we want there to be ad-
related I hesion without the sliding motion. In this case, we define slip as the velocity of the
,

to the deceleration g's Thus, lines of constant deceleration can be

shown in the gra tire relative to the road as a percentage of the car s speed. If we apply the brakes to
'
.

of Figure 10 9 ph
the maximum and cause a total tire lockup, then we have 100% slip: if we apply the
. .

A static torque balance at the point of contact of the front and rear tires with brakes until the tires are slipping slightly (and probably just starting to squeal), the
we
the road defines the static weight distribution on the front and rear tires: will have the maximum braking effect, as shown in Figure 10.10. In the igure,

f
adhesion force to the total normal force, or
braking adhesion is the ratio of the lire This ratio of
(10.41a.b) weight on the tire, at that instant (static weight plus weight transfer).
Thus
forces is also equal to the normalized deceleration, or g\
,
the static weight distributions on the front
and rear wheels are given by
1 5 r-
.

X = (10.42a.b
wr B u

25

5 h
/
21

/
V

10 Figure 10.10 Tire adhesion charac-

leristics and maximum *
0

0 11
Wheel slip (*)

Porcc in Irom

une8 of constant deceleratio n .

 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of Comp0ne Us
316
Sec. 10.3 Automotive Brake System
317

. cop-- ierauuu «..u, lucl

from the drivers foot will have less dece i

effort
si p. or tire loc kup. Similar to the coeff i c. e nt of fnct.on,
the igure.
the coeff i c.ent of adhesi ,
o|

a tire fi is the maximum value shown in

f
f the force ratio of the (W
At this juncture, we point out the equivalence o
the tire), the coefficient of adhesion
ation force to the normal force (or weight on '
rz

and the normalized deceleration (or g s). I)

p

10.3.6 Optimum Brake Distribution

From the previous discussion, we can see that if the braking forces are less than M
times the weight on the tire, then we have adhesion. That is,
if F Wf and Fr <then adhesion (10.46a,b) Force in from

The maximum braking effectiveness, or the optimum braking force, is achieved Figure 10.11 Optimum brake distribution.
when the braking forces are exactly equal to /i times the weight on the tire:
F} = tiW 1 F* = u.Wr (10.47a,b)
Boih lires
Rear tires skidding / skidding
Further, in optimal braking, the braking forces in the front and rear achieve the op-
timum values at the same time.Thus, the optimum brake distribution can be stated ra

Ff Wf \ hi F* W [ /i 1 u

tlW=fl X'°f +BG W = lXW = txX ~BG (10-48a'b)

=

W v
-

V
_
/ Front tires skidding

Recalling that the sum of the weight distribution is equal to 1 0 noting that .
,

the sum of the previous two equations is thus equal to /a, and then remembering
that the sums of the front and rear braking forces are each equal to W G, we can see
Force in front
that the maximum deceleration of the car is equal to u if the brake bias is set to the
optimum In other words
.

ion of braking forces exce eding the optimal value.

Figure 10.12 Illustrat
,

/
f I causing skidding.
smce -i. + -l=sG and ii T
w
(10.49)
to the front or rear tires than is optimal. Tlierefore any tire
will apply more pressure

eke tSn diStribUti0n eqUati0nS yie,dS the 0ptinlUm

f

h
2 .
i - (10.51a.b)
w (10.50a.b) sp,
or, - /n \

urc 10
l lf
t } thi s i s now
n{ 10 rcar ,<,rces
a neTrehSons That'thelloptiF.g-- „ of™
.o achieve .His
™ *ZZ
s a Unction of the /x of the road. (Reca ,
the optimum brak.ng po.n. for a given).
,
.
9.)
through
a X'oltt rST
f ,,lc h
* lraph 0, " 11 . Rgure 10.12 illustrates
h ' r is set too high or too low, then the br
,
that. akes
in Figure 10.13.
 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of Cort! Pon
318
Sec. 10.3 Automotive Brake System
319

t to include a safety factor. A typical driver would expect to push the brake pedal

f
<;
with a foot force of about 100 Ibf to get 1.4 g's. Hence.
'
'
I M = 1 -4 g s
u
r

0
&
P = 600 psi
imix
B

U
B f. ax = 100 Ibf
o
/
9>
t*
It is desired that the bias bar be set to 50% at maximum braking to allow minor ad-

f
,

OS V
justments for variations in /x on different road surfaces or as the tire wears.
The front brake disks must it inside the wheels. We want to use the largest di-

f
ameter of disk for better braking and for heat dissipation.Thus, the maximum possi-
ble diameter of the disk is 10.5 inches, but we will try to use a 10.0 inch disk for more
Force in front clearance. We can use a disk of 9 to 11 inches in the rear. The calipers have an offset
of 0.875 inch to the center of the caliper piston. Mathematically,
Figure 10.13 Optimum braking forces and bias bar adjustment for a
given \i. Djf = 10 in

This optimum bias bar setting can be expressed as Dj, = 9 to 11 in ,

1
h \
(10.52)
HfCADJl-dJD
f A X - - The irst selection is the coefficients of the calipers, from the tire forces re

f
i wr

1 + quired for deceleration at 1.4 g's

n
r
C r
(DJl-dBr) DlfAmflxw f
+
F
*
=a \x f+yW = 1 4 0.45 + . 1-4 650 Ibf = 613 Ibf (10.53a)

10.3.7 Engineering Sizing for a Specific Application 650 Ibf = 297 Ibf (10.53b)

In order to illustrate the sizing and selection of brake components and parameters,
we will consider a small race car known as Formula S AE® and used in intercollegiate
engineering competitions The size and specifications of a typical car are as follows:
.

lected pressure is (10.54a)

W = 650 Ibf (including driver)
f 10.54b)
B = 75 inch
=n r
Cr iDj2-<lor)Prma*= 2 r mm

t = 12 inch
f

arc
of the calipers
X = 0 45 Thus, the coefficients
thus X = 0 55
wf
in 613 Ibf Ibf
.

= 1.24 -
110.55a)
2
Dlf = 20 inches and Dlr = 20 inches 2 1 fmax __
__
__
__
_
_

roi75)ln600 psi Psl

__

In this application, two brake disks

the rear , to
are used in the front and only one brake disk m
20 in 297 Ibf Ibf 110.55b)
F = 1.20 .
n =2 MMU
psi
f n
,
= l 1
0 875) in 600 ps.
Ihe slick race tires a 1(10/2 _
.

Weal bra ca2 h<,ld ]A * braking on a typical road surface.

components ar c rated at KKK) psi; therefore, we will use about 600 pS'
 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of Co mPon
320
Sec. 10.3 Automotive Brake Syst em

A of aval* «' 321

We wm n0Tefback an? '

US aPProximate - es for the master cylinders.
1 Pres.
fective lengths
r.. IpZh off the cah, pers S,der comPressibility
and master cylinders effects. Typical values for the ef-
are as follows:
L = 1 0 in = 1 0 in
= 10 in cf .
.

Ddf = 10 in
.

L
mf = 1 0 . in L mr
= 1 0 in
.

= 1 75in Dcr = 1 75 in
D
.

f/ With a bulk modulus of about 200 000 psi the volume displaced by the master cylin-
,
,

A
cf
= 2A05in2 >lfr = 2.405 in2 ders that is required to compensate for the compressibility is
C = i .44 Ibf/psi Cer = 1.44 Ibf/psi
8Pf = 517 psi 5Fr = 500 psi
=
[0.577in21.0in
L
. 2 X 2.
200,000 psi
4 05inM. 0 in1
J F
= ao,7a)
We still have several parameters to select that are multiplied together.
need some rationale, however, for selecting them individually rather than selecting
their product. We can select an approximate value for the area of the master cylin-
der if we know the strokes of the caliper and master cylinder pistons. However, the
equation for the area of the master cylinder is nonlinear; still, we can make some _
r0.289in21.0in + 1 x 2.405 in21.0 inl =0 (10>57b)
simplifying approximations to get a preliminary answer. First, we will neglect the 200.000 psi
compressibility effects and solve for the area from the deflection equations We .

This incremental volume required for compressibility must be compared to the

must allow for the compressibility by making the area larger; and further the ac- i nd the signif i cance on the stroke of the
displaced volume required of the calipers to
,

f
tual stroke of the master cylinder must be less than the maximum allowable
stroke. Thus master cylinders:
the area must actually be larger than that calculated in what follows
, .

in20.030 in + 0.0139 in3 = 0.1582 in (10 58a)

.

Typical brake calipers have a pad deflection of about 0 015 inch per pad. for a . 8V f=8Vcf+ 8Vpf = 2 x 2.405
total displacement of 0 030 inch. A typical maximum stroke of the master cylinder is m20.030 in + 0.0067 in = 0 0789 in3 (10.58b)
8V - 8V + iV = 1 x 2.405
. .

0 500 inch
but we will use about half of the maximum stroke to accommodate the pos-

f
l
.

jZ lacement volume increase of 10.0 and 9.0

,

sibility of air in the brakes and the increased stroke required if air is present We can . the co pressibiUty represents a disp
use these numbers for an approximate calculation of the area. For the front, we have for the front and rear master cy,in area requ.rements. tak-
Now if we go back and reevaluate he mast r cy of
A
.„
> ItMtsL = iiiM* in '
0 030 in
.

= ing into account the compr ess.b.hty. we can P

ix ml 0 250 in
master cylinders:
f

This
area results in a front master cylinder piston diameter of 8Vmf _
01582] = 0 33 j 7 (10.59a)
A -,
> 78 x 0 250 in
.

.
ml
D > 0.857 iin
„,f (10.59b)
For the rear we have
8Vmr =
0 78W . 0 316 in2
, Amr > 77" 0 250 in
.

Amr > Ji-' AsAr,

it
12<2A05 in2 0.030 in
0 250 in
= 0 .
289 in2 (10.56b) in .aster
areas resuU
front and rear, r«pc ve ront ™* ™Z
f

"ir
.

ces on the *?r<**'

* t>e p
in 3 rCM for the "omm ' case master areas must

f
finder piston d.ameter of about 50%) Hius. the r
be about the same. tios.
-

will
Dmr > 0.606 in tional to the pressure ra
 322
Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of c
Sec. 10.4
DC Motor Speed Servo C
ontrol System 323
Amr i\-Xbf)8Pf no

Since the front and rear pressures are about the same, and the bias bar is a
o
mg aBooi reqi
Slnred SS
compone! Tnt values
0!enSineeringanalysis
in this automotiveand the rationale for si z -

t
brake system
0 W the master cylinders should be the same size. A rev w of available master c
.

,A'u,
v

siies reveals that diameters 750, and 0.875 inch are available f "
of 0.625.0.700,0 .

10.4 DC MOTOR SPEED SERVO CONTROL SYSTEM

he following inal s %
ering the trade-of f between area and stroke, we make t electi0n

f
As our next example of sizing and selecting component consider the DC motor speed
D
mf
= 0 .
750in with Amf = 0.442 in2 and SXmf = 0 358 in
.

servo control system of Chapter 7 that is represented b

for the modeling of this closed-loo y Figure 10.15. (See Section 7.2.1
Dinr = 0 750 in with Amr = 0.442 in2
.
and 8Xmr
= 0 .
179 in p control system.)
Notice that the front master cylinder strokes slightly more than half the stroke
the rear master cylinder strokes less than half the stroke. and
With these areas selected, we can now consider the forces required on th e nias'
ler cylinder push rods, namely, Amplifier
+

j
controller
F
mf
= A
mf Pf = 0.442 in2 517 psi = 229 Ibf (10.61a)
Fm = A P, = 0.442 in2 500 psi = 221 ibf t*

f
mr
(10.61b)
The force on the bias bar can be calculated as

Fhi = Fmf
a,
+ Fmi = 229 Ibf + 221 ibf = 450 Ibf (10 62)
.

The driver force at the pedal is about 100 Ibf; hence, the overall pedal lever ratio is h Inertia. 7

G 4501bf
G _ "
_
-
=4 50 Tachomeicr
m
iooibf
-

(10.63)
r
With these selected values, the actual optimum brake bias setting is 50 8%
pressure performance illustrati .
,
and the
ng optimum pressures pressures with various bias
bar settings and various foot efforts is shown in Figure 10
,

14.
,

Figure 10.15 DC motor speed servo control system.

600
<j3
The transfer function for the system, from Chapter 7. is
t l/h - RolKl
f

K 400 h

l 300
+
*
Gh
/ 0 -

(10.64 )
n J
f'
0 K / R,, D + 1
./

100
UKl -
UK I
r.(H) 700
P'cs\ure(p$i) Figure 10 14.
Pressure perfor-
mance of brake system.
 324
Chap-10 System Design and Selection of Corr,

hout the system is the

the inertia J and the friction B in an 0{
.

Sec. 10.4 DC Motor Speed S

ervo Cont rol System
We 't
c requirements d.c ihc syslem sh ld hav
bearings- T*c pf
for a 10 volt nPu ms. we know
a

ond ln addmon
e
325

we want to us
Tem to have atinie drive lhe otor- CO nStant of r = O.lW e
only iniUal speafi
.

SP r
e
0

generate
cal
m t0 determine the remammg u Wm =

J
lhe followtng nomenclature (10.65)
analysis.
ln 0U ,

t B

(l + Zr + Gt)D + 1

NOMENCLATURE FOR DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL amplifier input e back

G/i

Ed voltage input command (10.66)

a) motor speed
m
Notice that the loop gain is dimensionless (or rather has units of volt/voli),

The impedance ratio Z is the ratio of the mechanical impedance B to the out-
.

TL disturbance torque applied to load ,

G amplifier gain put impedance of the amplifier as reflected through the motor K: .
R „
:

R amplifier output impedance B

0 7 =
'

K-/R (10.67)
K motor constant
J mass moment of inertia of disk Notice that the reflected amplifier impedance has the units of mechanical imped-
M mass of disk ance, even though the reflected impedance is determined by an electrical impedance
and the constant of the electromagnetic motor .

r radius of disk The maximum power transfer from the motor to the load occurs when the out-
B viscous friction of load put impedance of the motor matches (is equal to) the input impedance of the load.
B In steady-state operation, this impedance ratio Zp should be equal to 1.0 for max-
h gain of feedback sensor .

E imum power transfer. However, considering that the system operates dynamically at
f voltage output from feedback sensor its maximum frequency (w = 1 t). the impedance ratio should lake into account
GL loop gain the impedance of the inertia, as well as the impedance of the friction. A dynamic im-
Z, impedance ratio pedance match will make the motor output impedance K2 R0 equal to the dynamic
desired time constant of the closed loop system load impedance,//t + i.The impedance ratio can then be expressed as

f
-

rMMrf natural time constant of th 1

(for d ynamic operation (10.68)
e load Z =
Pf lime constant
parameter + 1
B T
e error signal i

&
e* maximum error signal allowable before
saturation occurs whetner we wam f
m supply voltage used to drive the moto static case, depending upon
r namic operation:
% maximum voltage used on the input command -
I
L _ <Z s 1.0 (10.69)
V
1041 + 1
cr And Se,ec. ion Of B t

Berore we ****
mine which performance cn.em should be
,
ermSof ' ' P n we will restate the transfer function in
/
. anu me impedance ratio Z :
 Chap. 10 System
Sy stem Design
uesign and Selection of
anu oeiection of (c 0rTiP
o
326
Sec 10.4 DC Motor Speed Servo Control Syst em
in is determine d chiefny
ly by
oy the
u.c feedback gain; the
„a &ailv 327
the
the static
static gain
ga is determined chie response,
dynamic and
nse, and the
the loop
loop gain
gail
"'
Put
syS!e of *.
systems, omnHf
the amp i
lif er affects the dynamic respo
pedance
*
-

of the servo that

system.
ects t|,t
the amph
h J V fier e s larger thaI n6theexam,nin8 wi» become
critical value e* saturated if the input signal to
which is determined bv the maxi-
effectiveness
The first coefficient we can select is based upon the static gain -p. mum output voltage £* and the amplifier gain G.That is.
.

most effect upon static ga in is the feedback gain h thr Para

meter that has the £*
e < e* _ _m (10.75)
equation G

(10.7 The steady-state error signal found from the system transfer function (with
,

TL = 0), is (after reduction using Eq (10.65)) .

F*
(10.76)
Thus, the feedback gain should be i +
1 + Zr
1

Using the preceding two equations, we can solve for the maximum allowable
h = (10.71) amplifier gain to avoid saturation:
1 +
(10.77)

The dynamic response is determined by the system time constant We find the motor constant K from the loop gain and the selected values for h and G:
K = OA (10.78)
G
T = (10.72)
(1 + Zr + GL) defi-
Finally, we can calculate the required ampl i f i er output impedance R0 from the
The natural time constant, r of the open-loop system is 7/5. which usually nition of the impedance ratio:
will be very large (indicating a slow system response). The closed-loop time constant
(10.79)
will be very small (indicating a fast system response) compared to that of the open- 0
~

B
loop system. We can express our desired closed-loop time constant as a function of
the open-loop time constant by defining the time-constant parameter the values of our components. We select the loop gain
We can now begin selecting d dynamic and static lim its.
ratio to be between our specifie
7 GL to cause the impedancecalculate h. G. K, and R,, as illustrated in the next su
bsection.
(10.73) Then, knowing Zr. we can
ndiurnl (1 + Zr + G,)
Since / B and rare all known, P is known and the impedance ratio can be found as 10.4.2 Selection of Numeric Values
10 inch diameter disk that weighs
,
T ,

a function of the loop gain: ion has a uniform

Hie system under considerat

2r
(1 + GL) (10.74) 2 pounds. Thus, the inertia is (10.80)
Mrl Jjbf5MnVft_ = 00M14 in Ibf s2
=

(1 " Pr)
x
-

- T/ _

This impedance ratio should be selected to be in the range specified in Eq. (10.69)-
J m 2 2 X 32.18 ft 12 in ricon
, .000 rpm. Hence, .ho i
Amplifiers have a maximum output value that is limited by the supply voltage-
Ifth the input caused the output to reach this maximum value then further increases in
Xh. motor Md bebearings have 0,333 in ,bf of fricion a
calculated as
coefficient can
e input will not cause a proportionate increase in the output and the output wii
rem
,

0 . 333jnlbf__ . 0.(X)?183 in Ibfs

ain fixed as the input increases .
ion ano
This nonlinear effect is termed saturat
,

B = rev 27rrad
will limit the rate at which the servo system responds 1000
l"ngcr be predicted by the linear performance factors, itBecause
is
the
usually
response
desirable
will
to
.

&
avow ,
60s rev
saturation eff ects in a system.
 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of n
Sec. 10.4
1
DC Motor Speed Servo Control Syst
constant, or the time constant o
f the open-loop system is em
329
The natural time 2
0 06474 in Ibfs .
This motor would produce 1007 rpm al 48 volts
Tnvurai-B 0 003183 in Ibf s s The amplifier output impedance R can be calculated as follows (not
.
(j
some rather involved conversions from ft Ibf s to wall or volt amp are required):
0
e thai
The desired time constant of the system, t,
is 0.100 second. Thus, we can calcU|
time-constant parameter
as a,e th e
0 047652 voU2 602 *2 v2
0 007412
.

'
.

t 0.100 s -
- rev2 (Ztt)2 rad2 A
volt
= 0 004917 B = 4.267 -

(10.89)
.

0 003183 lb{ s f1 1 356 volt amp amp

(10.83)
-

20.34 s .

ui in rat
12 in t Ibf

f
From this parameter, we can calculate the impedance ratio. Using a loop s

of GL = 0.5, we obtain To summarize, we have calculated the following values for the parameters as
our best selections:
+ GQ 0-004917(1 + 0.5)
Z = Wl-P =

1 - 0.004917
=

(10,84 voll
T Feedback gain: h = 0 003317 -
.
(3.317 volts @ 1000 rpm)
rpm
We must compare this value of the impedance ratio to the values specified prevj .

volt
ously. For a dynamic impedance matc h we have
,
Amplifier aain; G = 7.182 (48 volt output for 6.68 voll input)
voll
1
= 0 004892 volt
/ 20.34 s
.

(10.85) Motor constant: K = 0.04765 (1007 rpm @ 48 volts)

+ 1 + 1 rpm
Bt 0 10 s .

volt
The impedance ratio required for a dynamic impedance match is 0 00489; for asta- .
Output impedance: R0 = 4.267 (11.25 amps from 48 volt amplifier)
amp
tic impedance match it is 1.0. Thus, our impedance ratio of 0.007412 is 1 5 times the
Now we are faced with the challenge of inding these components from suppliers.
, .

dynamic (or minimum) value and is much less than the value required for a sialic

f
match. :M The sensor gain and the amplifier gain can be trimmed from existing components
the motor constant can be selected only in d iscrete values from
The feedback gain can be calculated from the desired static gain Gf and the very easily: however,
foregoing parameters: existing motors.Thus, we probably cannot ind a motor with a constant exactly equal
tor with a constant

f
to 0.04765 voll rpm. However, a close available substitute is a mo
200 rpm @ 48 volts). In a similar ma nner, an amplifier with this
volt of 0.04 volt rpm (1 itute with an output im-
G5
100 rpm output impedance is also somewhat difficult to idnd. A subst

f
volt
h =
= 0 003317 (10.86) ohms is available and will be use instead.
+ 0.007412 \
.
pedance of 4.0 we can adjust the other param eters We will mam
-

1 + i + rpm With these new values selected, er, the loop gain must change
05
tain the static mn and time constant as specif i ed. Howev
d K are all known, we have
.

Henauhe feedback sensor would produce 3 317 volts at 1000 rpm to accommodate the stock components Smce t /?. an

f
.
volt 1.356 volt amps
The amplifier gain G should be as high as possible without causing saturation;
.
-

we therefore select the maximum gain: 0 . 003183 in Ibf s 4.0 n =

BRo
G= \ 48volt/
Z =
K2
=

0 042l
/volt60syi2Ln
05
U7182- (io-W
.

i+ io ul1 +
.
~

i + 0 007412/
.
volt
Ihc motor constant K can now be calc
ulated: n be caicuiaieu
The new loop gain ca
volt (l-/>),Zr 1. * (1 0.00492
-0 0.00986-1=0. 6 (10.91)
. =
.7182voU000332 rpm vo t
GL = -IT-
-

05 .
-

= 0.04765 - (10.88)
rpm
 330
Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of r
t
Sec. 10.5 Pneumatic Position Servo System 331
The new feedback gam is
volt

n301
100 £ -147- 7
; =
=
= 0 voit 6, - d
w
inlbf/L
m (0.10s)D + l (10-94c)
1 +
These components will result in a servo syslem with 1000 rpm output for 10
volts input, will have a time constant of 0 100 second, and will degrade 14.7 rpm per
The new amplifier gain, based upon the loop gain and selected components j , in Ibf of torque disturbance.
.

volt l

f
0 996 0.04
.

GLK rpm volt

= = 8 024
.

h volt volt (10.93 10.5 PNEUMATIC POSITION SERVO SYSTEM

0 004965
.

rpm
Pneumatic position servo systems are used in numerous applications because of
The gain required to avoid saturation is 9.533 volt/volt; thus , G is less than th their ability to position loads with high dynamic response and to augment the force
Sat,1
ration gain. required to move the loads. Pneumatic systems are also very reliable. The power
The inal values selected for the parameters of our DC motor speed brake system on most cars is actually a pneumatic position servo that actuates the
brake master cylinder with a stroke identical to that produced by the foot pedal, but
f

SerV0
using components available from stock ,
are as follows: '

with a force greater than that applied by the foot.

K = 0.040
volt 1 For our sizing example, we consider the pneumatic servo modeled in Chapter 7.
rpm
(1200 rpm @ 48 volts) We intend to use this servo to actuate a 25 Ibm mass and to position the mass within a
inches.The servo must be fast enough to track a spec ified ramp
range of motion of ±2.5
R = 40
volt
input and must be stable: otherwise, no further specifications are initially stated here.
0
.

amp (12 amps from 48 volt amplifier) will be discussed as the design progresse
However we need more specific criteria thatreview of the modeling equations and the
s .

volt We refer again to Section 7.3.2 for a

h = 0.004965
(4.965 volts @ 1000 rpm) inal differential equations. Figure 10.16 illustrates this system.

f
rpm
Input
G = 8.024 (48 volt output for 5 98 volt input)
posilion
volt .

TTe .ransfer function for lhe syslem / \ Supply

) pressure Feedback
I lever

Supply
h H H
iinlicc
Flapper
1 +

No/z e
j (10.94a)
Pision
actuator

(1 + Zr + GJ D + 1 0 0

rpm
0 00986 rev 60 s M 10.16 Pneumatic position
.

"' .

>04965 volt 0 CI

Output
-" servo control system,
position
I +
.
""

09% ) d + 0.00986 + 0.996) Tl Spring

- fO soooose (10.94b) m .ransfer funCion for -he

(1 + 0.00986Ta996) D + 1
 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of c0rTlp
o
332
Sec. 10.5 Pneumatic Position Servo System 333

V0 dead volume in actuator

(7 Su + Ks Sumax maximum input command
~

k s
L
G5 closed-loop gain
A review of the nonlinear and the linear models for ibis system reveals thai
there are nine coefficients or parameters that must be determined: 8P,. M, V0. zp.
the following nomenclature Znuw k' A' and yo- From y0, we can determine d, and Q* for the nonlinear model
or dj, Q Gp, and R0 for the linear model.The linear model is used to select the co
We use *
-

efficients, and then the linear and nonlinear models are tested to evaluate the re
-

sponse.
NOMENCLATURE FOR PNEUMATIC POSITION SERVO
10.5.1 Static Operation Criteria
a input lever lengt a' = al{a + b)
h ,

b feedback lever length, 6 = bl{a + b)

'
l load and is thus i
f xed. Further, we w ill be operating
The mass is given as an inertia ly source available. Thus.
SPS supply pressure driving valve the servo from a supp ly pressure of 15 psig. which is the on
M = 25 Ibm
8P null output pressure of valve
M mass of load 8P, = 15 psig
of
'

/3 mean bulk modulus of fluid in actuator

the selection of the supply pressure is the determinaiion
Attendant upon the nominal bulk modulus for the
fomax maximum value of actuator motion from null
stroke stroke of actuator the nu
Toutpm pres sure from the valve, as well as
MAne
linearized model: (10.%)
znull null position of actuator 8 = 0.671 8P5 = 10 07 psi
.

znuii ratio of null position to stroke (10.97)

o* = 1 = 34.66 Psi
4 (8/ +
p = l.t v«" „ .
.
14.69)
, in-
zp spring preload compression
ters are specif
i ed, and we have seven parameters rema on
z ratio of spring preload to actuator stroke
Hence two of our parame fied in general terms as a funcu
V0. is parasitic and can beisspeci
p

Ftmaxm maximum load force capability at null position inc One of these.actuator. TTie dead volume the volume of fluid f ua
Fi max@sz maximum load force capability at full stroke of the size
of the is fullv retracted. Norma lly. U is ncghg.blc. but sve .annot
fittings when the actuator
.

t maximum time for ramped step input

fl„o
2,fl3 coefficients of characteristic equation
yo null value of valve input timescrsr
i
d
a fraction
es
y
„ o
r
f __.
r
rsr ....... no.98)
fysa, maximum stroke of flapper valve is about one-tenth of a diamete
dn diameter of nozzle
d, diameter of supply orifice in the actuator for the linearized model is
k stiffness of spring Thus, the nominal volume

k, closed-loo
p stiffness of servo system -
A area of actuator
w** - *.«
dp diameter of a
ctuator
K output impedance of valve
Qo output flow from valve
r r
the actuator and the maximu
m stro- ke.

stroke = 5 in
CT null flow rate to valve from
Op valve pressure gain pneumatic supply
 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of Co
334
Sec. 10.5 Pneumatic Position Servo System 335

stroke
Zmill 2 Now, by taking the ratio of the force available at maximum stroke to the force avail-
able at null, we obtain
stroke
2 p- moj iz _ y (10.1091

f
„ is convenient to define the following normalized variables: From this result, we can see that the force available at the end of the stroke is
a function of the preload compression we put on the spring. With the values already
Znuii" stroke (10.102, stated toTznuu = 0 5 and82
.
,
= 0.5.the full-stroke force is zero wilh zp = 0.52.The
max

8z
full-stroke force is thus 32% of the null force wilh zp = 1.00. Hence, the full-stroke
max
force increases with the preload compression. This occurs because the spring must
"tmax -
troke (10.103)
gel softer to meet the criteria with more preload compression: therefore, the spring
force doesn t subtract as much force from the pressure force.
'

To have the servo null at the center position of the actuator, we must haveth e
Given the difficulties of installing a spring that has been compressed to a small
term from Chapter 7 be zero. This gives the optimum relation of A/k after sodk initial length, it is in turn diff i cult to use a preload compress ion of
percentage of its d compro-
rearrangement of terms: the spring that is more t han the lenglh of the actuator. Therefore, a goo
*
M\ Zp + z rwll mise might be to use zp = 1 00. We have .

=
(10.104 = 5.0 in (10.110)
zp = 1.00 thus, zp
(10.111)
In order to determine the maximum force output at the null position (8z = 0), 1 -0.50 thus. znu//= 2.5 in
12)
at steady state {Q = 0) and with the maximum output pressure (SP0 = 8P \u = 2 5 in (10-1
0 ,

can use the dynamic force balance equation from Chapter 7 in the steady state:
s
Szmax = 0.50 thus. Szm .

With these values selected, we can now solve for the optimum spring rate. We get
F LmiaGQ = A8PS - k{zp + Z„u„) = 8PS - {zp + Z„u//)1 (10.105) F '
100 Ibf =212M/\n (10.113)

Solving this equation for k and substituting the expressions for (A/k)* and SP*/ ,
0 .
49 (Z, + zj 0.49 (5.0 + 2.5) in
,
tuator:
into the result yields the following design guide for the stiffness of the spring: A,k ratio, .e can ind the area of the ac
Now using the optimum

f
0 + 2.5) ml = 20.27 m2 (10 114)
JA]* = + = M
in [(5.
.

k=- FLmaxm
(10 106)
.

. 10.07 psi .
0 49
-
(Z, + znuU) =

\ k) 0.671 SPS_
hes.
Since a spring opposes the actuator's increasing stroke we must ensure that the ac- a piston diameter of 5. 0 8 inc of our nine p arameters.
,
This area results in
we have se ected nominal values for seven
tuator will both take a full stroke and have some excess force capability at that ful
stroke
Again, from the static force balance we can see that at full stroke,
Up to now.
values (for a' and v0) come from dynamic response criteria.
.

, The last two

ia
FLmaxmz - A8Pa - k{z + + sz 10.5.2 Dynamic Response Criter
"Ul\ ) could be in the form of a transient rc- nc

dynamic speciiorcation of the roots ol the

that charac.cns

f
Next' we need a
a specif i cation slable.evcn il we have tocom
-

=4(f) - + ZnuU + 8Z (10.107) e a

sponsc.
snon
<r the nc>
a ofrequency response, . '
d h svstem to be
X,specif i cation lor this svstem is that il will
l be a lull
satu *alinc t h e valve. The ramp wi l
tno \

equafon
.

S SSfiT1 maki the appropriate substitutions from the preced- prom.se other a,K
be able to track a ramp "P
; i ,h
J
'
is a mp inpu, wo wan. the output*
,o

sn t saturate (i.e.. y |

r
" nd that
inpu.ut&w '"J h hat the valve doc
f

positive comm and clos ely enoug

track the inp
Unw&dr m k( 8z max (10.108)
 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of c0
336

*
Sec. 10.5 Pneumatic Position Servo System
337
an v ) For this example, we want r to be 200 ms, which is ah
d with a smooth rno K
,
must' be
fast
'f oo
numan
rator
n
can
a human operator can
move the
"
input
.u
comman
u nfthpnnrmoU
, i A.. 'on-
the vaiUe of the normalized
Thus, for our pneumatic system , we have
coeffi

f
|0! R A2 .

ihcD
K V + A'Ik < 4
(10.122)
specified by
du The feedback gam a' can greatly affect the stability of a third-order system.
Suit) = u0i where u0 = The null position of the lapper-nozzle valve y0, determines the nozzle diameter dn,
(10.11S

f
,

the upstream orifice diameter d the maximum supply low Q* the pressure gain
s, .

f
Gp, and the output impedance R
then the output response of the system in the steady state is
.
0

The previous inequalities give us guidelines on how to select the inal two pa-

f
SzO) = Gsu0(t - (10.116, rameters. Since the inequalities are not linear in the two parameters that we have to
vary, we must solve them by iteration.This is best done in a spreadsheet.
Thus, the error signal is If we look at possible values of a' and y0 that meet the foregoing two inequal-
' ity requirements, we must simultaneously check for the stability of the system. Since
Sy = a' Gsu0il - - (1 - a ) u0t (10.11], the system is linear, we can calculate the polynomial coefficients of the characteris-
Substituting tic equation and solve for the roots using MATLAB.
In either case, we ind that the system is unstable for large (or normal) values

f
(1 - a') of feedback a and that we must decrease the feedback gain to almost unreasonable
'

values (we were hoping to use a = 0 5) and use a large value of y0 (which requires
'
a .

a large nozzle and upstream oriice, and consequently, a large low rate from the sup-

f
f
ply) before we can stabilize the system.
A good compromise design is to use '

into the preceding equation and rearranging yields the following expression for the a
'
=0 040.
,r V
maximum error;
and
v0 = 0.0265 in
8y (10.118)
G Aa' \
max

i+ U1 P
GAa
3 = 10-07 Psi
"

The irst normalized coefficient of the syst em is

SP=15Psi
f

M = 25 Ibm /3 = 34 7 psi .

(10.119) stroke = 5 in
ks [ A2/k I max
= ±2.50 in
Thus, for 18y fnnt
<
yo» we must have = 0 50 .
znun = 2-50 in

z = 1.00 .
zp = 5.00 in
Ml- a')
JW J k
<
yo (10.120 v =100lbf Ftm = 32,bf
GpAa') > a = 32.7 ms
T
*
/4 = 50 ms
> s v = 0.0263 in

of ,he »y«cm coefficients As an 0

time without knowing
....
se,,lin8
since we are dealing with a
dctCrniine the filing ti a'
,ime of lh" = 0.0265 in

a =0.212 in
d =0.170 in

n malizcd coefficient a as h. , PPrOX,niation and a guideline, we will use the irst

n

k = 27.21 lbf/ in
i - = 229.6 lbl/in
the t,me constant of the system so that
f

4"
, <T* (10.121)
 Chap 10 System Design and Selection of Co
338 Sec. 10.5 Pneumatic Position Servo System 339

2 = 5 080 in
A = 20.27 in
.

*
t /4 = 50 ms > a. = 31.0 ms
Q* = 705 in3/s = 24.5 SCFM
= 0.01638 Ibfs/in5 y0 = 0.0270 in > 8ysa. = 0.0269 in
3

G = 250 psi/in V0 = 10.3 in dn = 0 216 in . ds = 0 173 in .

G = 21.16 in/in k = 30 Ibf/in k = 222 Ibf/in

Sl, = 0.104 in
d the roots of the chara
With these value, we can ind the coefficients an
A = 19.63 in2 dp = 5 000 in .

f
.

licequationa3/)3 + 2 + l D + 1-0: i R0 = 0 01578 Ibf s/ins Q* = 732 in3/s = 25.4 SCFM

f
.

roots: -31.36. and - 1.67 ± y62.62 rad/s

l3 = 8.1264 Xl0-6s3 G
p
= 245 psi/in V0 = 9 82 in3 .
f

l. = 2.8194 X KrV
(u) = 62.6 with £ = 0.027) 8"™* = 0-104 in Gs = 20-76 in/in
f

With these new values, we can ind the coefficients and the roots of the characteris
-

a, = 3 2736 X 10 2 s 9
"

f
.

tic equation:
Of course, we cannot buy a cylinder with a diameter of 5.080 inches, nor should we
build one with that diameter. We could have a spring custom built with a rate of a, = 7 8068.
X 10 roots: -33.38. and -1.95-/61.91 rad/s
27.21 Ibf/in, but that would be costly. Therefore, we can use existing components thai (a) = 62.6 with £ = 0.027)
are available from manufacturers as follows: 02 = 2.9107 X lO'4 s2
e = 30.0 Ibf/in d = 5.000 in a = 3 0972 X 10 2 s

«s conges .he siring of .he s«em The .r-e. run*.

f

Stock springs with a free length very close to the correct value for the preload com
pression to be equal to the stroke are also readily available. the selected components, is
/ V* - . A
With these changes the servo will not exactly center itself at midstroke any
,

more. The small offset in the steady state would be

(10.125)
Ibf Ibf -

-? u*Ta *

Sz = + I
10 07
8z _ «zp + znJ - A SPl 30 (5-0 + 2.5)in - 19.63 in g
.

k,
R° p* k *' V
222.4 Ibf/in s

123 in (10.123)
'

= 0 .
20.76 - 8m - 222 lbf . (10.126)
However
3 s) D + 1
,
if we readjust the spring preload compression slightly by the use of shims 8z =
or machmed washers ,
then we can make the steady-state offset term be equal to zero wnh
We 561601 the following val"e for the spring compression preload: nonlinear s.a.e-Spaee mode, (10.127)
A 19.635 in2
z =- p* _ , (10.128)
"
»- oro Znii - Jo Ibf/in"10 067 psi ~ 2-5 in = 4 089 in
k (10.124) 8z v 1
.
Asp _ *-(z + « + 8z) '

f'-
W 4 m in diff6rent-sized spring and actuator if we use a spring compres - -

Z If r ST 0f 5m inch and stil1 h-e the servo null itself at the OU*
1
9\

not
d size is
8P =
the desired mZ T**1 ,f We readjust the nozzle diameter 10 a- ra chieve

.crsshif.lS ly "

SPrin8 and aClUat0r'then the SyStem P

 Chap. 10 System Design and Selection of r
0r*D
340
Sec. 10.6 Summary
341

S: = v (1O l30
in/s
: in/s 2 -

l If the wrong miUal conditions are used for this system (e g., 8P = 0) then the
Jl 8p 463 4 (6-589 in + 8z) 15.45 ~ FL
.
,

system response will look very unstable and the system will take a kmg time to set-
-
0
"
v = 303.3 (10 13,
-
. ,

psi 0 m M .

tle. In other words even if the system is starting from rest.you cannot always assume
that the initial conditions on all variables are zero!
1533 FurlheMt must also be kept in mind that, in order to digitally simulate terms
~

such as VSP one must use \hP0\ sign (SP0) (the square root of the absolute
(10.132, value of hP0 times the sign of 8P ) so that the computer will not take the square root
0

of a negative number (if the pressure ever goes negative) .

10.5.3 Dynamic Response Simulation

10.6 SUMMARY
In the previous subsection, we used a linearized approximation to size the pneumatic po. 1
In this chapter, we have stressed some of the considerations that come into play in
sition servo system, a very nonlinear and marginally stable system. It is therefore ven selecting the components of a system, as well as some further considerations per -

important to check the nonlinear system response with the values obtained, as well a s taining to what components are available from suppliers.These concepts are gener
-

rely on the information about stabilitiy gained rom the roots of the linear system | ally not presented in college textbooks, but do bring a necessary aspect of
f
.

"

ITie response of the system is tested by analyzing the nonlinear and the linear ; engineering to light. In sizing components, a knowledge of the static behavior, range
models for their response to a ramp input rom zero to one-half of the maximum inpui of operation (or maximum values), dynamic response requirements, and perfor-
f

in half of the maximum time, t'/2 = 0.100 second. The results are shown in Figure 1017 mance requirements of the system aid in specifying the performance requirements
lyses we
The igure indicates that the linear and nonlinear system responses agree ver of every component that we must select. It is interesting to note that the ana
have presented in regard to the sizing and selection of components are longer and
f

well. The nonlinear system model is slightly slower than the linear system model, ij
conducting these simulations it is important to keep in mind the
, fact that the initial more involved than the actual modeling of the system,
conditions for the nonlinear state space model are as follows:
8z(0) = 0 M REFERENCES

v(0) = o m
J
_
... G -.Deceleration Conscious ApportioningValves for Pas-
o (0) = 8P* = 0.671 5 = 10 07 psi .

PROBLEMS
14

isliiiiiiii
.

12
.
-
7

10
.

onlinca
t
damping is Pr 0"d
.
coUS
Resistance. . ncics above 0.5 Hz
Linear

02
shown in Figure J h* are lv c u may use any of .he > v I
on
o
f) 0' .
0 10
.

0 15
.
0 20
Figure 10.17 Transient re _

oils(from l0though70). in

Time (»)
.

0 -
25 sponse of pneumatic serv
system.
 Chap. 10 system Desi9n and Selection oi Comp0n
342 Chap. 10 Problems
343

Spray nozzle Nozzle area A

Input morion .

Vehicle rame

f
_
J" Check
Q .

Fluid resistance. R valve

Lever 5P 0
a Pump Pressure in pump
..
oooooo
Stroke. sc
c
0

Spring. Rate =* 0
oooooc moiion y oc*o
c
s .

ooooqoju Spring stiffness, i

c
c
: Free lenglh = Ls Spring -

Preload. y0
D
Preload = X4 5y
Piston pump A Free lenglh. Ly
p

j Response
Finger
motion, x
motion Fingers
Si
Stroke
1

(b) Check Li

(a)
h5rvaive
o J

Hgure P10.1 Vibration isolation system, (a) Configuration (b) Bump

J

input. IS
F, = F; - Bx
Additionally the stroke of the actuator must be large enough so that the piston does
not hit either end of the cylinder. At steady
state, the piston should sit at midstroke. Force Maximum power
transfer at F /2 and x/2
'

Care must be taken in selecting the damping. Notice that, since the damping is of fingers,
F
transmitted through the input motion, a large force is transmitted to the mass during a -
B

transient if the damping is high. In other words, the conventional wisdom of selecting
damping of 0.707 or higher for good attenuation might not work here. Speed of fingers
Based upon the stated performance goals and other criteria, select values for the ac-
tuator diameter and stroke; the spring stiffness, preload, and free length; and the diam-
eter of the luid resistor passage, as well as the viscosity of the oil to be used in the id dis-
ser bottle, (a) Coniguration, (b) Details of liqu
f

cylinder. Perform time simulations and a frequency response analysis of the system to Figure P10.2 Liquid dispen

f
hand.
illustrate that the inal designed system meets the expectations.
Force-speed characteristics of a human
penser bottle, (c)
f

10.2 A chemical manufacturer wants to build a handheld liquid dispenser so that its cus- that this force capability decreases wit h speed of aciuaiion.This is analo-
tomers can mix and dispense their cleaning products The
" squirt bottle" containing the lanl to realize rent is drawn from the battery
.

chemical must have enough pressure to spray the liquid a considerable distance, but gous
to the voltage of athebatten' dropping
batten' voltage
as
is
more
zero.at
cur
as hort circuil).Therefore.you test
(until the point at which i ngers without any force or load.
must dispense a large quantity of liquid per actuation This is the only specification cn
the maximum speed thatno-load
a person caned move his or her

f
0 in/s You also lest a few points in between
.

terion given to you from the marketing department (other than that the dispenser must spe to be 5
look good and be colored brown!) A conceptual sketch is provided in Figure Pl0.2a. You ind this maximum force (with no moiion) and maximum speed (with no force)
of maximum (so that the force is constant during the
f
with a lot of preload
.

with dimensions shown in Figure P10.2b. the conditions

a long, softThespring
by usingdistance). 2c.The slope of this graph represents
As a good engineer you start your own testing to develop more criteria. The irs'
,

stroke result is given in Figure P10.

F*/i* = 0.30 Ibf s/in) of the human hand. No-
f

thing that you do is test for what pressure is necessary in the dispenser. The distance l output impedance (B =
on.

the mechanica bout 1.5 inches for this applicati

that liquid can be dispensed from a nozzle and the velocity of the luid at the exit of*
lice that most
people concept
like to stroke
in thetheir ingen>ofathis bottle (or any other applicationthatin
operation
A very signifiincantwhich power must be transferred from the hand to the PumP is d

f
f

cc 1the"Id.6stancc
detcrmined
. by Pres!As»"-youe onlploty; theoreti
or velocit y
c all y , the area of the orif i
distance squirted versus pressure, you indce does not any discipline) e and low rale will result when the
hand is operat
lever)e
from the hand to theutput
pumppoin . Noi.ee
.

Wi,h prCSSUre UPto about 20 Psi; «hen the distance does not incre** best comb nation of pressur
f

Z nC< in rCaSL

f
; ;
Tj
s

T l 7r PrCSSUrC-
, u

M psi during delivery is a good goal

conclude 'hat an actual nozzle pressure ot l mum pcpower. Maximum powerforcetransfer
the
maximum
i
d lhc( maximum power o
0„d «M
t

You
'
rr. '. yo.u do is measure the a 1 m the hand of II S Z XZ
' Landnthe palm of their
fmgers
n deVe,0P a m™™™ static force of 15 pounds bet**
hand without discomfort. However, it is very
 Chap 10 System Design and Selection of Comp
344
Chap. 10 Problems
j\ and a, the no-load condition (maximum speed with ze rft,
345

force with zero speea; a mathematICS should convince von iN)

Ihe power from f *1 occurs at t he half-force, half-speed poin, I a,'he
maX,mU
H
SHsTa
Ihe graph. (Ihis is a. j
s'rue for a linear system.) As you tes. peop.e with
maximum power operation point, yo,, r
K rate) is about 40 psi PTCSSWC can be 8enerated no low

f
.

1,6people
pUmPSpreT\Z r power operation much more than one whi S S T** criteria 8eneiated'°<
.

um the
fer 'hat maxunum P s Iand A4 wl
nd
rame
, Z ,h,S
System
,ncluding b k, yo. the free length of the spring. A.,
-
,

Lfore, you conclude that your design shoul What is the volume dispensed per stroke? Use your equations to Ihow that
tha, it doesn " 1

e 'b the design is optimum

tance as you try t0 u, '',- essure and the low require the maximum-po .

Tmi a spray bottle at home ,

and determine the volume dis-
pensed per actuation. How does it compare to your analysis?
Slspeed
>CTU T ZZ yo hand. Accordingly, you must select the lever T a H

f
How does it feel: loo
stiff? too soft?
'on p-n from y
ope" oo
achieve 10.3 The hydraulic servo position control system of Section 7 3 1 is used to position a load

T
Srorhfha t d.
will be dispense
in so doing, you wil l be assured that the maximum
d at the proper pressure
vol u weighing 100 pounds as shown in Figure P10.3.The static gain should be 1 0 and the
,

stroke of the actuator should be ±1 5 inches. The system should be as fast as possible
. .

.
.

a uation .

Next you must develop the mathemat.cal model for the system, starting with Ih, and as stiff as possible; however it must have a frequency response of at least 20 Hz
,

force-speed characteristics of the hand given m Figure P10.2c and then obtaining equ ,
with no more than 45 degrees of phase lag The stiffness must be large enough so that a
.

tions toTelate (1) the forces and deflections on the lever at the hand and at the pump O) 250 pound load disturbance does not deflect the output more than 0.025 inch. The
damping ratio should be between 0.4 and 0.9.
the pressure and low from the force and velocity of the pump, and (3) the pressure and TTie system supply pressure is 1000 psi.Hiere are three candidate valves that might
low through the orifice. Initially, you should assume that both friction and inertia are
f

be used for this application:

f

small. In your model, you should ind a natural grouping of terms, '; this is the pn.
f

mary gain of the system and both represents the volume of liquid dispensed per stroke Valve G
p
(psi/in) (Ibf s/in5)
of the ingers and determines the pressure that you can get from the force at the hand .
f

1 80.000 520
Now you ind that you have many more parameters and coefficients to pick than you 350
f

: 74.000
have criteria. So you need lo develop some more criteria. First, observe thai ihe check 67.000 260
3
valves require about 2 psi of cracking pressure. This means that the pressure differen-
" "

tial must be 2 psi before the spring-loaded ball can be lifted off its seat in the direction ol
forward low. However, once the ball is lifted, the low area is so large that there is veiy For a given valve, the only parameter to select is the area of the P
on act tor and
we have enough criteria for that. Usually, this is not the case: we have to de c fur-
f

little pressure drop due to low as the low increases. Therefore, a 2 psi pressure drop is re-
f

quired to open the check valve, but that pressure is basically constant with low. This has
f

the effect of causing a small pressure drop in the low going through the top check valve
f

as the liquid goes to the nozzle but it does determine how much spring force is required
,

to generate the pressure (vacuum) in the piston chamber during the recharge stroke of
the pump to open the bottom check valve (Notice that in this recharge low condition, f|
.

vond reasonable limits.

f

and B are zero ) You .

probably should select a spring that has a preload y0 of double th«

pump stroke 8y and then select a stiffness k (along with the pump area A ) that will cre- p
ate the required vacuum of 2 psi. However, be sure to provide a large enough spring force
to provide the necessary suction and to overcome friction or increased luid resistances
f

a
as tomove the piston back quickly after its actuation .

The next thing to do is realize that the pump can be placed only within a narro« scrvovalvc
S 1 rnCh < 0 < 2,5 inches relative 10 lhe nozzle and pivot point of the lever
ZZ C ?m0{ be l0Wer than ,he PumP by more than 1 inch without inter-
all
bo,tle- b < 10 inch ) .
Note that the pump shaft can withstan Q r]
.

v ' ri !I,S S,r0ked 0Ver itS distance- D to the nature of the cup sea
.

KkmrvPUU Hydraulic pos.uon

more ban r f 3 misa ™™ resulting from the lever handle mov* m SSo control system from Section
midsiroke, .
,he pUmP shaf'is Perpendicular to the lever a. I i

73 1
. .
. /.iXll

t izT z rri,iThose«i s such ,hat ,he t$

\

io i>c o
l) 9(). ["he nozzle
must be sized so that the operating P
.
1
34S Chap. 10 System Design and Selecti
Ction
of r
Orr,

APPENDIX A
should be small. a
aJtial movement °t*' ™ and actua.or rod on the lever A s
mall ax
.

in the bearings and lex.b.l.ty in the val Sv

coul d be taken wl , h cl e a r a larger axial motion must be acc ve and !

f
,

shafts or their mounts the actuator sizes and mountinommodated J*1* Units and
or sliding surfaces on he lev be less than ±5 g stiffness-Zj
appli5 cation.lhc a degree H
a valv a d P sto diame,er for this application Hydraulic
increment . startinactuators arer(M
.

Conversions
3, available with s£ *e !
g
S mirr
the valve and actuator and the lever l
engths 1

SI units are basically metric unils (although not strictly MKS units) that have been
adopted as standard units throughout the world It is important thai the reader not only
.

be familiar with these units, but also have an intuitive feel for quantities expressed in
terms of SI units, as well as quantities expressed in the British system of unils of measure.
This appendix is intended to serve as an introduction to SI units, list some of
I he common units in various disciplines, and provide a summary of a few of the basic
conversion factors between Brilish and SI units.

TABLE A-1 MULTIPLES AND SUBMULTIPLES

Mulliplicalion Prefix Symbol
Faclor

1012 lera T
109 giga G
lO" meea M

10' kilo k

102 heclo h
10 deka da
deci d
10 1
10
-
2 cenii c

10
- 3 milli m

10
-
6 micro
-
9 nano n
10
10
-
12
pico P
15 femto f
to
-

alio a
10

347
 Appendix A Units
348 and c

Appendix A Units and Conversions

349

TABLE A-2 {continued)

poise, stoke, gauss, oersted, maxwell, torr, kilogram-force, calorie, and rni h Physical quantity Name of unit
Symbol Formula
Thermal conductivity watt per meter
kelvin W/(m 0K)
TABLE A-2 BASIC AND DERIVED SI UNITS Radiant intensity watt per steradian W/sr
Physical quantity Name of unit Symbol
F Supplementary units
Plane angle radian
Basic Units rad
Solid angle steradian sr
meter m
Length
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s

Electric current ampere A TABLE A-3 CONVERSION FACTORS

°

Temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd Multiply British units Bv To obtain SI units

Derived Units Length

angstrom 1 000 E-10 meter
Area square meter 2 .

m
foot 3 048 E-01 meter
Volume cubic meter 3
.

m 2 540 E-02 meter

inch
Frequency
.

hertz Hz 1 000 E-06 meter

micron
Density kilogram per (cycle/sec) .

kg/m3 mil 2 540 E-05

.
meter
cubic meter
Velocity meter per second m/s
Angular velocity Speed
radian per second rad/s miles/hour 4 470 4 E-01 meler/s
Acceleration .

meler/s
meter per second m/s2 feet/minute 5 08 E-03.

squared 2 540 E-m meler/s

Angular acceleration inch/second .

Force radian per second squared rad/s2

newton
Pressure and stress N (kg m/s2) Acceleration meter/s
2
pascal 3 048 E-01
Kinematic viscosity Pa (N/m2) foot/sec2 .

meter/s
2

square meter per second 9 806 65 E+00

Dynamic viscosity m 2/s free fall (standard gravity) .

meter/s
2

pascal-second 2 540 E-02

Work energy Pas (N s/m2) inch/sec2 .

joule
,
,

quantity of heat J (N m)
Power Area mctcr
watt 9 290 304 E-02
Electric charge W (J/s) foot2
.

mcicr
coulomb 6 451 6 E-04
Voltage , C (As) inch2
.

volt
potential difference ,
V (W/A)
electromotive force Volume meter
2 957 270 E-05
I'J nc field strength volt per meter fluid ounce (US. luid)
.

2 831 685 E )2
meter
tlectnc resistance

f
.
meter
ohm V/m foot3 4 S46 087 E )3 *
Elcctnc capacitance farad n (V/A) gallon (U.K. liquid)
.

4 404 883 E-03

meter
x
Magnetic flux .
meier
.

Inductance weber f (As/V) gallon (U.S. dry) 3 785 412 E-03

.
meter
i

wavc number henry Wb (Vs) gallon (US. liquid) 1 638 706 E-05
. meter
h (Vs/A) inch3 1 000 E-03
Entropy 1 per meter .

or1 liter
specific heat joule per kelvin
J/°K kilogram
Jkclvm
le per kilogram J/(kg °K) Mass 4 535 924 E-01 kilogram
lbm(pound mass, avoidrupois) i 459 390E+01
(conn"
slug (lbf-sec2/foot)
 Appendix A Units and r
350
Appendix A Units and Conversions 351

TABLE A-3 {continued Hv To obtain Si TABLE A-3 (continued)

units
uniis
Multiply British Multiply British units By To obtain SI units

Deoah 1 000
.
E+03 ogram/meteH Energy/Area Time
2 767 990E+04 ogram/mete Btu(thermochemical)/(inch2 sec)
gram/cenimicfer .
1 634
. 246E+06 watt/metei
2

1 601 846E+0I
'
Ihm/inch'
/bm/roor
?
.

5 153 788 E+02

.
ograni/mete
kilogram/meier3
"
7 cm
2
T0ChemlCa,)W m™te) 6 973 333 E+02
.

1 000 E-03
.
watt/meter
watt/meter
2

s/ue/foof watt/cm 1 000 E+04

. watt/meter

Force 1 000 E-05 newton Power

.

dyne 9 806 65 E+00 newton Btu(thermochemical)/sec 1 054 350 E+03

.
watt

calorie(thermochemical)/sec
.

4 184E+00
kilogram force (kgf) 4 448 222 E+00 newton
.
watt

Ibf (found force avoirdupois) 1 355 818 E+00 watt

,

foot Ibf/sec
1 382 549 E-01
.

newton
7 456 999 E+02
poundal
.

horsepower (550 fool Ibf/sec) .

watt

Pressure
1
.
013 25 E+05 pascal
atmosphere 1 000 E+05 pascal
.

bar
2 1 000 E-01 pascal
dyne/centimeter
.

3 376 85 E+03 pascal

inch of mercury (60T) .

*
2 488 4 E+02 pascal
inch of water (60 F) .

kgf/centimeler2 9 806 65E+04

.
pascal
Ibf/foot2 4 788 026 E+01
.
pascal
lbf/inch: (psi) 6 894 757 E+03
. pasca
millimeter of mercury (0 C)
*
1 .
333 224 E+02 pascal
'

torr (O C) 1 333 224 E+02

. pascal

Tcmpcriitnre
Celsius = tc + 273.15 kelvin
Fahrenheit tk = (5/9) (tf + 459.67) kelvin
Fahrenheit tc = (5/9)(tf - 32) Celsius
Rankine L = (5/9)tR kelvin

Viscosity
ccntistoke I ()()() E-06 meier/s
.

foot2/sec 9 290
. 304 E-02 meter/s
inch2/sec 6 451 6 E-04
. meter/s
centipoise 1 000 E-03
Ibf sec/foot2
.
pascal s
4 788 026E+01
.
pascal s
poise 1 000 E-01
Ibf sec/inch''
.

pascal s
6 894 757 E+03
.
pascal s
Knergy
Itntish thermal unit(mean) Btu ,
1 055 87 E+03
calorie (mean) .

joule
4 190 02 E+00
electron volt .

joule
1 602 09 E-19
erg .
joule
Ism ibf I km E-07 joule
1 355 82 E+00
joule
watt h
(international of 1948) .
joule
lute)
.
r L.000 165 E+00
joule (abso
3 600 E+03 .

joule
(conttw
 APPENDIX B Appendix B Properties of Mechanical System Co
mp onents 353

where

Properties of is the cross-sectional area torsional stiffness constant

T is the applied torque
,

Mechanical System L is the length, and

,

G is the shear modulus of the material

Components
.

The cross section of the cylinder need not be circular and expressions for
, for var-
ious cross-sectional shapes are given in Table B l . .

The torsional stiffness of a shaft is

k = T/Ad = (G/ )/L (B.2)

TABLE B.l AREA PROPERTIES

1 1 I
Shape n

Circle

B
.
I ELASTIC AND AREA PROPERTIES TTT
* 7
4 4
V
2
In this appendix, x, y9 and z are centroidal axes, and with regard to uniform bodies.
the terms ceniwid, center of mass, and center of gravity are used interchangeably.

B 1 1 Torsion of Rods
. .

Hollow circle

The torsion of long slender cylinders as shown in Figure B.l, is governed by the
, ,

equation 2r

AO =6,-6, = TLKGIJ (B,ll

-
y

2r
I

Square

J
5'
0 1406a
1
.

v
a

0i

Figure B.l Rod in torsion.

 1
\
Properties of Mechanical System c
Appen. B
354 Appen. B Properties of Mechanical System Components 355

TABLE B
. AREA PROPER] I
I TABLE B.2 BEAM DEFORMATIONS

Shape
ML
Recianeic Simply Supported
P
M

1
T ,b[1 3.36 a (._£_] 1
1 y a 3
"

[6b. nb4) _
12
12
48£/

9 =
EJ
Cantilevered
Equilateral triangle P
s

96 96
v 80 PL'
S =
iEI

--a--

3Mt
e =
SB
Fixed-Fixed

Bl2
. . Bending of Beams
s

Bending theory governs the behavior of long slender uniform beams in flexurt
,

where I
yy
and lu are the cross-sectional area bending stiffness constants, whic
area moments of inertia about principal axes Expressions for Iyy and /(.: for v
.
6 =
Pt
102K/
cross-sectional shapes are given in Table B l Some results from bending
. .

tion analysis for various loadings and boundary conditions arc given in Table A
the table E is the elastic modulus of the material / is the principal flexural inertia
,
,

the cross section of the beam and L is the length of the beam.
,

Beam equivalent transverse deformation or rotational deformation sp -

stiffnesses are given by the following equations: B2 MASS PROPERTIES
.

in
Transverse: k = P/8 Sh.pes
B2 .
1 Common
.

Rotational: k = M/d t' prti i Wltu

'
rcsr
 Appen. B Properties of Mechanical System Cq
356
Appen. B Properties of Mechanical System Components
MASS MOMENTS OFINERTIA
357
TABLE B.3 Inertias
TABLE B.3 MASS MQMENTSOF INERTIA fcont/nUed;
Shape
Shape
Inertias

Slender Rod
Hollow cylinder
y

D2 + d2
8
/
ml}
m = mass
12

Thin disk
v
md
Block
S
y
w

md
h= = 16
a
m

PI

x
lollow disk
m
y

D2 + d2
s
Sphere
d
v

v
/ D2 + d2
/ = J=m
„

16

Cylinder
V

heorem
B2
.
2 Parallel
.
Axis T
~

x
8
7
\

l
CorUin"et
 358 Appendix B Properties of Mechanical SVste
mc
Don e -
.

B3
,
MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Represeniative values for ihe properties of some common mate "

APPENDIX C
Table B.4. Values in Britisli system units are shown in parentheses S are Siven

TABLE B.4 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Material Elastic Shear

Vector and Matrix
Poisson's
Modulus
GPa(psil06)
Modulus
GPa(psi ]06)
D „ .'
Ratio
\r/-
-

. oily
i
Algebra
Aluminum 69 (10) 26 (3.8) 0 33
Cast Iron 103 (15)
.

Copper
27.5 (4) 0 20 0277 (OlT
0692 oil
.

117 (17) 44 (6 4) .
0 36
Sreel
207 (30) 0894 of
.

Titanium
82.7 (12) 0 33
103 (15)
.

44.8 (6 5)
.
0 33
.

psi = Pa/6894.76
0451 (0 163) .

lbf/in3 = N/cm3/ 2768 .

REFERENCES

B
hc m ' " En8ineerin8 M
R C
echanics -
Dynamics, 5th ed. Macmillan Publishing Co
C I VECTORS
.

2 Hibbeler. R .. Mechanics of M
.
C
aterials 2nd ed Macmillan P
,

C 1 1 Definitions
. .

, .

ublishing Co .
,
Inc.. 1994.
A scalar is a quantity that can be characterized or identified by a single number
which indicates its magnitude Temperature, age. weight, and length are all examples
.

of scalars. A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction; it requires
two, three, or even more independent values for its complete characterization. In
this text, vectors are designated by a bold lowercase letter (e.g.. f). In handwriting, it
is common to denote a vector with curly or square brackets. Force is an example of
a vector, since in three dimensions, three independent quantities are required to de-
termine the magnitude and orientation of a force. A three-dimensional vector is
shown in Figure C.l.
A variety of different notations are used to represent vector quantities sym-
bolically. The following representations are all equivalent:

Figure CI Hircc-dimcnsional vector.

V

359
 360 Appendix C Vector and
Mat
9efc
f=f x
* + fyJ + fzk un,t vector representati Sec. C I
.
Vecto rs

-"' 361
f = column vector zero (O, .
b- - os 35 311
'
its element
(Cl, Multiplicatio
-...

n of
1,. <,1,c,n ol a
a vector k
S and is indicated by} a uuia'ace
boldfac
multiplied by the scalar y a scalar mean th,. .,
f r - ifv h h) row vector
Eq. (C 5)
.
,
./en Hence ,
ifTheTa ? 01 "e
- 3 and w is the vector of
In the last equalion
been transposed into /"indicates transpose and means that the col
.

a row Vectors must have as many elements Unin Va'Ue shavc

.

- I w
: 9

t >c 0w = 3 12
o characterize the quantity being represented. Thus a vector ™% nece!*au
-

, V

ponents: niay nave n 1 (1

15
(C.6)

Differentiation of a vector nn . .
be differentiated .
Thus q t,ty means that element of the vector is to
V =

(C.2j
u
du/dt = u
C 12
. .
Operations (C.7)

Two vectors are equal if and only if (iff) all of their corres The inner product or scalar product
, of two vectors is defined as the scalar
ponding elements are equ. I ,

0 /= (C.8)
= , 1 2
,
,...,/!
,
Ml = y u.v.
elemeXl l uTif""1'" 0f COmP0nents added or
.

n
subtract I The scalar product of u and v as defined in Eq. (C 4) is .

I r

u
M u v = (1)(2) + (2)(-6) + (3)(-3) + (4)(1) = -15 (C.9)
u = l 2
and v = v2 Note that urv = yru .

=
(C.4) Two vectors are said to be orthogonal if their inner product is zero. In three-
u 4
4J
dimensional Cartesian space, if two vectors are orthogonal, then they arc al right
-

then J
1 4 . L angles to each other.
Let d represent the vector joining two points in three-dimensional space. The
distance between the two points, or the magnitude of the vector, is then
1

U + v = «2 + W2 d = [di = Vd[+d + 4 = Vd d 2
2
(C10)

«3 + 3
(C5) For vectors with anv number of elements, the square root of the inner product of the
or M4 + y4 J vector itself is called the Euclidean norm.
A unit vector is a vector normalized by its magnitude:
a
U). % (C.lOa)
a =
'
"/ + /«1 -
'
a a
 Appendix C Vector and Mat
'
362 Ml
9ebt.
Sec. C.2 Matrices
3B3
C2
.
MATRICES

C2 . .
1 Definitions

>nr mav be thought of as a one-dimensional array of values since

fdte'Snsional.Herec.angutlar iarray
dentifofy .heelements.
events of .he vec.or. A ma(rU °%
,
om c
*

one ' i i = 1 m .
; = l,... p
, (CIS)
1%
To be compatible for multiplication A must have the same number of columns as
,

flu ai2
a B has rows. Then C will have the same number of rows as A and the same number
of columns as B. In the equation C = AB A is the premultiplier and B is the
,
2m
postmultiplier.
A = Example C.1
(en,
If

7
r
tCl6)
:
The array of Eq. (C. 11) has n rows and m columns and is said to be of order n x ,n
To specify any particular element of the matrix, the subscripts / and / must be des - then
ignated. A matrix is denoted by a bold uppercase letter (e.g.. A). In handwritten
work, square brackets are often used to denote matrices, as, for example in [A] , ,
(C.17)
C = AB =
A square matrix is a matrix with the same number of rows and columns Li .

n - m.
2x3 3X2 2x2
The principal diagonal of a square matrix is composed of the elements a and
is shown by the dashed line in the following equation: mat r i x gives a column vectorial is. we m ay re-
Multiphcauon of a column vector by a
gard a column vector as an n x 1 matrix. Thus, (CIS)

A = (C.12)
If A has ,he - vatu* in
l ud in Eq. (C16) a„a . has
[8 7 sJ
(U,3). then
C2 2 Operations [7I (C19)
'

n o 21 I M rikd + w ++ (2)(3)1
. .

(3)(3)J Ll2j
'

Two matrices are equal iff«. = h for all; - i

311' -
. ,, .
Tho ui .. . 'i ..»« and all / = 1 ///. lumns
IHe multiphcation of a matrix by a scalar is by interchanging its rows and co
obtained
obtained
tansp'oyose is the 3 2 matrix
.
.

a matrix is
THe «.nSpoSe "f , ™ W o/, .
For theP 2? X 3 matrix of Eq. I
-
.

12 ,

fiA = (C13) fC20)

22

may e numbe' rows and the same number of colufll- the product of the transposed matnce.
duct.sequaUothep fll to

etransposeofamatrixpro (C2n
C = A + B C + b 1 = 1»
Mu..-,
* ma''
/= 1
* ,
w but in reverse order. = crBrAr
and .he mXl T orcTr1? " deflned 38 fo,lows: 1116 matrix A of order m * ]
x
r x be multiplied together to form a matrix C ol
 Appendix C Vector and Matri
364
Sec. C.3 Determinants
365

C23 .
.
Properties

I, is important to note that matrix multiplication is not commutative. Thai is .

general, (C.27)
AB t- BA
<C.22)
ver, associative and left (and right) distribute Analogously, in an upper triangular matrix, all elements below the main diagonal
ix multiplication is, howe
Matrix over
are zero. A band-structured matrix is a matrix whose nonzero terms are clustered in
addition: a band about the main diagonal:
(AB1C = A[BC] (0.233, "

11 -3 7 0 0
AIB + C] = AB + AC (C.23b) 2 14 10 5 0
A = -

1 4 21 3 1 fC.28)
0 7-8 1-4
C2
. .
4 Special Types of Matrices
0 0 2 9 25

All elements of the null matrix are zero. Only the principal or main diagonal ele -

It is sometimes convenient to partition matrices into smaller groups of ele-

ments are different from zero in the /? X /? diagonal matrix: ments, or submatrices. This may be done as indicated in the following equations.
0 0 .. 0 0
where A,„ etc.. denotes a submatrix
ai i

0 a 22 0 .. 0 0 a a 17 ! «13
(€.29*)
A = 021 a22 1 %T
_ M12 A22J
A = (C.24)
tit *

where
(I 0 0 .. 0 a um _

A
[flu lnl fC.29b)

f
=

The identify matrix or unity matrix is a diagonal matrix whose elements are
nil ones:

i 0 II
- [d (C.29c)

(C.29d)
1 = 1 0 I II (C.25) A21 = [cm an]
(C.29e)
II II I
Xn = M
submatrices which are to
In ma m algebra k .ultiohed together if all
,
multiplication by I has the same effect as multiplication by
un y .n scalar algebra. A symmetric matrix is a square matrix that is symmetrical
about its mam diagonal i.e., a, = %. The following matrix is an example:
,
be multiplied togethe

r 1 -2 3 7 .
3 DETERMINANTS
AJ 2 "

8 4 -5 (C.26) C3 . 1 Definitions formed.l m aa definite way

3 4 If16i .?2
.

ingle quantity that

7 I I

a l,mer ,rianK,,,ar ma,rix'a" elements above the main diagonal are ze ro:
 Appendix C Vector and Matrix a
366 3%
Sec. C.3 Determinants
kric of the matrix. If all of the elements of the 367

is a measure of a s e numerical value ,

The determinant ot a / v 7 cJ malnx corresponding lo elements au and a„ are £1
On al2 = aua22 -

a2la]2
del A = A
21 a22 (C.30 C 33
21 = ("l)3(a12a33
.

13032) = -( 33 " a n)
"

edeterminantofaSXSmatrixis We now are in a position lo give a general method of evaluating determinants

ii On fl13 that may be applied to a matrix of any size .

det A = A| = 021 022 a23 (C.31 a

(I 31 032 % C32
. . Evaluation by Cofactors

or
The cofactor expansion method gives the determinant as the sum of the elements of
det A = oI1fl22033 + 0,2023031 + O13O21O32 a13a22aM (C.3lb) any one row or one column, multiplied by their cofactors. Thus.
-
0, ,023032 - 0,302,033 (C34)
det A = OhAm for any j or any i
l(or/)-l
As examples,
For a 3 x 3 matrix, this expansion, using elements of the first row, gives
if A - det A = 4 - 6 = -2
flu M 1 a \ loa ab!
det A =
and
tht an 033

if A =
[ 3 4-J det A = (1 - s)(4 - s) - 6 = s2 - 5s-2 "

031
21
1/
"12

fl32
(C.35)

whereiisavariable Note that Eqs. (C.30) and (C.31) apply only to 2 X 2and3 x3
.

( 33 " fl23%) " flt >fl»

'
a23fl3l)
matrices, respectively. For 4x4 and higher order matrices we must use different ,
= ,

methods, which require the introduction of some additional definitions .

The minor of the element 0 of a matrix is the determinant of the array formed
al to Eq. (C.3 1).
by removing the /th row and yth column of the matrix Thus, there are as many mi- ion shows that it .s equ
.
Expanding this express
nors as there are elements of the matrix So if A is 3 x 3 it has nine minors. We will
.
,

denote minors by W Accordingly let

„.
,
C 33
v-.o.j . .
Properties
"f

A =
a2\ Ay fljS (C.32a)
La31 O 32
fl,,!
Then we would have
*~
<» Det = '
cdumn of a matrix is a -ar ft *c
(c) If one row or one c by ft,
(I a
. 1 = 23
fl22fl33 ~ 023 2 (C32b)
minant of the malnx15 malrix at muUrplKd liCil|,v
~

(I 11
V 33 Ma .

and
elemen
(d, If all of the
determinant ot m
, muUiplied by (T.
21 = 12 1
(C.32c) Det UK 'F 061
<i
 Appendix C Vector and Math
Sec. C.4 Matrix Inversion
thp determinant.nfji
-
matrix is zero when:
or a nidu iA 369

Ire rows or columns of the matnx are zero

/

Note that if the determinant is 7pm tK . .

'the matnx 15 said be singular
o e o

Z or more rows or columns of the matnx are equal.

tnx are proportmnal
does not exist. , and its iinverse

two or more rows or columns of the ma Example C.2

.

Find the inverse of the 2 x 2 matrix A .

is said to be singular if its determinant is zero. Solution

A mainx

A =
T0" an~\
La21 " Det A = aua22 -

a12a2,
221
C
.
4 MATRIX INVERSION

C 4 1 Definitions
. .
1 a22 -a\l\
A a
=

L-«i2 *nJ
A single scalar equation with unknown x and the solution of that equation are "

i - 1 [ "a -"n']
Ax =.& A 1Ax = A-% x = p/A ifA*0 {(:%)
-

,
lufl* - 0,2% l-Oa a.J

f
where it is clear what is meant by the reciprocal of the scalar A. For a matrix A and
vectors x and b,
IfA 1 20 then A -
1

[4 1]
L3
Ax = b, A Ax = A 'b, x = A Ib if A i1 exists
-

,
(C.37) Example C3
The reciprocal matrix or inverse matrix is defined as Find the inverse of the matrix
3 -
A 'A = AA 1 = I, where I is the identity matrix (C38) A= 2 4

8 -3
There are a variety of ways to determine the inverse of a square matrix .
We dis-
cuss here the cofactor method because of its fundamental importance .
The cofactor
Solution
matrix is formed by replacing each element of the matrix by its cofactor. The adjoint
matrix is then formed by taking the transpose of the cofactor matrix: detA = l(8-3)-3(4 + 8)-2(-6-32) = 45
[5 -12 -38]
Aa - r a cir
[AH (C.39)
H o
5 -3 -
7J
Now .

the product of a matrix with its adjoint matrix gives a diaeonal matrix each el- ,
5
ement of which is the determinant of the matrix A- 1 -
12 18
A
45
-
38 27 -
A 0 0 0 of large order can quickly
AA" = A I =
0 |A 0 0 Use of .he cofacor - -er f a--Ha. otrirps

(C.40)
0 0 A Q
become r f ™""
0 0 0
'
I mverf S
h f? matrix is ob , and we may def i ne
the adjomt matnx dmded b
aw oim
y matrix determinant: 4 2 Properties nx:
verse mat
.

ies of the in
A ' = 1 V= 1
(C.41) FCowing are some importan. propert
A A
[AT
 Appendix C Vector and
370 9%
tself, i.e.. [A ] 1 = Appendix C Problems
la) The inverse of the inverse is the matrix i
of the diagonal matr ix D is a d.agonal matrix ,he e| 371
h T e inverse e erh
Se reciprocals of the diagonal entr.es of D.
.

C
m ens
.
5 Find the scalar product vru if

of a product is the pro duct of the inverses, but in revers T = 11 2

(c, The inverse eorri ,
-

. 05.6.-3 .
-
11
That is. r = 10 8 2 1. 05
02.0.9]
-
. -
. . .

' -' .

ABJ- B A
-

C6 .
Find the inner product between th
e vectors u and t if

(d) If A is symmetric, its inverse is symmetric.

'
. = 12 .
-
3 6 , .
-

71
(e) The inverse of a mairix multiplied by a scalar is the inverse of v
r = 1-0 1 0 1 0 5 -
0 21
e "'at
.
,

multiplied by the reciprocal of the scalar:

.
. .
.
ri,
.

C7 . Calculate a7b if

M b7
r

"
= [2 ,
-
6 1 9 2
. . . .
-

9 . 1]
= 1-2 .
7 .
-

3 2 5
, , .
-
6 . 1]
(0 The inverse of a transpose of a matrix is the transpose of the " nverse C8 .
Determine the vector with unit magnitude if
matrix: i.e.,
b = a/vVa
nr
[AT1 = [A-]
-

.r = [9.7 .
0 2 . , 5]
C9 Derermme ||c||, ||d||.andc - 2dif
(g) An orthogonal matrix is one with its inverse equal to its transpose .

A "1
= A 7 c r=[2 ,
-
4.7 , 0]
d'r _
= -4.2.-8.3]
C . 10 Evfl/Hflfe the expression f = ||a||urveif
PROBLEMS "

7
a = 12 .
-
4 .
-
2 9 . . 0]
"

1
C .
l Deierminea + 3b if a = [8 .
-
2 1 . .
-

1]

v r = [3 .
2 9 . , 1]
a' =[2 ,
-
6 1 9 ,2 9
, , . ,
-

1]
r = (6 .
-
6 9 3
. . .
-

8]
b7 = [1 ,
-
6 5 -
2 3 7,2]
be orthogonal, given
, , ,

t at if vectors a and b are to

,

C .

2 Find the magnitude of the vector c = C 11 What must be the magnitude of elemen
a + b if that
/
= [2 6 1 a r=[1 2 -
l l4.2l
»
9]
.
.

f
.
, , ,

br=[-2 .
-

7 ,
-

3 , 5]
br= [2.-1.4.2.-6]
C .

3 the expression e = b][c + d] if

C 13 If xT = [cos3/, e , 3.5r + fj." JJ
a "IL-US] br= [0 ,
2,4,-1]
.

i = dx/dt
,
c
= (5 4 2 6 1] d' = [9
, . , , -

2 -
9 7 3
C4 (
14 F/mi crd and cd'if
, , . ,

the inner product c'd if

.

C .

c r= [1 .
2.3]

= (8 , 12 1 , , 2] dr = [6.-2.l]
d' = 1-1 .
3 7 . , 11]
 Appendix C Vector and Matrix
372 Appendix C Problems 373

duct ABif
CI5 W.he matrix pro "
C .
23 Find AB and BrAT. and show that [AB]T = BT AT if
f 1 -2] [9-63 -2 |
A= 5 3 B= -1 8 7 4 F2 -H r
0 2 B=[ 1 51
_

A =
- 4 6. ,
_
1 3 .
-
2 -3 I -

C 16 /7nrfArbandbrAif C .
24 Determine [ABC]7, and show that it is equal to CrB7'Ar if
f '1 PI
.
,

F3 81 r 1
0 "4 3 A = 8 4 C 1 4 6 M
1 2 -2 3
. -
.

multipliedbyBif
C17 Ca /cw/ theresultofApre
a =
n 3i R-f 2 n -
0
A 7 2 8 5
C 25 Determine A = B[c + d] if
_

18 Deiermine Ihe product d - Be if

C .

fl 4 61 n d =

I! _
"
[4 4 2 91 B

4 7 8 2 _

C 26 Evaluate the expression A = B[C + D] if

e r = [3 .
2 3
, , 8] .

C 19 Determine the matrix product AB if [ 3 2 5]

.

» = 4 2 7
r2 6 19
"

5 6 3.
[ 2
| .

A = 6 B 2 9 10 7 si n 6i
1 4 5 5 2_
[
C= 3 1 D= 5 1
5 7. .4 2.
C 20
-

.
Determine the matrix obtained if C is postmultiplied by D, given that
i 8 0l r7 5 ll r 27 Cfl/cn/flJe the triple product
C=
p 8 = v'Bv
6 4 9 D= 2 3 3
.
5 15 .
6
_
2 5
if
C21 Find [A + B1C if v r = 13 6 . . 1]

n 2 31 r 6 3\ 0l
U
A
0 2
B= - 1 719
3 14 3
15 =

2 0 2.
.
.

cr = [i 0,-11 ,

vector p roduct
C .

22 Compute [AB]' and show that it is equal to B7 Ar if C 28 De .

the matnx
3 - u Au

A
A ("8 3 71 T4 51
~ 1 6 2 B= 1 2
.
3 1
 Appendix C Vector and Ma» .
iatri * A|
374 Appendix C Problems
375
if
2 7 5 0] C .
36 Show that the determinant of
6 19 1
3,2,9] A =
..
r = rg 15 7 4
,
«u 0 0 Ol
8 12 5 1 G = «ii «22 0 0 1
831 gyt gn 0
r29 Show that |A| = lA I lf L841 S« 843 844 J
ron
A =
C 37 Find the determinant of
I 021 a22j
"

PcosO -sine (fj

C 30 Find\B\ if D = 1 sin 6 cos l 0 1

f
.

L 0 Oil
C 38 . Compute the detenninant of A = 2BC if

B =
C .
3] Find the determinant of A if

A = I 1 C .
39 Find the value of a,, if Det A = 0 for

[4 -2 au"]
A = 3 10
C . 32 Compute the determinant of B if 15 0 2 .

5
B = -

3
C 40 Find the value of the determinant of
-

2 A = ii >'

C 33
.
Compute the determinant of B if il
u r = I6 .
-
2 . U3l

B=
P1 4
21
3 and
[2 -1 ll v r = 11 .
2 . 3]
C 34 Find the determinant of A if
Fbld the inverse of the 3 X 3 matrix
.

C 41 .

A =
. : \
[7 8 9j
4\° 1 2 0 2j
C 35
.
Evaluate the detcrmin;
Compute the inverse of
mam
C 42 .

n 3 3l
1 0 0 21 = 13 4
A
A =
3 4 0 0 ll 4 3.
7 2 0 1
1 3 1 oj result by
f
inding AA
1

Check your
 Appendix C Vector and Matrix A
96br5 Appendix C Problems
376
377

ine the inverse of C 52 S/iowthat

r 43 Determ .

4; i is an orthogonal matrix
Uose
Lsine
-sinel
cose J
.

C 53 Compute the inverse of the matrix

r44 Find A it .

2 1 0 01
I 2 1 0
A =
0 1 2 ll
of 0 0 1 2j
r45 fmrf the inverse
2 2

A = (1

C 46 f/nrf the inverse of the matrix

A =
[: ;i
I0 0 ij
'
Check the result by calculating A A
"

' -1
C 47 /Vovetha AB]
'
= B A
-
-

.
.

C48 Find the inverse of the symmetric matrix

r, 2 si
B = 2 4 5
l3 5 6 I
C 49
.
Which of the following matrices possess inverses?
1 2 31 r
4 5 6 bJ3 2 I

c _ f cos 0 sin fl"]

L-

sin 0 cos e\
C 50
.
Calculate [AB]"1 and show that it is equal to B"1 A"1 if

C 5I
.
JWw values must an and a,, have if

A [0.5 fl l
l"* 0.5 I
'*
10 an orthogonal matrix?
 APPENDIX D Sec. D.2 Nonhomogeneous Algebraic Eouations
379

provided lhal A is nonsingular.

Systems of A lgebraic Example

Find the solution vector x if

Equations 1
3
2
4
i

where A
= [3 Il
.
3 4J f 81
Solution From Example C.2 .

2 -

_
3 I

Thus.

-
M -
~
-
ir4 ~2ir 8i=r"26i
ft 2 -3 l . _
-
10
.
_ 17.

r, = -26. x, = 17
D.
I INTRODUCTION

The modeling and simulation of physical systems require the derivation and solution D22
. .
Cramer s Rule
'

of various sets of simultaneous algebraic and/or differential equations. Since the

dently of the others
equations are linear in most cases, matrix-vector methods are very helpful in findins Each element of the solution vector can be determined indepen
r Swiss mathematician, 1704-52). According to
the solution. using Cramer s rule
'

(Gabriel Crame .

value of the element r, is found by calculating the ratio of two de-

this technique, the fficient matrix. The nu-
terminants. The denominator is the determinant of the coe
lacing the /th column wUh

D2 NONHOMOGENEOUS ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS merator

is the determinant of the matrix obtained by rep is the des.red solut.on. Wc
t he constant vector b. The ratio of these two determinants
.

The linear algebraic matrix equation illustrate the method in the following example.
Ax = b (D.D Example n.2
is designated as homogeneous when the vector b is zero and as nonhomogeneous Using the
when b has one or more nonzero elements As is often the case, the coefficient ma-
.

Solution
trix A is known and the solution vector x is to be found .

10 24
D2
.
1 Matrix Inversion
.

\ =-2.*2= - 2

' fficie"1
uix AiTn p nS Can be 0btained by finding the inverse of the coe erse ma
Hence,
"r 037 the solu,ion given by the product A-'b if the inve
-

= 17
,nv
inx exists That is
.

x = A 'b
(D.2)

378
 Appendix D SVstems of Algebr .
380 raic

Sec. D.2 Nonhomogeneous A.

gebraic Equa,
ations

q 2.3 Gaussian t" be solved by eliminatin an organized approach to the snlnt;

381

equation one g vari

ar algebraic equafon may follows: 6 SOlut,0n 0f a large set of equations The method is
a sVstem of l«n alge « a
the set untu
.
as

result can be substi * t

.

t0he u i l 0n,y 1 s
nlc one just found and a
a previous equat solved
noW be soi not
for an add.uonal unknown and ;
been found For sm
Tess Seated until a by inspection
all nu
(b) Multiply the equation obtained in (a) b
equations, this e , as is illust equation and subtract the result fromyththe coefficient of x. in the second
,

the next example-

zero coefficient for x in the second row ofethe
,
second equation This gives a
coefficient matrix.
.

(c) Repeat step (b) for the third and remaining equations
tions then has the form The system of equa- .

1 0 v (1 1 N N N .. V
;
2 -4 x -

5 0 N N N .. V N
1

"

2 3 (a ii N N N ..
.
A N (D.3)
n N N N .. *4 N
Solution From ihe irst equation, Zr, = x2. We then multiply the third equaf
f

and subtract it from the second: n _

3a-, +2x2- 4x} = -5 ;S where N indicates a term that generally will not be zero .

(d) The process is continued by dividing the second equation by its coefficient
-

Zri - &r2 + 4x3= -6 of X2 and using the resulting equation to eliminate the coefficients of
from the remaining equations, just as in steps (a)-(c). At the end of this
,-6x2 =-li step, the equations lake the form
(b) ~

Next ,
we substitute from the irst expression of Eq (a) into Eq. (b) to obtain 1 N N N N \
f

0 1 N N N
)= - ii jt m
'

-6(2 N (DA)
0 0 N N
0 N N
-

11*, = - 11 0

* i =1 c)
Substituting Eq. (c) into the irst
expression of Eq (a) yields
f

found.
until all the unknowns have been
.

x2 = 2xl=2 (d)
las? to solve for .v..,. etc..
Finally , -
substitute Eq.(c) and (d) into the second equation " for a set of three equations are .n
3(1) + 2(2) - 4x3 = -5
.
The result is:
T eps in the Gaussian e.im.n at.on metho d
Thus , this example. The original equations are
IN 2
6
' Jl 1
y i f S?1 8 *the Preceedi n g procedure may be diff i cul t to carr y
H.
-

out , panicu
method (C F Gauss Ge mf has few zeros- Gaussian elimination The irst step gives
1 German mathematician and astro
.
f

moner ,
1777-1855) presents
 Appendix D Systems of Al
ge
382
s Sec. D.4 Linearity, Singularity and Rank
r i -
2 3
n r2 ,

383

0 4
-
9
Example D.5
0 3
-

2j Determine the solution vector for the follo

wing tsel of equations:
Be second step gives 2 6 A

-
2 3
in r21 I 2 \

II 1 -
2 .
25 x2 = -0.25 Solution
0 4 75.
.
4-75-
det A = 4 - 6 = -2
Since det A 0 the only solution possible is x = 0 or .r, =
,
, =0

=2 + 2 -
3x3 = 3. Example D.6
Determine the solution vector for ihe set of equations
Note that at each stage in the process the diagonal term of the coefficig " 3 6 1
-

trix is used as a divisor. Thus, it is generally more accurate to rearrange the 11113 L1 2
tions. if necessary, so that at the irst step the equation with the largest coefficie
V 0

"

Xj is used as the irst equation. Then, on the second step, the equation with ?
f

Solution In this case, det A = 0 because the two equations are not independent.
f

largest coefficient of j:2 is put in the second row, etc. This rearranging of th e From either equation,
tions. as necessary, at each step is called pivoting. If no rearrangement can be
that avoids the development of one or more zeros on the diagonal of the matri
then the matrix is singular. This follows from the fact that the determinant of ar and the solutions to the equations are given by
angular matrix is just the product of the diagonal terms. x.1 -
2
= 0
V

lution to a homoge-
D 3 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS
.
where an. arbitrary scaiar multipUer.Ttojtte nontrivial so
is
later * o append.x).
r l s set of equations is no
t unique (more on this

t
ee

The matrix equation

Ax = 0 (D.5)
D .
4 LINEARITY, SINGULARITY, AND RANK
represents a set of homogeneous algebraic equations. If the solution is written by ions to linear algebra ic equations more clearly, it is neces-
Cramer's rule the numerator is zero in each case since b = 0 in Eq. (D.5). Bus, To characterize the solut
e additional concepts. must possess a number of
,
,
sary to introduc uirements, a function f{x)
0 To satisfy linearity req ith a scalar mul.ip lc or ol t o mde-
characteristics. First, evaluation of the function w
1

multtp e t.mcs the [ Ma.hcmattcally.

*i = _

etc., or x = 0 (D.6I
must result m the same
,
A ' A,
Equatmn (D 6) may be rewritten by multiplying through by A to obtain pendent variable x
of the inpu t yields a
multiple of the output.)
.

words, a multiple
A x = 0 re-
of the independent va riable must
Second, a funct.on using
„f

« fZ ndependen.
iu;n values dd.uon
ariables (a
I mo 17 !!
-
*0,Utions -
Wvial solution occurs when x = 0. For sum of the two indivi dual tunciK
I
|A| = O.Thus. Amustbesingu suit in the f outputs), or
(

"

s«'ut.on ex.st for a linear set of homogeneous alge braic of inputs yie lds addition o
cquanons .
 Appendix D Systems of Algebra.
384 9, Sec. D.4 LinearitV Singularit
'
y and Rank
.

/to + 2) = + ( 2) 385
where D is the differential

Hence a /inear function ) must satisfy the general condition AmatrixissaidTb;sS0rdd' -

fialxl + 02*2) = + a2/( 2)

Irbkraty StrcoLlIl an example of a non/Znear function, conside? lvVo The rank of a matrix is defi a
consider
a nonzero determinant that can bTf r o me us
lT.8 l c,ements
!he ,ar8estof sc»uarmatr
e ix.tmWewith
2 denote the rank of the matrix A by r{\) will
/(.v) = x
.

(D.ll) Example D.7

Find the rank of the matrix
This function does not satisfy the general condition of Eq. (D.10) because ,
ingen U 2 3"]
,

eral. A
L3 6 9l
(a.A:, + a )2 # a XiY + a2ix2) Solution TTie determinants of all possible 2 x 2 submatrices of A are zero:
(D.12)
1 2 1 3
= 0,
As a further example, let us determine whether the familiar equation 3 6 3 9
y = mx + b is linear according
ding to Eq. fD.10).
(D.10) In function notation,
Thus, the rank of A is 1. since the largest matrix with nonzero determinant is 1 x 1 .

f(x) = mx + b (D.13) The rank of a matrix is equal to the number of independent rows or columns in
the matrix. Note that in Example D.7 the second row is three times the irst, and the

f
From the irst condition. Eq. (D 8). we ind that .

second and third columns are two and three times the irst column, respectively. The
f

f
rank of 1 indicates that A has only one independent row and one independent col-
m{ax) + b * a(mx + b) (D.14) umn.
The definition of the rank of a matrix can be used to determine the character *"
Further, the second condition , Eq. (D.9), gives of the solutions of a linear set of algebraic equations. Let A denote the coefficient
matrix A with an added column composed of the vector b. Hence. A is « x n. and ''
rank of A with the rank of A leads to the
m{xl +x2) + b* (mx, + b) + (mx2 + b) (D.15) A* is /i X (h + 1). A comparison of the
following three possibilities:
Hence while it does describe a straight line y = mjc + 6 is not a linear function by
,

) = n. a unique
''
solution to the equa tion exists. (In the case
our definition ,
,

Eq. (D.10), because of the presence of the constant b (a) If r(A) = KA the trivial solution, as in Example D5).
lfh = 0, we
havey = mx which will satisfy Eq. (D 10)
.

of homogeneous equations, this is lution: of the n unknowns.

a lin Thus, a straight line through the origin is r{\h) =P<n, there is no unique so
,
.

ear function (b) If r( A)

.

be chosen arbitrarily, as in Example D.6.

.

A linear combination of several variables x is defined as a summation of linear „-p may

inconsistent and no solution exi st. So -
(unctions: If ri X} < rf A ) the equations are
"
(c)
I r xamp
t tS equations are given next to illustrate the various
s

y |>/*, - a* + a 2x2 + ...+ ax (D.16)

cases possible.
Example D.8 of syslem
a variable .
IhT! eqUat'0n 18 a ,inear combination of the successive derivatives of Determine the character of the
[2 1 V 3
3 2.
1

{DM)
1 (I
 Appendix D Systems of Algebraic E
Sec. D.4 Unearitv, Singularity, and Rank 387
386

Let Here, r(A) - 1, r{\D) - 2 and there is no solution A p\ot shows that the two cqua-
Solution [2 n
,

lions are parallel and thus do not interseci

.

A "

J 2- Example D.U
For the homogeneous set
Then

A
[2 1 2] l
2
3
2
A ) it

3 2 3_ A

r(A) = r(Ab) = 2 and the unique solution is xx = x2 = 0 In this case, the equations
*
) = 2 with the unique solution x, - 1, *2 0. This system 0(l - ,

intersect at the origin.

.

Here. r(A) - rrA

> d geometrically, and the solution is found to be lh
/»\ _

,
e

by .he eqUatio„s. See Hgure D.l. Example D.12

The homogeneous set

1 2 -4 fj
-
6 12

determined
20 .

has a nontrivial solution. Here, r(A) = r(\b) = 1< 2. and again..may be Any
= 2 orx - (2,1).
only in terms of x2 or vice versa, as Xi = 2x2.Ifx2= I, then
.

ZX, + 2 = 2 Thus.
multiple of this solution is also a solution in the homogeneous case.
3jci + 2x2 = 3
\ - 111
10 t
.

Example D.13
Find the solution to the 3 x 3 system
r? 8 9ir.tl] ro]
i
1 2 3 : = 0
4 5 6. ,.rj_ _0
i

20
.
Figure D.l Solution for ,
_

Example D.8

Example D.9
Characterize the solution to the sytem

r2 nr n = [2"!
6 3 jc2 6
_
_

Solution HerMA) = r{\b) = 1 < 2 ,

and there is no unique solution. However. 1
1 A 1

variable may be determined in terms of the remaining one Thus, we ind 2x, 2
'

.
f

s
from either equation If we choosey = l henx, = 1/2. Geometrically, the two eq
4
.

tions lie on lop of one another since one is just a multiple of the other.
,
tor- wee obtain
Solving this sy stem, w
Example D.IO 1
1

An example of a matrix equation wilh no solution is

1 21
3 6
v i
= ri4i
L*2J
6
 Appendix D Systems of Algebraic g
388 quati0 Sec. D.5
Matrix Eigenvalue Problem
s

The solution to
. he original problem, then, is 389
Example D.14
Find the eigenvalues and eigen
vect0r s of
* 3-

= [ 5 ~21
_

Since the system

is homogeneous. f3 is any multiplier .
-

2 2

By Sorinl (5 A) (2 - X) - 4 =
f ,he qUadra, c nation
.

,
-

,
- 7A + 6 = 0
we ind two solutions:
.

f
5 MATRIX EIGENVAL UE PROBLEMS A, = 6
D.

ctors
D5 1 Eigenvalues
. .
and Eigenve \, = 1

Often in the analysis of linear systems, a solution to the following equation is desired

A x = Ax or (A - AI) x = 0 (5-A) -2 "1

(D.18) V

-
-2 (2-A) .
I)

Here, the matrix A is known, and the vector x and the scalar A are unknowns. From the irst equation, with A = A, = 6 we gel
The scalar A is known as the eigenvalue of the matrix A, and x is the associated

f
,

eigenvector. From the previous discussion of homogeneous equations, the system of (5 - 6)x1 - 2x2 = 0 or -x. = Ix.
Eq. (D.18) has a nontrivial solution only if the coefficient matrix [A - AI] is singu Thus, if = l,then.r, = -2. and
ar; hence, for a nontrivial solution.
M Br-2i .

det[A - AI] = 0 (D.19) Ai l h

where B is any multiplier. Similarly, for A - A2 - I.

If the elements of Eq. (D 19) are written out in full
.
,
we obtain

K - A) a \2 a
13 \x']2 49
-
-

2 -

(I
2\ ion - A) 23
= 0 (D.20)
a1 a
12 (033 - A) ...
Examplc D.15
Find the eigensolution to the system
When expanded Eq. (D.20) gives an nth-order polynomial in A For example.
if A is 2 x 2 we have,
,
.

r-2 -

131M aM =

1 4 .r2- -X2-
K - A)(fl22 - A) - a12a21 = 0 (D.21)
;..„
Solution
characteristic equation is
A2 - (o,, + a22)A + (aua22 - ana2l) = 0 = A: - 2A + 5 = 0
(-2 A)(4 - A) + 13
-

The polynomia i n A is
then, there are n possibl called the cha racteristic equation of the matrix In general. .

with roots
he e values of A for which nontrivial solutions to Eq. (D.18) can
vcfound. To each of these eigenvalues A there corresponds an eigenvector x. How-
,

f . since rf A) = KA") = p < „ the eigenvector is not unique. We may thus solve
r

or p elements of the unknown ve

,

ctor in terms of n - p elements.

 390
Appendix D Systems of Algebr
Sec. D.6
1 r I3 1 1
Sterns of Nonlinea r
ra,c Equati0ns
-
J and
4
-

3+2,
.
1 .

391

n
0 0 1
I
Fvample D.I6
Determine the eigenvector of the matrix (D.23)
2 2 . . .
J
ts a d.agonal matrix whose diagonal entri
-

A = i 1 1 es are the "

lhe eiSenv
1 3 -1
Example D.17 alues of A .

We demonstrate the propertv af c

corresponding to the eigenvalue A - -2 .
lecting P = 1 we have * Eq-(D-22) usi"g the matrix of Example (D.14). Se-
Solution Since r(A - AI) = /((A - AI)6] = 2 < 3, we can determine two unkn
n
m »f-2 n and M ' ir 2 -n
in terms of the third arbitrarily chosen one. Substituting A = -2 into the irst two e 1 2 _

5 1 -2

f
-

. -

tions yields ™ ITien

.

[2-(-2)]xI-2r2 = -2r3
M
-
1
A M = --S 2 "MF 5 ~2T-2 El re 0"1
+ [1 - (-2)]j:2 = -x, - 1
-

"2 . .
-

2 2 ..
1 2 .
=

0 1 =L
_

d t O d a g0n
or
L e

d fO
C
; ms h e ha f al f0rm USing ei8enVeCl0rS 0f 3 ma,rix is a ' P-Penv
[4 -2irxIi _
_
[2] and desTen ,mPOrtanl ™ddyna™"ys«ems analyst

-
1 3 .
1
Using the inversion method we obtain ,

D6
.
SYSTEMS OF NONLINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
fx 1 f-4 !
"

1 - 7
-
2 .
.
-

7 _
In some cases, it may be necessary to include nonlinear algebraic relationships in the
and the complete eigenvector is
development of simulation models. The force developed in a nonlinear
1
spring, for
example, might be represented by an equation of the form / = kx (See Section .

33 1
. . . ) If there are two or more variables involved in the problem, then lhe number
of equations that must be considered increases accordingly. For example we might
ions
wish to determine the values of .r, and t: that satisfy the equat .

V 1 + m = *2+ 7
(D.241
D5 and
.
.

2 Reduction to Diagonal Form '= -9

An n x „ matnx A can be transformed into a dia solution is not obvious

The correct approach to obtaining aof linear equat.ons in the form
dependent cgenvectors Let M be an n X „ matrixgonal matrixcolumn
i A hasof/;which
if linearly in-
Previously, we wrote systems
eigenvector of A; then it can be shown that each co
.

is an , [1X25)
Ax = b

bis moved to the left side of the equation:

M AM = L (D.22) Suppose the vector
where Ax b = 0
 Appendix D Systems of Algebraic E
392 -*\ Sec.D.6 sterns of Noniinear A1
ra'c Equations
consider indln, roo. . of
syS.em .ha. sa.is.y the 393

nm m

f
can

tions descibed by
r
=

„ is convenien,
write
.0 wri.e systems of nonlinear eq ua.ions in .his form .

Por
we would V

/2=,3 + ;C2_,3 + 9 = 0 ( .28) FiRurc D3 Ncwlon's melhod show-

ing iwo iterations .

thod is a g-d =h « a .ue at satisfies a

-

equati ) = aWe illustrate the technique in Figure D.2. Newton's method .s ea

nonlin rate provuted that the initial estimate
,
to use, theof convergence
the solution isis suff
rapid, and results
icientlv dose toaretheaccu-
de-
sired root and there are no unusual circumstances (such as the function bein e
Ax) tangent to the x-axis; see Figure D.4b.)

fix)

!
1 . (11
V

Figure D.2 Newton's method .

Fipire D.4 When Newton s melhod

'

may fail, (a) Projection misses root.

Suppose we know the approximate location of the root of /(*) = 0. Call this lb) (b) Curve is tangent to x axis.
(a)
solution estimate x(X) If we can calculate the slope of the function, we can get closer
.

to the solution by projecting the slope. That is, notice from Figure D.2 that also be developed from a considera tion of thc
The method of Newton can
oint:
--- is proportional to - Taylor series of f(x) about some p
dx df ,
1 A iL + . ..
(D.31)
(D.29) n 2 fi.x-

Thus Ax =
If we retain only the linear terms, then
,

.
dj (D.32)
dx
rx + Ax) = fix) +
_

(Fhe negative sign is required because the function /(x )

f
as shown, would be a neg-
n
, ,

ber') BaSed UPOn thiS 8eometric development, we can set up an iteration the given equation, i. .. that /(. + e =
ohhe fo? ++ * satisfies
We also suppose that,
that x
Then
(D.30) ..it Ax =
-/u) _ _ C)
\dxl
/(»>
dfjxM) (e

dx
graphol representation of this process is shown in Figure D.3.
 Appendix D Systems of Alge5 aic P r
394
Sec. D.6 Systems of Nonli
t be exactly zero, we mus t define the iteration shnovv ar Algebraic p
Since f(x + Ax) may no nk
(D 30) in order to get closer to the solution.
Newton's method can easily be extended to multiple functions in v used for any number l] derival'ves evalua, r
tions in r, and x2
eral unknowns. As a start, consider two equa We want ,8 ables appropriately by UcraUon may bc
.

values ofx, and .r, that satisfy the two functions

lo in(| .

f
Example D.18 f fUnctions vari-
/,( 2) = 0
Use Newton-s method to ind „ ,

f
and

f2(*U*2) = 0
(D.34)
Extrapolating the preceding development for a single nonlinear equation
Solution Rrst we ind ,he
pand these two functions in a Taylor series: ' We ex. matrixJ.
.

f
(9 f
f x, + Ax1,x2 + Ax2) = fl(xl,x2) + Ax1--L + Ax 2
dx2
+
.- (D 35a
= 3-*,
I .

fJx, + Ax,,x2 + Ax2) = f2(x1, x2) + Axl-ll + Ax :

dx
2 2 (D.35b)
Now we assume, as before, that f1(x1 + Axv x2 + Ax2) = 0 and f(x+A
x2 + Ar2) = 0, and solve for Axl and Ax2. 2 1 i-
11)
" X [21

[
V
Mxi + Axu* +fi(x1,x2)l 2) -

15000
Mxj + Axux2 + AxJ - f2(xl,x2) _
3 7036
.
2 5000
.

2 1057
.

3 0747
.
1 9748
1
.

3 0008
.
2 0005
.

dx 1 3 0000 2 0000
dx. .
.

(D.36) 3 0000
. 2 0000
.

5/2 V2 _
Ax2 _
1 _
Ax2
' _

dx 2
Notice thai the process converges very quickly, and you can verify for yourself that the
Thus values satisfy the given equations.
Suppose however, we had selected x\u = -1,5 and .r!,11 = -2.5 as the starting
,

values. Then the followine values would be obtained from Newton s method:
42)
3/ 1

Ax dx dx
-
2 5000
1 5000 .

Ax 2 (D.37 .

2 2882
-
3 8041
.

dx
-
3 5587
dx 2 2 1707
.

3 54%
.

-
.

2 1680
3 5496
.

-
.

2 1680
To obtain the changes in the variables {Ax 3 5496
.
-

2 1680
gcbraic equations Of course, these are only estiand Ax.) we solve this set of linear
.

mates of the roots and the func- vaiues sausfy .he gi«n *****
nuTTX' + AX"/ = 1 2.
Accordingly we define the following iter-
at.vc cquanon to ind success.vely better estimates
.
.
,
,

Again, you can verify ,ha, .hese

of the solution: f*™ of euuations mav have multiple solu-
f

Thus. we observe that nonlinear system

ult
q such „

(D.38) tions, the solutions may be easy or dific

f
 Appendix D Systems of Algebraic
3% Appendix D Problems
397

D .

8 e Cramer s rule to/b«, thc

2ii - itj = 6

PROBLEMS x, - iv. = 3
D 9 Use Gaussian elimination to so/vc problem D.7.
.

D 10 Use matrix inversion to solve problem D 8

.

n I
.
the solution vector x if D ll Can a unique solution be found to the f
.

oHowing linear system? U yes. find it.

[ 1 JHi »] '

:
i\m
D .
2 /wmie a solution to D .
12 Find the solution to the following system of equations:

H - hi]
2 -J xl + icj + 9x3 = 0
-
2 4
1 -5 2xl + 2x3 = 0

if Sx, - + Sij = 0
D 3 Determine the solution vector x
.

% + % + %= 2 D .
13 Determine the solution to problem D.l by Gaussian elimination
D 14.
Find a solution to
2 + *3= -2

1\m
v
i
*
-

ZX, - X2 + JTj = -1
D4 .Sfl/wefor-t,.. ..*,: l5 F/m/the solution to
.

D .

-
2
I

1
11 m-i
D5
.
Use Cramer's rule to jind x3 for the following system of equations:
It, + 3j:2 + JC3 = 9

x, + Ixj + 3*3 = 6

, Sj:, + jc2 + Itj = 8

f>6 iMermine ihc solution for x in problem D 5 by matrix inversion. .

D 7 Solve for x = 12
, and x2 by using Cramer's rule:
l<*
.

4X, '
"

= -6
 Appendix D Systems of Algebraic
398
s Appendix D Problems

OAS Deiemine the rank of 2 1 -

3 5
D 29
.
Find the eigenvalues of
399

0 0 1 2
A = 8 0
0 0

Compute .he rank of t

0

he following matrices:
0 0 3 c
=ii \I
D 19 .

D .
30 Determine the eigenvalues and ei
genvectors of

A = [ 4] B = [34 1 o]
3 R

D . 31 Find the eigenvalues of

D 20.
Compute r{D) if
Tl 2 3
D=
I4 5
7 8 9
6
A =
ll 11
D .
32 Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
D 21 Compute r(X) and r{\h) for the matrices of problem D.2.
.

D 22 Compute r(A) and r(Ac) for the system of equations of problem D.3.
f

D . 23 Compute r{ A) and r(\b) for the matrices of problem D.4.

D . 24 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of D . 33 Compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of

5 -2
A E
2 3

D 34 .
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
D .
25 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
3 0 -8
F -
[4 11
A = 2 I -4
l) 0 - D .
35 Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
D 26 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
r i -i o]
1
G= -1 2
.
-

I o -i U
A
i l 1]-

D .

27 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of

A
=K1]
D .

28 / rww the eigenvalues and ei genveclors of

t'i

B= 0
Lo
3
0
|2 I
3
 APPENDIX E Sec. E.2 F,rst-Or(Jer Systems
401
In this representation, x is the denena. .

Solutions of n *
Dx = dxldt Hr We 3150 USe D in this use i t
operator notation; D = d/rf such that ,
o

Differential Equations We replace ai/a() with

sponse of linear irst-order syste
t, h la
ms
th r
0btain lhe cha cterization of the re -

f
by Classical Methods E2 . .
+ x = G H(0
1 Initial-Condition Response
,
or TDx + x = G«(0 (E.lc

Consider what happens to a irst-order svstem if it „

tion and no input {u{t) = 0): *
f 111S glven a nonzero ,ml,al condi-

f
TX + Jt = 0
(E.2)
The initial condition (when time is just slightly before r = 0 . designated by 0") is
known to be a:0, so that
* (0-) = x0 (E.3)
Rearranging the governing equation, we have
E I INTRODUCTION 1
(E.4)
.

x = -x
T

The behavior of a large and very important class of physical systems can be ade-
quately and accurately represented through the use of models that utilize linear or- Therefore, the solution x{t) must be some function of time such that its derivative is
dinary differential equations. Since closed-form expressions for the solutions to the proportional to the function itself. It is known that an exponential function satisfies
governing equations for these models can be easily obtained, knowledge of the re- this condition; therefore, the homogeneous solution is of the form
sulting behavior characteristics constitutes an important part of our understanding
of the performance of the system. his function into the
In this appendix classical methods for solving these systems are reviewed, and
,
where A and A are constants that are to be found. Substituting t
several representative cases are treated In the following two sections, we develop
.
differential equation yields
solutions of first- and second-order system differential equations. Since the former is (E.6)
the simpler of the two it is examined irst in the next section.
.
f

which has
der system
characteristic equation for the irs
t-or .

from which we ind the

f
f
E .
2 FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS one root, namely, (E.7)
1
\ = -
T
The general form of irst order systems i
-
f

-- -

a,* + a x = b0 (E.la)
Hence, .e - ro - IE.8)
u(t) xU) = A e
or, dividing through byo,.,
i„itiaUonditionM0
-

) = '« weo b,a,"',

fEJ9)
inp the
Applying _ 4 or A -
xo
a, .

U(t) (E.lb)
D (I

400
 402 Appendix E Solutions of Differential Equations by ciaSsi
eth on
Sec. E.2 First-0 erSyst
The complete solution is then erTl s

x(t) = x0e with initial condition

403
(B.10
k .hewn in Figure E.l. The quantity rin this
A plot of the resP;>" 15 Sunits of time and is a measure of the spe equ We construct the solution of m )'
called the ime co" " . n djctated by its physicai parameters Syst ed of t> a,in
'
mogeneous equation corresnn h 113110" as the sum (
sponse of a irst-or d Cd quickly to external inputs or to m.tial c en
t
. r u

small time constants respond q y in

f so
f
ons; th J
.

onditi
irst.order s
with large time constants are to four time constantystems

f
near to their i- re to an initial condition Note that
s
We - ae
T tTdS thTrgnitude of the initial cond.t.on, and t.me ,s normal
the
f

(E.13)
no a

the system time constant.

The characteristics of the rieht hanH u 14)
eP S eming equation
.

i
dictate the form of th Eq. (E
stant a part.cular solution consisting oJa con in this
.

f i) win satisfy the di{f a S13) .

equation. Let 6 (say.

erentia,

f
H 0.7 S(0 = B
Then (E.15)
06 .

E 0.5
=0
(E.16)
a o4 .
Substitution of this particular solut
ion into the differential equation yields
c 0 3

02 .
B = Gwo (E 17)
.

TTierefore
01 .
,

the form of the complete solution to the differential equation is

00 .
*
(,) = A(rh + Guo (E 18)
2 3 4 To ind the unknown constant A apply the initial condition to the complete so-
5 Figure E.1 First-order system re

f
.

Normalized lime i/t ,

sponse .
-

lution. Note that the initial conditions must always be applied to the complete solu-
tion after it has been found: Since v(0) = .t0.then.r0 = 4 + G«0 ori4 = 0 - Guq.
.

E2 and therefore
. .

2 Step Input Response ,

(E.19)

SeEV TJl 6 precedin8 irst order system to the step This equation represents the response of the first-order system to a step input. A
'

-
f

S ec-A Ihegovernmgequation for/>0is

-

plot of the equation is shown in Figure E.3 for the initial condition x0 = 0. Note
that x{l) begins at zero and. as time increases, approaches Gm0. the value that re-
TX +x = Gu sults after all dynamic effects have died away. The quantity Gm0 can also be
(Ell) d occur if the input were apphed stau-
thought of as the displacement which woul from .ho hg-
M(0 cally, i.e., so slowly that all derivat ive effects are negligible. Observe
ure that the time constant can be used to measure the 7 ; . c
'
That is. the position .v(r) is 98% of the system response from
.

final value after a time equal to four T u L

is also shown in Table E.l at equally spaced t.mes give
r Figure E 2
.
Step input .
constant t.
 404
Appendix IxE Solutions of Differential Equations by ClaSsiC al 0d8
| Sec. E.2 First-Order Systems
405
As before, the homogeneous solute .
lion should be selected to havp .u ls glven by Eq (F s\ a .
Hnear function of time le w, as S lhe solu-
we will ind by substittltion: ' Slmilar U?q Z rZ
,

'
* 3
08
.
«ion
.

f
constants that
f 0.7
x
p(0 = Q + Rt
£ 0.6
(E.21)
i
g 0.5
Substituttngtnto the governing equation gwes
1 0.4
T« + (Q + Rt) = Guot
(E.22)
The constant terms and the coeficients of th .
i 0.3 -

f
dependent. That is, for the equation be TJT.
Muat.on ttoo he sausfied in this eciuation are'm-
the constant terms must be re
lated by .
-

OA
i
tR + Q = o (E.23)
00 4 5
,

i 2 3 Figure E.3 First-order system re- and the coefficients multiplying t must independently be related by
Normalized lime, r/r sponse to step input.
[E.24)

TABLE E.1 RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM TO A STEP INPUT

-
Solving these equations gives the constants R and Q:
i x(t)/Gu0 R = Gu0 (E.25)
~

0 0 000.
Q = -tR = -GuqT (E.26)
It 0 632
Thus, the particular solution is
.

2t 0 865.

3t 0 950.
x {t) = - Gm0t + Gu0i = Gu0(r - t) (E.27)
p
4t 0 982
Adding the homogeneous solution and the particular solution gives the fol
.

5t 0 993.

6t 0 998.
lowing form for the complete solution:
(E.28)
x(0 = Ae "T + Gu f - t)
-

i
E23 . . Ramp Input Response The constant A is found using the initial conditions on the system, .
e ..

x(0) = Xq, thus, (E.29)

Next, consider what happens to the irst-order system if an input whose magnitude A = x0 + GhqT
f

increases linearly with time is applied This type of excitation is called a ramp and is
.

shown in Figure E 4 The magnitude of the slope of the input signal is //0.
. .
Therefore, the complete system response is 30)
x{t) = m f + '
'T(1'e )]
E2 4 Sinusoidannput Response
nalsobeobtainedbyd{
. .

ii
Useful informatton S
Figure E.4 Ramp excitation
Ihc expression for the equation of motion of the system is frequency

tx + x = Gll0l (E.20)
 Solutions of Differential Equations by Classical MPtk
Appendix E Sec. E.2 First-Order Systenis
s .he sum of .he homo8e „eous plu
Asain « deveiop„ .he comple.e solu.ion a s The constant B cannot be zero . 407

p icuiar so,u.io . As hefore, Thus, we can divide Eq (p -i i r'f " were, no ham, .
braic manipulation: V by i obtain the XZT' reSp0nse wou,d cur
.

-Ae
_

f
.
(E.32) mowing result , after some atge-
i t hip Inok to the form of the input. Since ihc
For .he parheular Z a harmonic respons autr

r
sin </>
* C05 = tan (/> =
js **fdj*xr m'y of the response l a 88in8 behind
lXa.de a phase angle . We try a Particular
2e Then, from the triangle of Fieure p t c-
m
(E.38)
Tad "IhleSon,

f
we

of the form .jH sin (f) = ~-J L

(0 = B cosivt + 4) (E 33)
__

.
(E.39)
and
e functions of time for this type of system are
Typical excitation and respons 1
in Figure E.5. COS (j) =
(E.40)
i i' .

08 .

06 .

Excitabon -
W7
\
-

i 0.4 Figure E.6 Phase angle compo-

5 .
espon nents.
5 0.2 v /
/

00 .
Equation (E.37) now becomes
\

= -0.2
\
/
b( (E.41)
K -0.4

06
-

.
/
from which we obtain
/

08 /
-
.
T~

Gu0 (E.42)
B =
-
.
0 1
Vl + a,2T2
2 3 4
5 Figure E 5 Typical harmonic exci-
.

Normalized lime. //t tation and response functions. Thus, the particular solution is
G«0 cos(wf + ) (E.43)
To obtain the steady-state amplitude B and phase angle we substitute the x (0 = "wT Irr
p

particular solution into the governing differential equation:

- -

wTfisin((or + 0) + icos(a>/ +(/)) = Gw0cosa>r (E-34) where, from Eq. (E 38), .

(E.44)
tan'H- )
f

4, =
If the sum-of-angles identities are used to expand the left-hand side we obtain
-

o>t i[sin tot cos 0 + cos a>/ sin 0] + B[cos cos d> - sin (oi sin = Gu0 cos a>t
.nn.r.he-oa es.onheh a.pa
f

(E.35)
homogeneous + pan.c"lar
Now. the sin <oi and cos wi functions are independent Hence, the coefficients cofsin«v .
(steady state)
w h side ol this equation must be equal and, independently, the f
.

(transient)
ihc coeff icients
ci o ,

s om on each side must he equal

s,„«
the
.

That is. the following two equations must hold: of this eq uation (
*
The irst term
-
f

wrflcos (f) - B sin (f> = 0 (E.36) 5pon t.on.

of about four time consta
r

lime
m B sin + cos (/> = G// ()
(E.37)
 408 Appendix E Solutions of Differential Equations by Classjlcal|
etho Sec. E.2
is st-Order SYste[T,s
'

V nSmstave STwty steady operational conditions ex stAp

and I) f-
409
I iroTdition to the complete soiution. we ind the following: .he
n

n 10

f
-

Gu0 20
A =x0- -

8 -30
u

fcos((ot + <f>) 40
[1 + o>2r2]j
-

(E.47) 51
- 50

It is now of interest to examine the steady-state response to input sign S -60

various frequencies.ITiat is, what are the steady-state amplitude \XJ= b and *
angle 0as the excitation frequency w changes? (We wait until the transient
- 70

of the response has died away in each case.) The necessary results can be writte so
1
terms of the system time constant, t as n ln
(1
1 2
Gu
0 3 * s 6
S
\X\ =B= \
. Nomialized frequency m
1 Vl + u)2r2 ,
(E.48) .

Figure E 7 First-order system fre-

.

and quency response (b) Phase.

,

"

0 = tan '(-ojtI zero. By static value we again mean tv,*

"

tude ofAsthethemput were appS

.

(E.49)
These results are plotted in Figure E 7 In this dimensionless plot the response am
. .

,
input frequency . increas es, the response amplitude decreases, and the
plitude is normalized by the input amplitude Gw0 and the excitation frequency is ,
phase angle becomes negatwe. As c increases indefinitely Xs approaches zero, and .

normalized by multiplying by the time constant t Notice that when w = 0 the re .

the phase angle $ approaches 90 degrees Tte angle cf. represents the phase between
.

sponse is the static value and the phase between the input and resulting response is
,
the mput and the output x. K » = 0 then .f. = 0. meaning that at any point in its
.

cycle when the input is acting in a positive sense the output response is in the posi-
,

.
0 tive sense also.
09
.
In many applications, it is more useful to plot the response amplitude on a
base-10 logarithmic scale. In particular, it is helpful to use the definition
I 0.8
- dB = 20 log10(B/Gu0) (E.50)
5
-
0.7

where dB is an abbreviation for decibel. The result of converting the magnitude to

a o.6
decibels and plotting is shown in Figure E.8. Note that the response curve .s tangent
e 0.5 - to two straight lines when the results are displayed m this way.
iu iwu mi digm .„ Ronrpc F 7 and E
.
c 8 eive informalton concerning

l 0.4
Plots such as those shown in hgures t./ anu o 5' ' .

.
f

5 0.3

02
.
-

0 1
.

E3
.
SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS
as given by the
a 2 wUh an arbitrary input function
Normalized frequency
5 6 7 S Consider a second-order system
W7
equation
,

Figure E 7 First-order system re-

.
f

quency response, (a) Amplitude.

 Solutions of Differential Equat.ons by Classical Sec. E.3 Second-Order sYstem
410
Appendix E

and 411

i(0) = ;
1

= -6
* (0 = Ce*
Here, C and A are constants to be detem,- Ac (E 55)
.

stituting the assumed solution in th difSemtU?

-

c -10
e dif{cremial Sub-
cnuai equation yields

S -14
.

J
16
z -

If C = 0, no motion occurs- likewise i'

- 18 fore, we can divide by those terms to obi in l"0 "0 for inite values of r'Illere-
Figure E.8 Decibel (dB) plot of 10 0btam the characteristic equation of the sys-
.

f
i

em:
-
20
i a-1
01
' irst-order system frequency re-

f
sponse.
Normalized frequency,
A2 + A + 1=0 (E.57)

In the study of dynamic systems, it is convenient to normalize this expression This equation is quadratic in A and its roots will determine the form of the so
.
-

using a0 and to choose the symbols for the constants so that the equation takes lution. The roots are
the form
(E.58a)

(
1 2
x+ %x + x Gu(t) (E.51b)
0
.

n
or

or. using the D-operator, Au = o H ± V?M) (E.58b)

1 2£
-

jDh + -Dx + x = Gu{t) (E.51c) We will assume that wn and are positive constants and distinguish between three
possible outcomes of Eq. (E 58b). depending upon the value of the quantuy .ns.de
.

Equation (E.51c) is representative of a general linear second-order system. the square root.
The constant (on is called the natural frequency of the system, and £ is the damping Underdamped Case, f < 1 «the quantity l is negative, the roots of
ratio. Their significance in the system response solutions will be seen later in our de-
velopment Solutions for a free response a response to a step input, a response to a Eq (E.58b) are complex and can be wntten as mm
A =a,n(- ±yVW2)
.
,

ramp input and a response to a harmonic input signal are developed in the remain- 12

Jri In this instance, the system is said to be un-

,
"

der of this appendix .

.
-

'
E3 . .
1 Free Response T
mp d natural
frequency by the on

The equation of free motion of a second-order system is

Thus, the roots can be expressed *
(E.6n

2X + -X + X = 0
-

(E.52)
lE.62a)
with initial conditions
The solution may now
be written as
+
x{t) * cf
x(0) = x it
(E.53)
 412 Appendix E Solutions of Differential Equations by Classical M Sec.E.3 Second-Orders
Vstems

or io .
413
x(t) = e -
** *'' +
(E.62b)

through thfuse o Ts x d Z = cost p + ysin

d dictate an oscillatory free response.
The harmoni c fL
Thus.
5 .
0.6

cyclic in time an g 0.4

8
x(t) = e' -'iA sin (odt + B cos o)dt) (E.63)
.

"

8 0.2
where A and 5 are real constants,
n

E
§ 0.0 -
Overdamped Case, > 1 If the quantity, f -

1, is positive, then the root s

z

A ,
and A, are real, and the solution is of the form - 02 .

x(t) = C/' + C2e '

(E.64) 04 .
i i

0 2 4 6 8
K> 12 14 16
where Qand C2 are constants. In this case the solution is of an exponential charac -

Normalized lime ,
Figure E 9 Free response of under
.
-

ter with the displacement decreasing with time, since both exponents are negative. damped second-order system.
This exponential type of response is called overdamped because, given an initial
value, the system will return to its original state without oscillation. Using equation (E.64) for the overdamped case we can ind the constants C
,

f
and Cj-

Critical Damping, = 1 The boundary between an oscillatory and a x(0) = a:0 = C, + Q (E.68)
nonoscillatory free response occurs when 2 -

1 = 0. Thus, = 1 is called the criti-

m = L = A.C. + A2C2 (E.69)
cal damping ratio. Like the overdampened case, the response with critical damping
is exponential and decreasing. It is unlikely that you would ever actually build a Solving for the constants gives
physical system with a damping ratio that was exactly equal to 1. We will not show (E.70)
the solution for the critically damped case, since it can be determined quite closely v

by using the underdamped solution with set very nearly equal to 1 - say.
= 0.9999 - or by using the overdamped solution with equal to, say, 1.0001.
The constants in the equations for the free response of the second-order sys- 10 ,

tem can now be evaluated in terms of the initial conditions . Suppose the initial val- 09 .

ues are x0 and x0 We evaluate the constants A and B for the underdamped case:
.

08 .

x{0) =xQ = B (E.65) 07 .

S
(0) = *o = " £(o„B + (odA
* (E-66) c 06 .

Solving for A and B and substituting into the response solution yields, for the B 0.5
V

underdamped free response solution,

-

J
n (» 4 .

i 03
X(t) = Xtf- -'LoS t + = Sin a> A + ifi. e-M sin a)dt (E-67) 02
.

VI - .

This free-response function is shown in Figure E 9 Note that it is an oscillatory func - 0 1 .

_ Fl0 Free resixmsc ot o>-cr.

. .

i:
tion with an exponential envelope Note also that the oscillation occurs at the
.
00 .

6 »
10
I) 2 4
damped natural frequency, since the argument of each of the three harmonic func
-

Normalized time.
tions is uj .
 414 Appendix E Solutions of Differential Equations by ClasSiCa| M eth
od Sec. E.3 Se nd-Orcier Sys
where 2
k1 = -<*n(t-Vi -l) 20
.
415

18 h
.
03

A, = 2a> y 2 - 1
(E.72) 16 -
.

20
A -

(E.73) 0
14 .
>')

t.on shows that the ree re

An examination of the terms in this response equa

f
cond.t.on, as shown in F.gure E lQ. i 12 i (X)

a nonoscillatory decay from the initial .

2 Response to a Step Input % 0.8

E3. .

If a step input u(i) = u0 is applied to the second-order system, the equation ?

/ 0.4 -

\x + x + x = Gu(t) = Gu0
(0 (0
II
(E.74)
02 -

00
.

0 2 4 6
Figure E 11 Response of under
with x(0) = x0 and x(0) = x0 must be solved. The homogeneous solution is Eq (£.63) .
Normalized time uj
,
.

damped second-order system to a

-

or Eq. (E.64), depending upon the amount of the damping. In either case the partic- ,
step input .

ular solution is the constant Gw0, which we see satisfies Eq. (E.74). Thus ,

10 r.

r= i o
x(t) = xh{t) + Gu0 09 - .
.

.
2
15
Consider the underdamped case irst. The form of the complete solution is
.

* 0.8 - 20
f

30
x(i) = e (w '
[A sin coJ + B cos (oJ) + Gu | 0.7
~
.

"

(E.76)
Applying the initial conditions to this equation we ind the following complete so S 0.6
, c
f

c
lution to the step input: u
0.5

g 0.4 -
=
-

oe 'jcos (Oj t + sin (o an1 c\

-

sm oyJ
f

g 0.3
vi - c2 J /
-

Z 02 - .

"
'
[cos cu t + (E.77) 0 1 .

figure E.12 Response of over-

Vi - /-I sm (d
(/
00 .

2 4
s III
damped second-order system to a
This equation is applicable for 0 < £ < 1 TTie case of zero damping can be found by .
Normalized lime,
step input.
substituting = 0:

x{t) = xucos (oj + -o sin w / + Gm(){1 - cos coj] n

(E.78) E3
. .
3 Response to a Ramp Input
n

pa respons es shown in Figure E ll for the case in which the initial values of xand
.
In the case of a ramp input, the exp (E.7
*
arc Z™6 stat,c resPonse would be Gu0. Because of the dynamics of the con-
sys-
cm,
we observe that the response irst overshoots the static value, but then (r) n
f

verges to it w,ih increasing lime as the system damping causes the transients to die
mm
Hi
Similar results for the overdamped case are shown in Figure E.12. but because
of the
'lmoUn, (,f d:imP"i8 present, no oscillation or overshoot occurs
'

.
 Appendix E Solutions of Differential Equations by C.assica, M Sec. E.3 Second-Orders
416 s
Vstems

this into the equation of motion gives

Substituting
2C
possibility
is given by of an arbilran, phase reUUomhip b
elmen th
417

(On
R + {Q + = Guo*
(E.81) e mpul and the output and
the constant and time terms gives the values for n
Equating like coefficients of Substitution of this particular solution into the ditfeie
and Q: ntial equation gives
R = Gu 11
(E.82)
_

C cos(a)t + <{)) - 2$ - C sin wt + *) + Ccos((of + *) -

Gu0cosa)t (E 91)
This equation can be reduced to a form f™
.

(E.83) u
ing COSW + and Sin(a. + , ) using Lroit?" . ,
«P -
equatinghke coefficients of coswf and in ; J lnS0nometnc identities and
Thus, the particular solution is mdependentl *
y .
-

n* expansion results in
or
±Gu0+ Gu0t = Gu0(t - -
xpx'
(l) = -

<a„ \ tonl (E.84) Clcos(uJcos<j)-sinWfsin

For the underdamped case, the complete solution is 2 C|sinWfcos(i. + cosWfsi n

x{t) = e
-
'
-
iA sin (odt + B cos (odt) + Gult - -) (E.85) + C{cos wr cos 6 - sin wr sin*) = Gu cosw/
,, (E.92)
Equating the terms multiplying coswt yields
The constants A and B may be found by using the initial conditions:
2
1 - 2C 2 Ccos(|) - 2 - Csin4. + Ccos<l. = Gu0 (E.93)
A= x .
+ xn-- Gu (i {EM) CO

vw2
and equating those multiplying sina>r gives
1C
(E.87)
'

B - xQ + Gu0 4 -
lx)
Csin -

2(- Ccos - CixH = 0 (E.94)

OJ

Thus, the complete solution is and its trigonometric relations For

From this equation, we can find the phase angle
x(t) t""' cos oj
i
f<u"'sin w ,/ simplification, let w = w/avThen
mtadt + - e
~

= x0e
(,
t + ,
Vi - c2 to

s\r\<t> (ESS)
= lan(f> =

I
-

gJ t - ] ,
2C
\ - cos (Ojl -
1 -

2C
sin co (E.88)
n

E3
. .
4 Response to a Harmonic Excitation From Figure E.13,
1
.

To complete our discussion of second order systems we determine the characteris

-

,
-

tics of the response of a damped second-order system when a harmonic excitation ot ' V* „ fU Phase angle cxMnpo-
amplitude M0and frequency w is the input The governing equation is .

1 .. 2 lE.96)
T2X +
.

x+ = Gmqcos cot (E.89) -

2
sin*/* =:
it'
12.
Tsection
e homogeneous soluti
3
on depends upon the amount of damping, as discussed in
b 1 Because dam
. .

ping is present, the particular solution must include

 418 Appendix E Solutions of Differential Equat.ons by Classica, Meth Sec. E.3 Second-Order S
vstems

and cally. Note, however that wh 4iq

see from this equation that 1" iS 0-707 greater
proportional to the amount 0(1 * ~ m u "
occurs Also w
the
.

the response ampHtude dec

These results, when su bstituted into the differen tial equation (E.89), yield amphtude; if the input is of sZ T CT '

Guq 0lt1er fo rm
the analysis mX 30'nput of
,
instant
C =
(E.98) 50
.
1
n __
__
__

t __
__
y 15 must be modified accordingly.
__
_

a 4.5
-

10
TTie complete solution for the underdamped case is 40
20

Gm0 cos(faf + (f))

.

r
40
x{t) =
'

M sin oi,/ + cos <*dt] + V(1 _ -2)2 + (2 y (E.99) « 3-5

3.0 60
3
transient + steady state I
.

25 .

Where (b is found from Eq. (E.95) to be -

8 2.0 -
.

6 = tan 2l 15
(1 " ) (E.100) a -

2 10 .

E
Note that the transient solution dies away with increasing time, since it is multiplied Z 0-5
by e' . However, it is important to remember that in lightly damped systems, the
transient portion might persist for long periods if Ctan is a small number. Utilizing the 00 .

0 05
.
1 u 2 Figure E.14 Frequency response of
initial conditions for the problem, we solve for the constants A and B, giving the re- Normalized frequency w/o*
a second-order system for various
,
,
damping.
sponse solution
The variation in the phase of response with frequency is displayed in Figure
*
(') = V- jcos u>dt + sin (o + & sin 6)dt E . 15 with as a parameter. Here it is apparent that for nonzero values of damping, the
steady-state phase is a slowly varying continuous function of the excitation frequency.
If the amplitude function of Eq. (E.98) is plotted using logarithmic scales on both
COS{(Ot + (f)) axes, the behavior at high frequency becomes much clearer. Hiis is shown in Figure E.16,
+ Gu
I V l-S2)2 + (2 )2 0
f=.10
-
20 .
20
,
30
40

1) cos ay + [|l - -/
40
W - llsi
- .

{co2 -

SID OW (A .
50
-
60 15
(E.101) 70
(1 - 2)2 + (2 ) \2
- ,

X - 80 --~

where w = is the normalized frequency .

| -100
The magnitude of the steady-state response to harmonic excitation can be exam -
I -120
'
ned by plotting Eq .

(E.98) as a function of the excitation frequency o> normalized with -

140
respect to a» Figure E 14 shows the response amplitude C as a function of a)/wn w ith
Phase response of a
.

me .mount of damping, as a parameter Many interesting properties of the damped -

160 Figure BJS mforvanou s
.

: second rders e
.
. SyS,em displaycd in this i8ure- For small values of the output re- -
180 15
,

counts of dampmg.
f

05

mens th.t
I theT*
dynam(Wic=response
Wn) is VCryis much
lar8e- largercauses a dynamic amplif i cation, whic h
(1 ,

m
t.-
No malized frequency.
than if the input were applied sta
 420 Appendix E Solutions of Differential Equations by Classical ivi eth

10

n
II * 5
3
30
411 <

.0
-

a +

7(1
-
5

Z
1
r i 3
+
-
3; 53
r ,

'
1

3 11 5 n
-

a
1
-

:
Z
:

IO"1 101
10" io-1 io0 Figure E.16 Log-log plot of fre -

Normalized frequency. /wn quency response amplitude.

E -
c
El
»s0

E 4 SUMMARY
.

=0
In this appendix, we have used classical differential equation analysis methods to de- E
n
a .
+ 9

velop the dynamic response for a variety of modeling and input situations. Familiar- LU -

ity with the results provides the engineer with a knowledge base for understanding CO
a Ml

3
'

3
1

many common dynamic systems and is a prerequisite for further system analysis and a: + +
v .

simulation studies. LU

Table E.2 gives the conversions for coefficients, roots and dynamic system pa- ,

rameters for second-order systems. Tables E.3 and E 4 summarize the responses of .

z
irst- and second-order systems to a variety of inputs .
O
f

3
LU SJ
if) =5 .

LL 1
O -
- <n -
3 =3 Q
REFERENCE C3
,

to
El E
.
Goode ,
Stephen W. An Introduction to Differential Equations and Linear Algebra C
1 JP
LU
Prenlice Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1991.
-

,
+ CN
,
-
+

E a .

z 3
< +
» N ®
X + -
-1

z
2 -

O
O

p
1
LU
1
CO
1 421
 I

422 Appendix E Solutions of Differential Equations by Classi

eth
Sec. E.4 Summary
3 RESPONSE OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS, [tD + l]x = Gu{t)
Iniriaf {tD + l]x = 0 Wlth -
t(0) , 423
Condition
0
-
t/T Un rdaniped CiT 1

u(t) = 0 x(f) = x0e GD

I

1
Initial 2*
.here
[tD + l]x = GuQ Ox
Step Input w,th (0) = r Condition Co x (I

x(t) = xQe + Gu{n - e h) '

-
-

u(t) = u. u(t) = 0

Ramp Input [tD + Ik = GUnt with (0) =

Step Input
u(t) = lU « « - GUfi

Harmonic Input ( (t£> + IJa: = (7w0 cos With 40) = x !/(/) = "0 *
® = xfC' cos +

u(i) = Uq cos coi 0

, Vl + a)2r2 [1 + a>2T2])
'
where < = tan
~

( -

wt)

Ramp Input
wi» (0) = x0and Dx(0) = i0

)=V- (cos + f sint)jf +5le sin to./

f
Harmonic -

2 D2.r + - + j: = G«0cos(uf with .t(0) = x0 and D.r(0) = i.

Input

m(0 = w0 cos tot r(/) = cos uA + , sin + e-{--'sin

v' ,
.

VI - f

r cos(arf + <»)
-

l)cos
+ Gu + _
w ;

0 V(l - S2)2 + (2££i)2 (1 - iJ)2 + (2 )

'
If ir
/( BP i
and 4> lan
.
4
/
- .

where
 424 Appendix E Solutions of Differential Equations by Classical Meth Appendix E Problems

TABLE E.4 (continued) 425

Overdamped Cas e, i> 1 A, = (on(£

-

V(2 - 1):A2 = a>„( + V 71) PR0BLEMS

iD2x + ~Dx + x = 0 with x(0) = x

Initial a)
0 and D (o) ,
a . 8
Condilion

m(/) = 0 x - A,-A, . «„ .(A2 "

A,)/ ,. "
(0 = 1 ortao
b

f
.
O.OU + x = 0 with i(0) = !
Step Input
- 4 D2x + - Dx + x = G u0 with j:(0) = A;0and Dx(Q\ =
c 0.05z + 10z = u with z(0) = 1
col (on 0 .

" (0 = 1.0
u(l) = «„ X~X
o A2-A, w„ .(A2 - Ai)/ft)n_ W/jflt are the time constants and steadv
_

sponse for each. Sfcefc/i the time response M . 6 Derive ,he analylic re-
-

E.
2 Derive the analytic response to a ramp in
put of the irst-order svstem
+ 1"

f
A,-A, ItD + \]z = G
,
u where u(f) = Af (r a 0)
Mp O (k O)
2
withx(O) = 0and Dx{Q) =i
l

+ -Dx + x = Guai
.

Ramp Inpul 1D x
(1)
1:

E .
3 Derive the analytic response of a irst order system with a sinu
soidal inpul i.e..
-

f
u(l) = %/ X
V _ _(A2 - A,)/
"

[tD + l]z = Gu where u(i) = i4 sin w( (r 0)

I
"

/ 2£\ 2|; fXtfr*1' - "(0 = 0 ('< 0) f

_ _
/g"A'f - g-AAi .

"
.
* o)n , Aj - A, > \ A2 - Ai / .
- .

« A h z(0) = Zq |t:r /' .

I 2i E4 . Find the roots of the following characteristic equations What are their natural fre-
Marmonic 1
D2 : + - £)x + x = 0
cos with a:(0) = x() and Dx(0) = i it quencies and damping ratios?
(ft
Input
a.0.01D2 + 0.02 D + 1 = 0
b D2 + 20 D + 25 = 0
.

u(t) = w0 cos cot \

-
v
[Azg' - y- i , i0r g- ' - g-v 1 c 10 D2 + 600 D + 1000 = 0
A2 - A, w ,, (Aj - AO/w,,

2( o) sin + (] - co2) cos w/ [D + 2D + I003X - 0

[(1 - w2)2 + (2 )2]
I) a .

=o
"

0 " H A2 - Aj ) - M(V b [D2z + Dz + z] = SB

with 2(0) 0 "

m -0 8
. . .

,20
where w = w/w
U(t)="«
c 0.01 £>2z + 0.4Dz + 2 .
(0) a0
(0)
»(/) = "0
 APPENDIX F Sec. F.2 The Lap,ace Tra "
sform

427

Laplace Transform This equation represents

plane. Notice that we have used
a tr
malion
~

' /(t)e"
(Fl)
Solution of and an uppercase F(s) t0 design
to carry out the transformation we mu
i

P,ace
O to de
the ,.

No, c T
to the complex
fun
t present. Smce /(0 could represe
the 1 lhe f"nci on "" in order
,

Differential Equations em, we know that it is impraa

-

oo to the present time (, =

nt ,

qTh * thmk lhal couiJ? 3 dynamic s-

at the instant of the present ZfZ reallV ne d oW 16

P ace transform
x

F{s)=*m ~

\ Kt)e-«dt
(F.2)
and we will not really need the two-sided transfom, " i t
anslorm give n by Eq (F.l) .

Example F.l Step Input

AS a e
p,e, us lake ,he o( i ,

F I INTRODUCTION
.
AO = "o for f > 0

The Laplace transform is an integral transform that has applications in several areas Jo Jq 0 5
-

D
lF.4a)
of mathematics and can be used in a variety of ways. In this appendix, we will be
concerned with the use of the Laplace transform technique to solve differential -

s
(F.4b)
equations [Refs. El, F.2]. In that regard, we are not as interested in the mathemat-
ics of the transform itself, but we are interested in the solution of differential equa- Example F.2 Exponential Input
tions that have been transformed and manipulated in such a manner that we can use As a second example, consider the negative exponential function
the Laplace transform pairs (Laplace transform and inverse Laplace transform) /(') = Ae-n IF.51
which have been tabulated for a variety of functions. Accordingly we will normally
,

not have to calculate a Laplace transform; rather we will just use algebra to solve
,
Transforming, we obtain
differential equations. Therefore we concentrate here on using tables of Laplace
,

transforms that have already been generated; however we will still need to go
,

through some of the preliminaries so that the Laplace transform technique can be f4(0j1l) i(s + r)
fully understood .
)- _
(s + r)
=_

Example E3 Sinusoidal Input

F2
.
THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM Finally, consider a sine function of frequency
ff) = A sin M

f
'

ITic Laplace transform is an integral transform involving the time domain function ra.ionor.ntc bypans
tablesofin.eg
and a complex variable s The time domain function is multiplied by e'" and is transform andus.ng
and us. g
. Applying the Laplace
then integrated from f = -oc to / = +oo The result is termed the Laplace transform twice results in "

AM**'*
.

/.( v) and is a function of the

.

complex variable s since the variable t disappears upon

,

mtcgraiion .

Mathematically ,

428
 Appendix F Laplace Transform Solution of Differential
428 Sec. F.4 The Inverse Laplac
Tra form
L PROPERT.ES OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
P3 MATHEMATICA TABLE 1 MATHEMATlCAl PRQppp 429

.rt«t r.rnnprties of the Laplace transform are neces r, E LAPLACE

SSSSflSSS Of p-Sr nee are lhe linearity
'
Property RANSFO
funct ion
ft) Lapla ce transform

f
Transform
Laplace
(F.9) (Definition) r

mo+ = *M(t)] + [m] = Fl(s) + F2{s)

*
(F-IO)
These properties can be clearly understood by considermg the nature of integrati J Inverse Laplace Transform
(Definition)
/0) =
The proof is left as an exercise for the reader.
Another critical property for the so ut.on of differential equations by lhe Linearity
Laplace transform technique is the Laplace transform of the derivative of a (Multiplication by a Constant) aF(s)
function:
Linearity A(') + /2(r)
) (Addition of Functions)
(F.lll

Hie proof of this property can be found by integrating the right-hand side of Eq. (Ri)
Time Scaling f (3 aF(as)
by parts and rearranging the result. This, too, is left as an exercise for the student
.
Initial Value
lim s F(s)
The Laplace transform of the second derivative of a function is
Final Value m lim 5 F{s)
2\ ]=s2Fis)-sfiO )-f{0 )
- -

(F.12)
Derivatives wither) sF{5) - /(0-)
which, together with the Laplace transform of the third derivative of a function ,
is
shown in Table F.l. This table also lists several important mathematical properties of d2f
rywith/d) )
-

rf(j)-s/{0-)-/(0-)
-

the Laplace transform. You should pay careful attention to the initial-value theorem
m
and the inal-value theorem, which can be used to ind the initial value of a function
f

or the steady-state value of a system, respectively. '

- to j-s/r)-/
-

)
-

f
di
/(0-)
F 4 THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
.

I
The inverse Laplace transform is an integral transformation from the complex plane f /(A) d\
s back to the time domain However, since the inverse Laplace transform of a
. Integral itII

Laplace transform results in the original time domain function, we really need not have negative real parts: othemsc. the comput ed number (or the
'
All poles of F(5) (other than 5 = 0) mus,
ever take the inverse Laplace transform; we can simply look it up in the tables. The inal value will be incorrect.
following definition is stated merely for reference (c is a real constant that is greater
f
than the real parts of all singular points of F(s)): h the Laplace transform and the inverse
c oives
ives bot
both
"

c+l
fore, a table of transform pairs g
/(0 = 2- (5) =-M F(s)e"dS (F.13)
r s several
The ,imc function and the Laplace transform form a transform pair, since one can
ransform a function from the lime domain to the complex plane (with the
ltr
solvin the response
ber of Laplace transform pa irs th I cou '
tcrms t , ,1K

t
Laptransform) or from the complex plane to the time domain (with the in- need only a few term s that occur
the response of very
licated system,
verse Laplace transform) and obtain the same results in either direction. There- gether to obtain
 430 Appendix F Laplace Transform Solution of Differential P Sec. F.4
Nation s The Inverse Lap,ac
eTra nsform
TABLE F.2 LAPLACE TRANSFORM PAIRS continued
TABLE F.2
Time domain function./(/) Laplace transform , F(s) 431

ComplexRoots
Time Functions

ii-

I / S(r) = impulse function, I S(t) d( = 1 '

r±;w .

0
"

I 1?
= step function or constant = 1 ,
v 1

i 16 cosoj;
ramp function. / :
v 1 - coswr
t
n-] 17
i
4 n = 1,2,3,.... 1
(n - 1)1 * U2 + (O2)
IS 3
OJ 1
Real Roots Root = -r
.
n sin cor
19
1
1
e
(s + r)2 +
20 e " cos co/ - - sin co/
1 - e-rl
i
(s + r)2 + a?
r
s(s + r) 1 - e rr cosco/ - -sinco;
-

[rt - (1 - e-")] T 1
.
0) I
i
r
2 r 2+(o2
s 2{s + r)
-
rt
I
1
e
~M
cosco/ _
(* + r)
te
(j + r)2 + u:
{s + r)2
21 (s + q)
cosco/ sin co/
I
(j + r)2 + or
r, # r
2
1

X fi - f- V l
1 1
re r'[sin£of - to/cosco/]
"

10 -
4 -

r
-

1 2 co*
Va . V r2 ~ fi si * r, # r2
,
. + r,)(j + r2) €
-"

[ r\. 1 *
' - ry-
-

,e 25 y r/ cos co/ + co/ sin co/ {(s + r)2 + iff

-

+ rt)(5 r, r2
+ r2) ~rl
f f (r ~ . 1 (s + q)
(r. - g)g-"' - (r, - g)e -

v 26
e
\{s + r)2 + w2?
2 (r -
q)tCOSa)t + \a)t - smco/

+ r, ) + r2) 2

13 - '
' 2' :
- u\
D(s)\[s r)
-

(r2"r,)(r' 1
-

r>) ( )( ) +

+ r, ) + r2)(s + r3) r2 * H
Z)(5 = -r + jo))
e
where = angle )/ ),
(gives portion of inverse associated with complex pair r 1 y#) i
1 A
J
2 + 2* + <
( sinf Vl r')
y

y + (r,- ( T) + {s + o) -

1
10

3+ +
1 " Xr2 - r3) 29 (
'

sin
vi -
'

Ccmlinufd
where * = co s

Continued
 F Laplace Transform Solution of D.fferential Equation Sec. F.5 Solution of Differentia| E
Appendix s quati0
432 vUp,aceT ransfo
rm Techniques 433
Finally, dividing both sides of Eq fp
con dnued
of s and known system constanK L . 'by Ts + 1 gives 7m
TABLE F.2
1 values S of the response z(t)) lo efcas 35 an Unction
I '
eters 10 lime domain
30
1
where </» = cos C
'

Its + 1] (F.19)
Since our input is a step input of val
cos(w_Vl f 0 s 2 + 2fa»n5 + 0,2 tion can be rearranged and stated as follo SSl is z*this
31 2
u0 s for a step input):
-

Z(s) = ~-9uo
s 2 + 2C (o s + at
slTS + 1] + R+Tj (F.20)
32 n
One inal rearrangement puts t s function in the form shown in Table F

f
.
2:
-

i vl - 2 ifX- >0then 0 2 Z(5) =- o/l_ + zL

where = tan __
__

[s + 1/t] [s + I/t]* (F.21)

To this point we have just been performing trivial algebraic operations on the trans-
if- < 0 then <0 tt form of the differential equation: however the resulting expression is now in the
,

form wherein we can take the inverse Laplace transform (by using the table) and
ind the time domain response of the system.

f
Recall that the trigonometric functions can be transformed as follows (<f> = positive acute angle): Recalling the linearity properties, and noticing that the irst term in Eq. (F.21)

f
Acosui + Bsinwl = Csin(o./ + A) where C = V/l2 + B2 and 0 = {an-\A/B) is from transform pair number 6 and the second term is from transform pair number
5 .
we can simply write the time domain response of the system by using the time do-
main functions from numbers 6 and 5 as follows:
.
5 SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS BY LAPLACE
TRANSFORM TECHNIQUES Gu -

f/T (F.22)
z(t) = [r{\ - e-'l] +
The techniques for using Laplace transforms for solving differential equations are
A minor algebraic alteration yields the inal time domain response,

f
best shown by a few simple examples and then generalized .

(F.23)
F5
z{t) = z* " + - e",r) "

. .
1 Step Input to a First-Order System

Let us begin by considering a irst-order system with a step input, namely,

F5 . .
2 Ramp Input to a First-Order System
fi
f

(tD + = Gm(0 (F.14) T.e solution to a ramp .put to a

with z(O ) = z0
-
generalized response equ
generauzeu espuiBw ~t--~
ation of a
dition is zero (,Q)
(.(U) = o andtnai
orde J .

ramp functI
ction

f
...

r
pose that the initial con
and with u{t) = u0 for / > 0 (F.15) u(/) = M for '20
Since Eq (F.14) is an identity in the time domain the Laplace transforms of each (E25)
,
TllLMI
US us.nthalg theucljuation
ano
mji result;
linearitywill be equal.of Taking
properties the Laplace
the Laplace transform
operator we
of
obtain
both
the
sides
follow- ,
U{s) = J
(F.16) Substituting these results into .

Wis) ~ 1(0 )] + Z(S) = GU{s) (F.17)

I" + i]m " G )+ TZ(o )
-

(F.18)
 F Laplace Transform Solution of Differentia, Equations Sec. F.7 Partial Fraction Expanse
«34
Appendix

air
air (num
ber 7 in Table F.2), we ean see that the time don Using this notation, we can exD re.c«.
435
Now. from transform p
response is
(R27)
This is the same result t hat we obtained in Appendix E. Since the roots are unaff ected b 1 V plyi
"
+P) n
)
conversion from a polynomial to thJf n8the Polynomial hv.

TO THE SOLUTION O F DIFFERENTIAL

.
,
erm required forequa l , U Z
he constanuerm; however if you io t
T
tY"1
,
'0 ™'» "
R6 GENERAL APPROACH of the p s and z% i.e.
'

" be found by usi„g ,hc

,
producl
EQUATIONS
'1

Plainly it is possible to transform a differential equation using the Laplace trans-

form solve explicitly for the transformed response variable, rearrange the result-
(F-32)
ing equation to a form that is in Table F.2, and then simply wnte the time domain
response (using linearity properties). This technique is very good, especially when
the system is of low order and all of the transform pairs are listed in the table ,

However, when we have higher order differential equations and more compli - written in partial fraction
cated inputs, we will have transfer functions in s that will not be listed in the table
'
. has the product of pole terms (s + p ) in the denominator the partial fraction
,

This presents no barrier, because it is very easy to express the transfer functions in
,

form for the expression of a transfer function is the summation of the individual
partial fraction expansion format and solve the system equations, as discussed in pole terms in the denominator with appropriate coefficients in the numerator of
the next section. each term. v v -

For example, consider the transfer function

1
F{s) = (F.33)
F 7 PARTIAL FRACTION EXPANSION
.

(s + p.Kj + p.)

When we take the Laplace transform of a differential equation and solve for the This function can be written in partial fraction form as
transform of the response variable the result is a ratio of two polynomials in s. The
, c (F,34)
proper form for expressing this ratio of polynomials is to have numerator and de- F(s) = (T+To (* + t)

f
nominator polynomials with positive exponents of s (We can always rearrange to
Ulentis with
clearthethatproper
the right-hand si sof
.

avoid negative exponents ) This is the polynomic form of the transfer function and
.

can be expressed as
choice of c, , o|n& challenge m
for complex roots and repeated roots have s „

f
m = Dis) - K + '" + V + c o1 (F.28) is to know the co ect form
partial fraction expansion
[a + -- + als + a0] ind the coefficients c. We deal with this next.
"
f

s
n

f
Since the numerator polynomial and the denominator polynomial D(s)
with Distinc t Real Roots
r K
,S'fUnCli0n C0Uld b e exPressed in rms of the root factors. Be F7 1 Partial Fractions
rnul nr
" TS r"3 .1501 Called
01therefore'11
1113the1 areZeroscal,iseofd the P«,edynamic
s*> F(S),systems,
andheirthefactors
therootroots
s ofin
' omplex
fas opposed to having c
. .

fer or
r**\
t

If all of the roots of a trans

, nosiZ '
rm
parts) and distinct (i.value),
e ZX ***
roots have the same then
written as (F35)
Mf) r
Pt ~ ith pole (root of denominator) (F.29)
.

Z/ = /th zero (root of numerator) (F.30)

 Solution of Differential Equation sec. F.7 Partial Fraction Expansi on
M p laplace Transform
Appendix r 437
436
Therefore, the partial fracii
rm for
for
, the
thrmpartial
p fraction expansion is
rte corresponding p roper fo
m= _ 21.429
(F.36)
As a check , we can J
mon denominator to obtain
en fL ml* 11 (S + 10)
baCk 10
(F-45)
ts C(, are called the revues of the poles and are given by
lhc Scored font, by usine a com
T.e numerator coefficien
-

('+p*m . ,m.Pl
(F-37) By carrying out this algebra in the
(F.46)

. m this result is to take the transfer function expressed i n

"
for the c's, the numerator does indeed t m 7 ** )
lhe Values giv
eiven

S TcSeir-csponding .o .he ah pCe. and eva.ua.e * re

. n

F7
. 2 Partial Fractions with Repeated Real Roots
.

maind cr with . "

be c|early visualized by the following third-order example
in which we solve for c2:
K(s + zj) . = +
r
2
+
3
(F.38a)
repeated roots. We will exaJe the
and we will then consider the case where some of the roots are distinct and some
T l
WJs + pM+P +M + (s + P2) (5 + P3) are repeated.
(s + p,) K(s + zx) _ If all of the roots are repeated, then the factored transfer function can be
written as - Ntt B BESiAh L '

(F,47)

(F.38b)
(5 + P3) The correct partial fraction expansion form is
'

(5 + p,) (5+P2)
Now. with s = -p2, all but the second term on the right side of Eq. (F.38b) are equal ci +, CJ + ... + - -
r./ v _ (F.48)
nS) ~ { + Pi) is + Pi)2
m

* (' + P>)
to zero, and we can solve for c2 directly, obtaining
K(s + z,) 1 Kj-p, + Zj) It can be shown that the coefficients are as follows:
m (F.39) F iV(s)l IF.49)
h =
t + pjis + p3) .
(-P2 + Pl)(-P2 + Pi) c -

*******
(F.50)
Example K4 Distinct Real Roots
m
As an example of the use of the preceding technique, consider the third-order syste
(E51)
F(s) m + 6) (F.40)
W (j + 1)(5 + 3)(5 + 10) iF.5:)
The proper form for the partial fraction expansion is 1 r, +nr l
p(a\ = -1- j. _ 1 fF.4n
+
(*+ 1) (s + 3) (.v + 10)
llic cocflicicnls can he found hy Eq ( F.37): **
-fer ***
s
.

Example K5 Repeated Real Root ***

ted real roo. **
fES3)
100( + 6) 1
_
100(-H-6) 78 (F.42) As an example of repea
(j + SKj + IO) . ,. .
, (-l + 3)(-l + 10) is
JH) (s + 6) I 100(-3 + (F.43) for .he partial fraction expansion 1F.M)
ci =
1
»+l)(.v + l()) , ,._ 3 ( 3 + l)(-3 + 10)
-
= -21 429
.

H,e proper form

i(K)(.v + 6) 1(H)( - 10 + 6) (F.44)
= -6 34')
(' + l)(* + 3) f. .„ . (-10 + 1)(-10 + 3)
.
 Laplace Transform Solution of Differential Equatio Sec. F.7 Partial Fraction Exp ansio
438
Appendix F n

439
The coefficients are:
[
-

+2)1 = 20
(F.55)
(F.64)

C> = Is[ S3 U (F.56) IHus. the partial fraction expansion f 1F.65)

or the transfer function is
I dl\sH0(s + 2)1 =0
2! s2 I J.=o (F.57) ) = -+ 8
_

c' "
Therefore, the partial fraction expansion for the transfer function is Tl.ereadershouIdvenf ythisresuUbyJ l mon denominator
(F.66)

= 7+7 (F.58)
F7 4 Partial Fractions with Distinct Com
As a check, you can obtain a common denominator and confirm that this answer i
. .

s plex Roots
correct.

F7
. .
3 Partial Fractions with Combined Distinct and Repeated lo begtn with, the factored "
Real Roots

F(5) = N{s)
The case in which there are some distinct roots and some repeated roots can be han- [s + p,)is + p2)(s + pJis + p4) (s + pfl_i)(j + Pn) (F-67)
...

dled by combining the two techniques just presented. If we suppose that we have n
roots and that m of these roots are repeated, then the factored transfer function can The partial fraction expansion for this case groups the complex pair of roots to -

gether, yielding
be expressed as
c,s + c :
Ms) F(s) = -

'
-
+ T (F.68)
F(s) = (F.59) (5 + p,)(5 + P2) (S + Pi)i* + P4) ' " (*+ Pn-l)(* + Pn)
is + Pj,V+Pm + &'is+pn) .

It can be shown that the coefficients can be found by the equation

The proper partial fraction expansion form is
ci
(F.69]
2 cn
F(s) = + .. + +
rw + l
+ ... + (F.60)
(s+Pi) is + pn)
The coefficients are then found by a combination of the techniques used for distinct Since .he pdes are convex.
two complex numbers to be equa l ,

their real Par's ™s 4 ive us tw0

roots and repeated roots .

and their imaginary parts must be equal o lhe r0o,s

na ,
Example E6 Distinct and Repealed Real Roots equations to solve for the two coeficients a of
r pf or pw
are complex conjugates, we could use eithe

f
Consider the third-order system
numbers.
(F.61)
+i) Example F.7 Complex Rods
TTiis system has two repeated roots at the origin (s = 0) and one distinct root at funct.on
Consider the transferr function +10 (fM
*
- -l TTic parual fraction expansion form is
.

F{s) = £ls + s2 + (s + (F.62)

1) in which Pi = 2 + /3s case is (F71)
Ihc coefficients arc:
pansion form for this case is C.jJjtft-
, i.r.

c2-
Ms + 3)
12 fF.63)
< .
v + 1)L ,
 Solution of Differential Equati0ns sec. F.7 Partial Fraction ExpanSi0n
A . p Laplace Transform
Appendix r
440
441

t.m independently and irst solve for c, and c2. Using ,he 0ri F(s) = -L - 56)
We will treat the coefficient equat.on results m 8'

f
funcnonm the gen
.

nal transfer ™ V + PMs + p) 1F.82)

CiS + (5 + p})(s + Pa). -2+/3

8 + /3
-
2 + /3 + 10 A transfer function with repeated complex ron.c .
ever, the mathematics for handling such a case k, „ ' COmmon oc ence: how-
tion can be stated as s P sented next The transfer func
+ /3 into the left side of the equation and expanding the
.
-

. r = _2
u

Substitut.ng the . b the conjugate of the denominator) yields F{s) = --

ieht side (through multipncanon y -
74 + /27
l(s + p s + p )]"-
r

(F.83)
c1(-2 + iS) + C2 = C2- 2c> + >3c' - 85 (F-73) ,

ual, the following two equation In this case, the roots are complex conjugates of each other and can be written
Since the real and
the imaginary parts must both be eq s
and -pj,where the P 5 are complex numbers Pi

result: In a manner similar to the partial raction expansion for repeated real roots

f
74
the correct partial fraction expansion for repeated complex roots is
-

c2 - 2c, = (F.74)
85
F(s)=, .+77- ±£i- + ... + _c2m.1s.c2
/3c, - (F75) (5 + P,){S + p2) [(S + p,){s + p2)]2 + ((S + p + p2)r W
The coefficients are found in essentially the same way as are those for the re-
Therefore. peated real roots, except that we must realize that now the roots come in pairs, or
9 two at a time, and therefore, we must advance the derivative sequence by twos in-
_ _

(F76)
Cl ~ 85 stead of ones. The general format for the coefficients is
56
fl(s+Pi)(i + P2)r ]
-

c2 =
(F.77) (F.85)
85 2m- + c2M = _

Usine the second pair of poles yields w2 r . N(s)i (F.86)

_ [ s + 10 1
r
5' + C4" Xs+pl){s + P2).s=-Pt (F.87)
(-1 + /+ 10) 9+7
(F.78)
(-1 + / + 2 + /3)( l + y + 2 + ;3) 9 + ;2 M5)l
(F.881
-

Substituting s = -p4 into the left side of this equation and reducing the com
-

plex term on the right side yields

'
(2m-2).- - ni0themth

83-y9 (F 79) Notice that if we havels oD{s).eandPfthereS S n S Ut o Si

o . ed

r
e .
CjC-l +/) + c4 = c4 - c3 +/c, =
.

power exactly cance there will be ot her

Therefore, the coefficients can be solved from the real and imaginary parts of Eq however, in the general cas e ,

(F.79) and are and repeated roots.

-

9 (F.80) Example F.8 Repeated Complex Roots

c, =
3 85 Consider the fourth order system
-

+ (E©)
and

74 (F.81)
C4 = i5 complex roo..
with two repeated
Notice that all of the c's are real constants and , the partial fraction expansion for« '
transfer function of Eq. (F 7()) can be stated as
.
 JS p Laplace Transform Solution of Differential Equat.
Muai|Ons Sec. F.8 Solution of Differential
Appendrx >
-

442 Nations with part- ,P

CiJ + c xpansion
F7
. .
7 Partial Fraction, with Cn k
CO,nbi
(F.90) nM a„dcomp,ex

can be found fron. The preceding techniques generailv

coefficients
+ l)(S + 4)lf..P>» + 4L_J-
-

ll+y3 characteristic equation are all nf J" t0 sPecial casM « ..

C,5 fC4=![(,
techniques and the equation th 6 0r a"othe £ T ,he
"
<* the
Equating the rea I parts and the imaginary parts separately and solving or lhe Co The only "tricks" to partial f ctiLPPly t0 in orderT0T " ? COmbine
e

f
efficients yields expansion applicable to the 1 ? "
P3"5'0" are (1) 0 re l
0
coefficien
(2) to know how ,0 X
and
c4 = -9 (P 93)
.
eral transfer function. ,
ract10" expansion techniques to any gen-
in the expansion can be solved in a similar way, resulting in
The second term Example F.10 Real and Complex Root s
2

4>J+&+4)1 '-'- =t=1+'0 (F.94) Consider the ifth-order system

f
where the constants are
F{s) = (? * gtXi -f zjto » , v
C« + P,) + PjKj + p ) + p5) , (F.100)
Cl = 0 (F-95) in which there are two repeated real root<i-n anH „ j

and

c2=l (F.96)
Ffs) = _£i_ + _£:_ + c? . v + cs (F.101)
Thus, the complete transfer function can be stated in partial fraction form as (s + p,) (j + p,)2 (i + Pj) (s + Pt)U + ps)
1 (5-9) The coefficients can be found from the followine equations:
F{s) = (F.97)
is + POis + P2) [(s + P0(s + P2)]2
(F.102)
R7.6 Partial Fractions with Combined Distinct and Repeated
Complex Roots
r -71 N(s)] (F.103)

If the system has combined roots ,

some of which are distinct complex roots and oth- 1F.104)

ers of which are repeated complex roots , then the partial fraction expansion is
formed as a combination of the separate techniques used to deal with each. (F.105)
+ C5
Esample R9 Distinct and Repeated Complex Roots
Consider a sixth-order system in which two complex root pairs (-p, and pi) are rc
*

pcated and one complex root pair (-p5 and -p6) is distinct. The transfer function for ARTIAL
the system is F 8 SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQU
.
ATIONS WITH P
[s+ l)(s + 4) (F.98) FRACTION EXPANSION anded
F(s) = listed in Tabic F.2. an exp .
.

not
[{s + p,) + p2)]2{s + p5){s + p6) ™ n still be found using the part,aIB
Even when the transfer function of *
transfer function composed of s.mph dix 3nd summ med""
The correct form for the partial fraction expansion is
n
and .ho t.mc don.
F{s) = -Sis+h CjS + c + c (F.99) iquesterms cafn bbe fof und
fraction expansion technified in Table F.2.
'v + P>)is + p2)
[{s + + p2)]2 + (S + p5)(s + p6) Table F.3. Then the simpl
The coefficients can be found by applying the techniques presented earlier.
 444 Appendix F Laplace Transform Solution of Differential Equa(i o

TABLE F-3 PARTIAL FRACTION EXPANSION TABLE F.3 continued

F(S) Repeated Complex Roots

D(s) (s + PtKs + Pzy-is + pJ P"P2 are co
c
on]"gates
ion: roois
Oistinct Real Roots Pi tp2.fh are real. Roots at -/;,, -p2, ~p Transfer funct at
Pa
-

Vfv)
N(s) (s Pl)( V
Transfer funciion: F(s) = )
"
1

(s + PiXs + P2)(s + Pi) Partial fraction expansion

Partial fraction expansion i
2 C3
format: r
4 2
format: F(s) = + + r v + c
(s+Pi) {s + p2) {s+ p.) Pi)( +

Coefficients;

Coefficients:
Repeated Real Roofs Pi is real. roots at - p.
D(i) .
,. -

),
N(S)
Transfer funciion: F(s) =

Partial fraction expansion

is + p.r-- t
wr ...
formal:
F(s) = + + .. £ n
[<V + c2]J= = 1
(s + Pt) (s+pj +(s + Pi)
.

+
(2 1)! l(i + p.Kj + l"-M
_
t

Coefficients:
.
Pl) D(s)
result can be stated directly. The linearity properties must be used to multi
ds ; yv D s) the transfer functions by constants and to sum together the individual partial
ply
fraction terms .

ilds1 (s + p,> The MATLAB function residue can be used to convert from transfer
m '
function form to residue form (and from residue form to transfer funciion form) .

Oisfincf Complex Roofs

PuPz dp},pi are complex conjugates
Roots at -p, p2 and
.

.
REFERENCES
Transfer function:
F(5) =
(5+P!)(*+P2)(5+P3)(J+p)... F l . R.D.. and Wand. J. R. Laplace Transform Solution of Differential Equations-
Strum ,

Partial fraction expansion a Programmed Text. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs. NJ. 1968.
format:
ClS + c 2 F . 2 Ogata. Katsuhiko. System Dynamics Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs. NJ. 1992.
Coefficients-
+ = -

P!
= L+Pl)(j+P2) i PROBLEMS

+ CJ '-
P. = + p3)(s + P4) IM] F . l Convert the following complex numbers to polar form:
4 D(.s)
a .
I + jl
b .
2 - j3
Continued
C- "

1 " J1 notation to rectangu lar notauon:

bers in
i Ddar
r
F . 2 Co/ivm the following complex num
a. IOZ.450
 446
Appendix F Laplace Transform Solution of Differential Equatio Appendix F Proble ms

I..
447
c .
V/2Z-450
F .
3 H7wf are the natural frequency and damping ratio associated with a ± ? b .
z + i + z = 5m
F.
4 Perform the following operations on the stated complex numbers and functiions: Where (0 = A .i
"
n

/wrf the complex conjugate of z = 3 + y4.

a. wah 2(o) = 15
b . Express £ = 3 + y4 in polar form.
IT
i(0) = o
c Zis) = i£ + 20)
_

c Express z = lOe '6 in rectangular form.

Express z = -1 ~fl in polar form. +'~
d

e
.

Express z = V2 -45° in rectangular form.

with all initial conditions equal Jj
F
11 A irst-order dynamic syste
m «subjeLT J '*0
.
.

/vW the rectangular form of the product z = (1 + y2)(2 -

f
f .

g. Express z = (2 + -;2) in simple rectangular form.

R5 Use MATLAB lo ind the roots of the poiynominal
+ 2Z = 2U wherett(0 = 1
f

s 5 + 1554 + 68 + 2I4r + 3605 + 200 = 0 " (0 = o t> 1

F .
6 Use MATLAB (function residue) to ind the partial fraction expansion of th e fol- th z(0) = 0
lowing functions:
f
a
. Find the inverse Laplace transform of th
b e system
a Zis) =
. Phi the response over the two ranges of the in .

s 2 + 4s+l put.

W s 4 + 1753 + 85s2 + 175s + 250

F .
7 Find the eigenvalues of the matrix

[0 1 0 1
A = -500 -10 .
001
0 106 20 _

'

/(0 = /ie-"' for / > 0 -

- M

F
/(0 = 0 for r < 0 ' ''ll
.

9 the Laplace transform of each of the given functions. Express your result in the
7, \ Nis)
D(s)
a
dz
- TV + 4~ + ,oz = 20u with =

jfl
'/', 2 d'2 + 0, d/ + a«2 = j,' + A." with all initial conditions = 0
*
.he Uplacc .ransform lechnique
'
4Z + 20W ere = A sin.
 See. G.2 State-Space Formu'at,
APPENDIX G
443

e emphasized here.
be UX*Cd howeve
State-Space The der i vati v es of l i near functi o ns
the stale variables and inputs In matri can be written
'
t -
functions friD
.

x notatt «
'k
*

Representation of
u
-
.

t ion of

x - A* + Bu
where
(G3)
Dynamic Systems A
'B = ces of coefficie
Thus, an nth-order differential equati on
„ irst-order different.al equations mhenfe

f
,

t,al equation. The solution, or system response 1 fh u 0rder classical di« eren-

tegration of n simultaneous equations rather than! in! 0btained by a single in-

"

The state-space format is also usefuHn 8rat,0nS of one ecluatio"-

multiple inputs or nonlinearities and in modem oZTeor with
The state-variable vector x establishes 3 1. PP ,Catl0n'
describes the system response. There is I ZZTlS
vector, and in fact, a wide variety of system variables could be used to obtaL a work-
able state-space representation. However if the system is of order * then there
,

G
.
1 CONCEPT OF STATE SPACE must be at least n state variables that are independent of each other Hence it is pos- .
,

sible to use more than n state variables, but then some of the state variables will be
In analog and digital simulation, it is very convenient to perform single integrations dependent or linearly dependent upon each other.
at a lime; thus, the state-space or state-variable representation of dynamic systems is Further, any observable system variable can be written as a linear combination
advantageous. In this format, the primary or fundamental system variables (e.g., po- of states, as illustrated by the matrix equation
sition, velocity, voltage, current, force, etc.) are selected as state variables, and a set
y = Cx + Eu (G.41
of irst-order differential equations is written in the form
f

x = f(x, u) (G.1) where

or, written out. y = vector of outputs

*j = /,(%, u) C ,
E = matrices of coefficients
*1 = /2(X,U) (G.2) Note that matrix notation is not applicable to " "f! or computing vari-
Equation (G.4) implies that one . - -gany Jm vanabie s3
= / (x, u)
ables or responses other than those given .
if the slale variables m a
can be computed with a knowledge of the then the forces in
n

where
mechanical spring-mass-damper system ar n and ty.
x = vector of slate variables the spring or damper can be computed as
u = vector of inputs
G 2 STATE - SPACE FORMULATION de ,.3 definition of the
f = set of functions of x and u

Notice that the functions f could be either linear or nonlinear The nonlinear case The state of a system in the terms oi y
inputs and state variables in
.

represents a very .mportant class of problems that can be conveniently handled in

448
 ix G
State-Space Representation of Dynamic Syst Sec. G.3 Conversion from c,
Appendix aSSiCa, 10 State variiable
450
s
where
u = inputs 451
(G.5)
x = system variables 0 =
differ
emial operator =
ecified in .he fo™
Next .
,he sysw dynamic equations mns. be sp
(G.6)
or. for a linear system: with initial conditions "

x = Ax + Bu
(G.7)
con<Htiomof the state
In order to obtain an explicit solution, the i al *«
ables must be spedfied. functions of syste This system has one input and can hP.
irst state variable as the dependent varia

f
successive derivatives of the dependent variabL hel? Slate variabl« *
since derivatives are 90° out of phase wuh each othe nf™ ™
x2i0) Definitions of
x(0) = (G.8)
*
as Functions
State Variables of z Dz. etc.
.

U(o)
ux = w{t)
The preceding equations are sufficient to obtain the response \(t) for a known input
t(t). However, as those equations will only specify the state variables, any other A
x\ = z
(G.12)
t

system variable can be specified as X2 = X]

A .
x1 = Dz

y = g(x, u) (G.91 x3 = x2 x* = Dh

for a nonlinear system and as

Xn X
n-\

y = Cx + Eu (G.10)

for a linear system. Remember that we are seeking an equation of the form x = Ax + Bu and that
The foregoing equations and definitions will facilitate the simulation of a dy- we have, in our definitions, expressions for Dx, for every state variable except Dv
namic system on either a digital or an analog computer and will permit the response Notice that by differentiating the last equation in the second column of Eq. (0.12).
of any system variable to be printed or plotted Notice that if the system is an /ith-
.

we obtain
order dynamic system with m inputs x will be an nth-order vector, u will be an with- (a,3)
,

order vector A will be an {n X n) matrix and B will be an (n X m) matrix. Often.

,
i .
= rz
,

m is equal to 1 If output variables are to be monitored (printed or plotted), y will The expression for D'z is fonnd o* .he odgM
.

be a cth-order vector C will be {k X n) and E will be (k X m).

t
f

,
,

G3
.

CONVERSION FROM CLASSICAL TO STATE VARIABLES

tions in column two of Eq. (0.12). (G
A classical differential equation can be converted to a state-space equation by deljn -

mg the state variables or so-called phase variables to be used in the equation. In from
,

al- RnaUy, we obtain the following eq uanons

n norm
,
r

d ;. h
C
0n " ,hc classic al "th-orcler differential equation that has bee
ized wnh respect to ts highest derivative and written in operator notation as
w
, from Eqs. (G.13) and (G.15):
(0.11 * ** * *
[0" + a xy-i +... + aiD + =
 452
Appendix G State-Space Representation of Dynamic Svst Sec.G.4 Conversion from cia ,
efTls assica| '
0 S,a'"M3ble !
D'fferen,iaUn8 '«.e, Put Deriva,iVe
hnd thai «0 " s 453
'n the
SeCOnd
(G.16) ***** anc usi
xn-l X"
5DJ
4= a»-i-«/i + o"i z'etc
-
.
from the second , (a22)
In matrix notation, these equations can be expressed as nintoE G,,,
'
3 = ~lx
.

0 1 0 ... 0 3 -&
~
~

1
,

Thus *2U
.
V
1 ,
in matrix notation the state i
0 0 i ... o ,

(G.23)
Space
-

Presentation results i
+ n

1) (J 0 ... 1
1 (G.17) x =
0
: 0
1
f
.
4J -" -a -

3 -5 (G.24)
The initial conditions of x are
The equations in column two of Eq. (G.12) are valid for all values of time includi g
lven by the second coin m "
ng ,

ofEq
/ = 0. -

CaZDandEq cm .

The initial conditions of x are functions of the initial conditions of the original
x(0) =
system, as given by the equations in the second column of Eq (G.12). and are ex .

pressed as
Notice that the definition of the state Li Ki
and the information concerning the differem a *
.
(O) = z(0) ] S,andard Pa"-
equation. 6 emial e<»uat,on mcluded totally in the last
x2(0) = Dz(0)

(G.18)
x
n (0) = D"-1 z(0) G4
.
CONVERSION FROM CLASSICAL TO STATE VARIABLES WITH
INPUT DERIVATIVES
Example G l
.

Consider the third-order differential equation

The conversion discussed in the preceding section is quite simple but can be w...- , com

[D3 + 5D2 + 3D + 7]z = 2w (G.I9) plicated by the presence of derivatives of the input. Recall that the goal in defining
with inilial conditions state variables is to obtain the x = Ax + Bu format and not to have any derivatives
of the input (i.e. li, ii. etc.). The appearance of input derivatives in the inal form
,

f
Z(0) = 10 would require numerical or electronic differentiation of the input signal, which is in-
Dz(0) = 4 (G.20) accurate and prone to problems. When the original classical form contains deriva-
(0) = 0v tives of the input it takes a special definition of state variables to eliminate any input
,

derivatives in the state-space format. . .

.

For this system ,

one input and three state variabl Consider a classical mh-order differential equation in z
es are required: to the highest denvaf
Definitions of atives of the input w that has been normalized
.
with respect
x as Functions
State Variables of z Dz, etc
of z (i.e. ,
a
n
= 1.0):
.

[Dn + a D"-1 + .. + «,£> + "(W = (G.26)

l k
X, = 7
* h Kino ohase variables, with a con-
b
i = z
(G.21) As before a set of state variables can be de
ined s P dcfi ll0 , ,„

f
x2 = x
as functlons of. .hu.
,
* 2 = Dz of the input subtracte d
stant multiple y, .
nc
the process we will need both x as tuthree folloWS
.

* 3 = D 2z
it is convenient to set up a table with
,
 Sec. G.4 Conversion from Cl«.
Appendix
G State-Space Representation of Dynamic Sy s SS,Cal State Variab
454

z, Dz, D2z* etc. as The irst parts of this equation i

ln PUt Privative.

f
Definitions of
x as Functions
of n z, Dz, Dh> etc
Functions of x and u down through Do, . As st T01 0nly » and
State Variables term must be avoided. The v ! before' the JSlWhereas the U.«
effderivative
icients ofterms
derivative ter
vanish: Vs
of
Mi = M1
z - x
are J h*
Z
coefficients of th
xx=z e

Dz = x
*2 = Dz
for (030)
every
The inal result can be stated as >=u k ~ i (G.31)

f
n'k
D z = x.._ +
2
"

A . r -= D" - *+1
Z - -

D = X -k+2 + JlDu + T2"

n
I

X
n -k = + 7,0,
t X
-k+\
"

f
n
+ yiU,
J I (G.32)
/= I /»1

n
k

1
From the definition of the phase variables with a multiple of the input being or, in matrix form;
11 / J
- '

subtracted from the last k state variables, the equations in the irst column are ob-

f
tained. The equations in the second column can be obtained by performing the op- XI 0 1 o o 1 X
I 1
erations indicated in the irst column and substituting the original variables z and X: 0 0 i 0
f

The right side of the equation in the second column is obtained by differentiating the X

previous state variable expression (in that column) and subtracting an appropriate y X -k 0 0 o 0
n
as dictated by the irst column. The equations of the first column can be algebraically
...
f

X 0 n o i 0
rearranged to obtain successive orders of derivatives of the original variable in n-k+\
... ...

terms of the state variables and state inputs as presented in the third column.
,

Rearranging the definitions in the irst column we obtain equations for ,

Xn _
-

Oq -O, -
~
a -\
n .
A . (G.33)
f

*
\ through x .The expression for x,, is obtained by differentiating the last expression 0
in the second column:
0
(G.27)
i=i
An expression for Dnz is obtained from the original equation: +

ITz = -ooz axDz -

a Dn-'z + pkDkw + .. + p Dw
n -,

+ p0w (G.28)
x

Hie terms for z Dz, etc., are obtained explicitly from the third column and are
,

subsututed mto Eq (G.28); then Eq. (G.28) can be substituted into Eq (0.27). t, - y\an-k

f
.

result (after cons.derable effort) can be stated in general as where the y s are given by
'

2 k
7i = &
*
n
*
-S "/
-!* / + (a, - 2y/«„-*+y i)"i -

(G.29) y2 =
-
nvi
+ 03
i
 Appendix G State-Space Representation of Dynamic System See. G.5 Conversion from St
Spac
456
e ClasSiCal p
From Eq
From Fn (n. 0rrnat
74
(G.36). we ob
.

tain 457

D4Z = -5Z 6Dz - l&t _ &

-

D, + 4 + _
rk = it -

yi«/.-*+i _ y2an-k+2 Substituting the expresM

ons from the third coiumn o, th
,
n + ,

f
The initial conditions of x are found from the equations in the second colum n e taWe o o Eq (G 38) yieid

t
f the table on page 454 and are more complica
ted than before: .

-
1,(0) = z(0) The expressions for i through i, are given in th
,.

expression for x4 ts found by differenti e irst coi

2(0) = Dz(0) (Don't forget to differentiate the in ating the last e umn of th taWe; th

f
,
inputs!)
puts'.): quation in th e second coi
e
e

umn

(0) = D ziO) - 7 (0 )
-

x _k+l
n
(G.35)
(G.40)

r (0) =
"

(O) - y.D wiO-) M4-,l) 1 + (3_y

1=1 _

(G.41)
THe coefficients of and 0l<i vanish
The initial conditions require a knowledge of the derivatives of the input at the in-
stant before / = 0 (denoted (0 )). In some problems, all input derivatives can be
~

y, = 4
considered to be zero until / = 0 and thus present no problem. and (G.42)

Example G.2 y2 = 3 - gy, = -29

(G.43)
Consider the following fourth-order differential equation with second-order input Thus, the matrix differential equations become
derivatives;
0 10 0
\D4 + 8Z)3 + 7D2 + 6D + 5] z = [4D2 + 3D + 2] (G.36) 0 0 1 I)
x = x +
(I li n 1 29
(G.44)
Suppose Ihe initial conditions are -

S -6 -7 -8 :it6
z(0) = 10 with initial conditions
DziO) = 20 10
(G.37)
D2z(0) = 30 x(0) (G.45)
30 + 4w(0")
DhiO) = 40 4O + 4h-(0
-

)-29h!(0 )
-

and the system is subjected to a step input of wQ .

From this formulation, the so-
The table for the stale variable definitions and relations is as follows: lutions for z, Dz, etc.. can be calculated using
Definitions of x as Functions
y. -x,
z, Dz, etc., as (G.46)
State Variables of m> z, Dz> etc .
Functions of x and u = Dz = x,
j A D2Z = X} + 4«

xlm z
x, = z
z = x, G 5 CONVERSION FROM STATE-SPACE TO CLASSICAL FORMAT
x2 = Dz
Dz =x2 format into a classical
a state-space
for- r
x, = Dh - y m> , D'2 z = x, + y.u, 'n some cases it will be required to c b aca mplished with differential operato
ert
onvert
44i ,
*
, - y*.
xt = Dh - yxDw -

X '"
'

D3z = x4 + y.D//, + 72" i linear system, tms ""

mat. For a linear system, this can
algebra Thus, the state-space vector
.
format
S equation
 458 Appendix G State-Space Representation of Dynamic s Sec. G.6 Transfer
s Funct ions
x = Ax + Bu
(G.47 Notice further that the
output s can b
can be rewritten using operator notation as e
exPres! 59
[DI - Ajx = Bu
For a linear system, the [Dl - A] term can be treated as a single aleeb G4 Example G.3 1 B + El 0 he ,nP"ts U:
trix. Thus, this set of equations looks similar to a simple set of algebr e(1Ua- Consider the
phase (G.56)
tions. We can solve for any state variable by a variety of methoHc
' '
without derivatives J!l defined tten .

matrix inversion, but Cramer s 1 1118

rule is a particularly attractive reductiiT" --
nique for obtaining the classical differential equation in terms of any si t teC'1'
able. The initial conditions will be stated on the state variables and Var' 131 Orator
converted to the required classical initial conditions by successive elimi03" D _

in the original equations. nal1ions 0

For example, consider the second-order system
Using Cramer's ruIe t0 I (G.57)
(D - an) - a
12 fo
- we obtain
i

0
-

a
[D - a22) x
(0.49) -
1
2
J

in which the classical equation for*, is sought By Cramer's rule

.

.
x,1 =

D
-

* I2 I -
1 (GJ8)

or
I
ATi = -

- a 1: (G.50)
02 + a.D +
(G.59)
In classical form;
or
% (D - a )
[Z)J + a.0 + «oJx , = A)" (G.60)
™"U" iS ,he ,amiliaI f*™8 Wl .o* b. »v™ „. .
D - (Oil + a21)D + (au/ia - ll2a2 (G.51)
I

Rearranging the latter equati 1)

f

on to classical form yields x,(0) = known (G 61).

2
P -

(«II+fl22)D + (fllI<722-fli2fl2i)]_Ci =
,(0) = xM (G62)
(G.52)
To convert x2(0) to 0.1,(0). the irst equation from Eq. (G.57) can be used.

f
initial conditions for th» . + " V22),",
Bq. for sl
alc Z A terms of each X- - y G 6 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
(0) = known
(G.53) The classical form of the linear differential equations discussed in this appendix can
Equation f(i4H,f nk 1 . o,;/, j (G.54) be expressed in terms of a transfer function as is typical in control theory. lm the
i 8) can be solved for x to yield differential operator D = d dt, in place of the Laplace operator 5. we can te
x = IOI-A 'Bu (G63)
(G.55)
 Appendix G Problems
. r J state -
Space Representation of Dynamic System s
Appendix u
461
. mr a transfer function is the ratio of two polynomials in g + 5g + I5g =
Note that the proper forni '0 eXponents. Terms involvmg negative exponents Wilh g(0)
' =~ o
°

to state-space form g
D all with terms having POs" ;erted to the proper form.
„„«w ik„
.
Defin e ""
Enables
= 0

{eg.. DAs +an1 example,

+ )y h?r wj6o) may
*
be expre ssed as the transfer function G . 6 Convert the equation .

bq. {y .

= T- (G 64)
.
to state-space form .
Define alW i
=

+
G7 .
Convert the nonlinear differential
as those discussed in this appe ndix are implemented in the
Conversions such
MATLAB functions tf2ss and ss2tt. + 5d 2

withz(0)=20 zfOV n =

to state-space form. Do not use matrix not

ation
PROBLEMS G8 .
Convert the nonlinear equation
i .

x+* + ix + x = p(t)

G 1 How many state inputs u and state variables x are required to describe the following w>thx(0) = io i(0) = (U(0) = JOO
.

to state-space form,
.

differential equations?
G9 .
state enables and obraw the state space format fnr thp fnn
[DA + D* + D2 + D + 1]P = PoQ) input derivatives (assume that«(,) is a step inpu lr *
- .

a .

d4z 5d2z z + 0.1z + 0iz = 2u + u

+ 10z = 0

with z(0) = -1 z(0) = io ,

c z + 40z + lOOz = I0w{l) + 50v{t)

and u(t) = 0.0 for t < 0
d . z+ Z + Z = w{i) M(0 = 1.0forta0
G . 2 Define a set of state variables, and convert the following classical differential equations G . 10 Define and obtain the state-space format for the equation
to state-space equations including initial conditions:
a. z + 2z + 25z = 25m;
dt2 + 4dt + 2p = 3 dt
withz(O) = -1.0 and z(0) = 0.0 with p(0) = =

2d2e de
_

Jt
tc ,
G . ll De/zne and obtain the state-space format for the equation
2 + 2D + 5]Z = PD 2 + 7D + 2 5l«,
[D* + 0.5D3 + 3Z)
.

with e(0) = 0 e(0) = 0

with all initial conditions equal to zero
,

Cn3 Define stale variables and convert the following equation to state-space form: format for the equation
G . 12 Define and obtain the state-space
D\ + 303z + 4D2z + 5Dz + 6z = 10u(0
with z(0) = 20 Dz(0) = 0, D2z(0) = 50, D3z(0) = 0
,
with zero initial conditions and a continuo
i G 13 Given
,A C onvert the following equation to state space form: -
.

2 P + ap' + 6/5 + cp = q{t) . *

with p{0) = 1, p(0) = 2, p(0) = 0 ,
Convert the equation
462
Appendix G State-Space Representation of Dynamic Sys,em s
APPEND IX H
., initial conditions:
obtain a dassicai
„
differen.ia. equation, inc.uding a
For .r, being the dependent vanable.
a

b For
.

being the dependent vanable. ita

.

I4 Given Nation
Using MAT!
G .

- 4 Ix +

,(0)1
x(0) = 2(0)
- ,(0)1
0010171 n a classical differential equation for x,, including all initial conditions.

H 1 INTRODUCTION

This appendix is intended to provide you with some assistance in using MATLAB™ I
for dynamic systems analysis and design MATLAB is ideally suited to that task and
.

I
has become one of the most widely used computational tools for the purpose. I
For the preparation of the example problems in this text we used the student
,
I
edition of MATLAB running under WINDOWS™ on a PC; our comments , however. |
are not necessarily restricted to that environment, since MATLAB is available for a j
large number of computer systems and has a great degree of platform independence. I
With MATLAB, you can:

L Define variables, enter their numerical values, and perform calculations

interactively.
2 .
Create vectors and matrices, and perform operations on them usmg the

a digital image or pnn t.ng a copy

screen and capturing
menting your work. te a calculation
4. Use the built-in MATLAB P '

procedure consist ing of a number o f relajd P

5 . Leatextedito
Jse a text editor to write anda =
ies of MATLAB stateme
nes
nts that you
„ the futur. »
and are M
saved with the ile extension m(..e.,
f
are
 Sec.H.4 Script Fi|es And Functi0
464
Appendix H Digital Simulation Using Matlab n

b [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8
to def i ne functions t hat are of use to you in future work 9] d *65
6 Utilize script iles
7 Employ the oolboxes of functions
developed by others and made avaji

f t f
"

able as script iles. Of particular interest is the Signals and Systems Tool
'

box, which contains many useful functions for calculating and plotting the An array element can be referenced di
results of dynamic system analysis. rectly e o e,,,
Built in are the usual required mathem
atan, etc as well as the constant pi in addiVmnaticMa ilT
f,!T- 3 -

4orb =8
as
.

We have used MATLAB in calculating the results and preparing the graphics for a eZprovided to facilitate operations on
. .

"

this text, and MATLAB commands are included in the description of example prob- aion. muUiplication matrKe S 0{ funcUons
inversion, extracti
w cos',an
-

te MATLAB *** ** languageon osup Jplt addi'i

.

lems in a number of chapters. The commands have been presented quite casually
-

** -

of an introduction because we ind the system easy to use and be- tions. For example, we can ill a row vector with the inte

t
and without much

f
lieve that you will, too, and will adapt to its functioning quite naturally. gers i toranches and func
10 b

f
for t- . -
y ,iting ,

'

for i =

r
1:10
v(i) = i
H .
2 MATLAB ENVIRONMENT end

The MATLAB environment provides you with an interactive work space in which Statements ending with a semicolon do not nrint th
to enter commands and view results. The prompt for the educational version is screen, so we would probably want to end each of th
* i
*

EDU » . For the professional version, it is simply >>.

Calcula,ion on lhe
semicolon. The command v would then display the ve To 1 r"15 Wilh 3
In the Windows PC configuration, you are offered a row menu providing we obtained the correct results Try it both wa
.

ys and sT "

File, Edit, Options, Windows, and Help options. Selecting items from among these Loops can also be nested as in the following ex
,

alternatives by clicking a mouse will be familiar to users of Windows or similar sys- ample:
tems. You can set the format used for displaying numerical values by selecting one for i = l:n;
of the items under Options. for j Im;
A number of control-type commands are available from the command ile in-
. b(i,i) = i*j;

f
,

cluding the following: end

cd Change the current working directory

delete Delete ile In addition, branch control statements may be included:
f

diary Save your MATLAB session as a text ile

f

dir List the current directory if j >10

q = 100;
! Execute an operating system command else
quit Terminate MATLAB
q * 0;
end
H .

3 VARIABLES AND STATEMENTS

H4 SCRIPT FILES AND FUNCTIONS
Scalar, vector and matrix quantities can be defined in MATLAB
,
.

.tatement as you would in a using an assignment

a = 14 7 .
programming language Some examples are as follows:

defines a scalar
.

A valid collection of MATLAB

later useSuch iles are saved
T S
f
.

IWU lad c.
r = [1 2 3 4] ;cuted from the
They can be executed
defines a row vector ide. t

and the directory in which they res

_,

[1 2 3.2 7 5
.
5.6V «iiu mc uucviaji y in tti*» - -/ .u careen 3l the beginning
defines a column vector
headmg on the h
.

The ' means m (hat con tain.

"

transpose "
.

Suppose you want to print acreate eading .

calculation you perform. You can

.
 Sec. H.5 Fourth-Order RUnae „
Appendix H Digital Simulation Using IVlat|ab
466
% Simple, ixed st

f
n Hn this In the following ile, we use the MATLAB com % numerical intear*,-- ' Fourt>, 467

T TsTJSSXs t£** °* screen-ne lle' ',ead"'*m-

,

f
% ordinary diffo 0n of a * 0rder Run.

f
the following three lines:
disp('XYZ Corp., Inc.')
% Robert L. „ooda oi L rence Ystems
Senior Engmeer') % Inputs:
dispCJ- Jones,
%This is a comment line. % xdotfun - A at_.

A collection of MATLAB commands can be saved in an M-file as a named % fich deCes'thf09 the n of th
function and can be invoked from another procedure. For example, suppose you % to
lnitial
S o ca culate repeatedly the area of a circle of radius r You m.ght then use an M- %
variable)
value of m
.
(t'X)-
tlme independent
1 to define the following function and save it w.th the name c_area.m: % tfinal -

Final time .

% xO
Vector of initial
-

function area = c_area(r) i

area = pi *
r*r
%
variable s x .
ValUes for the dependent
% h
~

TTiis function can be used by invoking its name and supplying it with a numerical
% trace -
i irrion step size-
value for the radius. For example, the following commands would calculate the area
%
%
from rM m . .
uTr iT
'
Printed
of a circle with a radius of 2.75 units: values are not
% Outputs:
% tout
radius = 2.75
%
surface = c _
area(radius)
% xout
Array of calculated values. Each column
-

%
We can also pass an array as a function argument, and if several outputs are is the time history of a dependent
% variable.
calculated by the function, we include a function output list in the function definition
as follows: % See Example 9.6 for a sample of use .

% Watch for use of the transpose operator, '.

function [output variable list] = function name {input variable list)
_

% Initialize variables
t = tO;
Functions are used in the examples in a number of chapters of the text to de-
x = xO;
scribe system differential equations and to provide numerical integration routines.
For example the fourth-order, ixed-slep-size Runge-Kutta integration procedure is
,
tout = t;
f

'
implemented in the ile rk4 m shown in the next section While a few advanced lan-
.
xout = xO ;
f

guage options are used in this M-file the basic ideas are the same as the simple case
,

given before. if nargin < 6

trace =0;
end

H5
.
FOURTH-ORDER RUNGE KUTTA PROCEDURE
-

% Set aside storage

A = zeros(l)*x;
ou
e

tin
0I,0Win8 iS an M"file lhat contains the fourth order Runge-Kutta integration
-

B = zeros(l) *
x;
r

*
C = zeros(l) x'
*x;
D = zeros(1)
function [tout ,
xout] = rk4(xdotfun ( tO, tfinal, xO, h,
h2 = h/2;
 Sec.H.7 Signals And System t
Appendix H Digital Simulation Using Matlah x

468
jf there are several dependent vari aK! 469

if trace
can plot ah of them with th e con. e comain
e(1 ln
clc t, x 0fa nx vou
.

end

l integration looP And you can put a grid on the plot b y using
while(t<tfinal)
9rid
l
if t + h > tfina
h = tfinal -
t; H you want to plot only the second variaw ' ,
end With you can do m
'

a = fevaKxdotfun, t, x) ;
Plot -
B = feval (xdotfun, t+h2. A ,
fun, t+h2, x.h2 B) ,
C = fevaKxdot Titles and labels for igures are added usino com™ a
D = fevaKxdotfun, t+h, x+h C) ;
*

mg commands such as the following:

f
xlabel ('Time (sec)-)
I h* (A + 2*B + 2*C + D)/6; ylabel('Velocity (ft/sec)')
X = x
title('Rocket trajectory')
tout = [tout; t];
xout = [xout; x ]; ' You can put the current graphic display on hold and issue commands to add fea -
£
tures to it. Many additional graphics features are available in MATLAB includine
if trace
three-dimensional and color plotting capabilities. c
clc, t, x
end
H7
.
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS TOOLBOX
end; to
A number of toolboxes are available for use with MATLAB. enhancing its use tor
specific tasks. The Signals and Systems Toolbox is most helpful in analyzing various
H 6 PLOTTING YOUR RESULTS aspects of dynamic systems. f m ,ua
Next we list some of the functions that may be called directly from Ae
.

.,

MATLAB provides a rich set of functions for generating a graphic representation of MATLAB environment. For example, suppose we want to find the roots of the
your calculated results. Visualization is one of the engineer s most useful tools in the
'

polynomial
design and analysis of dynamic systems and the MATLAB commands give you an in-
1 252 + 35 + 15.7 = 0
,

teractive way to visualize your work Many of the Signals and Systems Toolbox func-
.
.

tions are M-files that create plots automatically If you have two one-dimensional
.

vectors, t and v, that are of the same length you can create a plot of v vs. t simply by
,

issuing the command order of powers of 5:

V = [1-2 3 15.7]
plotU, v)
icu.
You can add asterisk symbols on the curve by typing The MATLAB command roots ca
roots(v)
plotU, v, )
 Appendix H References

Appendix H Digital Simulation Using Matlab

bode Bode p,ot8
,
rl
ts and then determines the frequency and n U8 Root locus plot
.inn damp (v) i rst inds W* and/or the inverse of the time constant of residue Partial fr

f
.

f seS der components

f
11,6 fUnC ' -or St
f TSrtmponents.Systems
(See Todbox ' will faccept
rom
the def
i nition of
sicai form of
your ode23, ode45 Variabie ion
Signals and
system in a JJn, provides us w.th the system transfer
e

> ar dvnarnic
rt -ati on- f Z I "s in the fol.owing examp.e:
i ,

function as the rano of two p

f
0
1crfjjto + 120
TF(5) = VISOT IO
m and den containing the coefficients of the numera-
We define the vectors nun. an arranged in descending order of H8
.
HELP!
V!
l and the denom inator p
lor polynomia On-line help is available within the MATi au environniem
powers of s: table of contents as well as an index Ynn 1. for a pan I a men,, nr *
m
J
.

a good idea to keep a help fi,e

ri 5 40 1200]
Z - % "0 2100 4800 0,
-
m

that way you can utilize the provided I SSjffr0m

'

Hdp is also available from the coLT re provided a

.
-

help. The first provides help on the top.cLy

name help or N
P C nanied-the s«ond offers a list of topics
you may peruse.
Additional imformation is available in ih,- ,
bode(nuin, den)
LAB. See those listed next for examn eTnd rh yIreferenCC books on MAT-
for additional sources.
P y0Ur and ores
l m fer functionSnt
y
a tet acespace
format to the state
format.format
We can
-
transform
to obtain:
the equations from trans REFERENCES
x = Ax + Bu

y = Cx + Du MATLAB. Version 4, Users Guide. Prent ice Hall. Inc.. Engle-

H l The Student Edition of
.

wood Cliffs. NJ, 1995. ATLAB. PltOtkc

where y is the vector of desired outputs. ing Control Engineer inS Problem wilh M
nd D, we can determine H 2 Ogata. Katsuhiko. Solv liffs. NJ. 1994.
If we supply numerical values for the arrays A, B, C, a .

Hall. Inc.. Englewood C ourt Brace College Puhhsh.ng,

the frequency response plot by entering 3 Pratap. Rudra. Getting Started wUh MATLAB. Harc
H .

Fort Worth. TX. 19%.

bode(A, B, C, D)

You can ind out more about MATLAB options and the syntax of MATLAB com-
f

mands by using the on-line help and the references listed at the end of this appendix,
Following is a list of selected MATLAB functions that are of interest to us:
roots Polynomial roots
eig Matrix eigenvalues and eigenvectors
damp Roots, frequencies, and damping
poly Characteristic polynomial
 Sec. 1.2 Computing Component8
APPENDIX I COMPUTING COMPONENTS
12
.
73

The basic computing element of th

amplifier with feedback called an onpanal0g ConiPuter k i
Analog Simulation extremely high input impedance inu
pedance Z
,

is on the order ofT(

nalamplifier ll 8h-8ai"differ(>n, ,
U,P*
UHfier. e output . m Z
,n

fects upon the output voltage are al ;! rthe 0rder "

1% r Srequiredinio t
order of 10 volts/volt) acco
s
,

computing equation derived shortly (l P

or inversion h amp (on
The op-amp (see Figure I laV Cl,0n 4-4 l for a T ,S required««the

where ea is the amplifier input volta ge,Gis heoain a nH

8 n-ancle 15 lhe
"
. (U>
tpul voltage .

e* 0

LI INTRODUCTION la)

The electronic analog computer consists of a set of computing components that per- r
form (he functions of addition, scaling, integration, etc., required in representing dif-
ferential equations [Refs. 1.1,1.2]. The voltages of the analog computer represent the /
:
continuous solution of the differential equation programmed by the interconnection
of the components (functions). The differential equation is a model of a physical (or
natural) dynamic system. An analogy is made between the physical variables of the t
"

model and the voltages that represent them on the computer-thus the term ana-
log" computer. The analogy defines scale factors relating the units of the physical -
V
variables to volts in the computer variables. Since the solution of the physical system
may be faster or slower than desired, the computer solution can be scaled in both (b)
time and magnitude.
The underlying concept of analog computation is to interconnect or wire to- a Figure 1.1 Representations of an

r
gether those components (summers, scalers, integrators, etc.) required to represent operational amplifier circuit.
the differential equations of interest As discussed in subsequent sections, these
.

(a) Isolated op-amp. (b) Op-amp

differential equations can be expressed in classical form (a single «th-order differ- Z, G with input and feedback imped-
ential equation) or state-space form {n first order differential equations), al-
-
anceMO Simplified schemaucot
though both representations will result in essentially the same wiring diagram. It is analog computer circuit.
(c)
easy to perform a single integration at a time on the analog computer, so the state-
space format is a more natural representation of dynamic systems for analog com- TTie op-amp is always used wit h input and c
putation. ITnerefore. the setup procedure for analog computation will be ure Lib. Since a common groun d line f h Btf* T
devdoped m ihc state space format; the classical approach, however, will
-

briefly illustrated as well

be ctrcuitsand the op-amp is
these details can be omitted to reduce clutter
. reui sl n
472
 Sec. 1.2 Computing
Appendix I Analog Simul
Nation a,:

474
TABLE M BASIC ANALOG COMPUTER op
Er AT10NS 475
f Pcre I lb can be analyzed by the following component equati0ns
S Sedanceof
.

Operation
Computer symbol
/\nipHfica,,on ComPmcrcirrui
(with sign change)
(i
Amp R
(1.3) eQ = -Gex e

be simplified by taking into account the fact

The node equation at the amplifier may
that neligiblysmall due to the high input impedance of the op-amp and the low Summation
input voltage to the amp: (only two inputs shown) R
i, + if = 5=5 0 (1-4)
: Substituting the component equations into the node equation yields (> Amp
eQ = -Gxex - Gjej
e (1.5)

after some algebraic rearrangement. .

Since the gain G is extremely large compared to 1 + (Z//Z .) the irst term can
1 ,
Integration

f
be neglected, yielding the basic computing equation (shown with summation)
Zf € G
(1.6) Amp
=
'

= - | (G i + G2e2) dt - I.C. t

f
e„

This equation indicates that the closed-loop gain between input and output is Z Z,. i

accompanied by a sign change. Different combinations of the types of circuit ele-

ments used for Z and Z, give rise to the various computing components discussed
next. (See Table 1.1 for exact circuits and nomenclature.) Multiplication
(bv a constant < 1.0)
12
. . 1 Inverter or Sign Change
e . to
e0 = ke}
If both the feedback and the input impedances are resistive and of equal magnitude .
0 < it < 1.0

(e.g, = Rf, Z, = R;, where Rf = /? ) then the basic computing equation reduces
, ,
- km

to a sign change or inverter:

H
Multiplication
(1.7) (by a constant > 1.0)
An inverter is commonly used to change the sign of a signal or variable; it is often k r
A

used for subtraction in a summing junction . 10 AmK 1

»

12.2 Scaler or Fixed-Gain Amplifier e0 = -10 ,

If both impedances are resistive but not necessarily of equal magnitude

, ,
the basic
and ouru, eqUat,0n
redUCeS 10 3 iXed"8ain re,ation or scalin8' belween the
'
f

R
e =-
(1.8)
"
R
 Sec 1 .

3 Classical Analog c0
Appendix I Analog Simu|ati rn

476 o

mic gain specifies a frQrt

innlication by a constant or simulates a coeffici ent
..

This equation represen ts mui p in 477

differential equat.o computers utilize ixed, or hard-wired
of ten nfor scaling: thus, gains
- ucne
v (over V\\e range ot uv\\\\\ o\ v\

f
,

tors in muUi Ses of ten forjcal.n

multiples
s
of u0.1.i. i.u
gams or .
1.0.10.0 100.0o are pc
iu.u or 100
fmm ,vnica ixed-gain amplifiers for determining
the order 0f matm5n,
the order of magmtude of coeffi out with a relay. N Tu " "*
of * \e deviccyTte
X oivrJ* values for the coefic.ents .s done with potentiomet otpossible
tt (andd iiss usuaWv
usua„y ptov
k sign

f
pr idedV sign

f
in and
12 . .
3 Potentiometer u6
i1 2
.
6 o
o R
. .- «erent»ator
nifff trpntiatftr
Differentiator 18

"

is a passive element th 31
"

A variable electronic resislive voltage divider, or pot,

If a resistive feedback impedance anH
be used to adjust the exact numerical value of the coefficients of the differ ent,al
equation. Mathematically,
e = kCi where 0 < A: < 1 0
(1.9)
.

Notice thai the gam or a poi is ic» man umt/, w mat « "Awu- aui ampnner with U lM .
.

0 9
gain of 10.0 or 100.0 is required in conjunction with a pot to obtain coefficient
greater than unity. A bank of several pots is always supplied with analog computer
to allow system coefficients to be adjusted.
(1 14) .

The gain of the differentiator is a dynamic eain th.i

124
. . Summing Junction

Using more than one input resistor allows the addition, or summation of several inde
rpu r,he omput For ,his reaw"-
, -

pendent input signals. The computing equation reduces to a linear summation of the
signals, with the possibility of different gains (usually in multiples of 10) or each signal- All of the preceding components are commonly available on most analo
f
R<
e
Rt puters. Some machines contain multipliers for the multiplication of two signalg com- '

s
3 (1.10) li
near diode function generators and other nonlinear functions such non- ,

< R2 V ,

as limiting
deadband
Summing junctions are ordinarily used to sum together the various terms required
.
relay, hysteresis, and Boolean logic functions These nonlinear functions
.
,

to form the differential equation are quite significant and should not be ignored However, it is the purpose of this
.

presentation to discuss the organization and scaling of problems for the analog com-
.

12 . .
5 Integrator
puter. Little difficulty should be encountered in utilizing them once the scaling prob-
lem is solved, toward which end this appendix is directed .

'
Table 1.1 illustrates the electronic circuit and the simplified analog computer
Hie use of a capacitive feedback impedance with a resistive input impedance results block diagram symbol for each of the common linear operations just discussed. The
with y I J/ 'a" tranSfer 8ain can be stated'in operator notation, block diagram symbols are used throughout the remainder of this appcnd.x m dra* -
ing analog computer diagrams.

o= ~J e' (w
e

Writing this equation in integral form and considering the initial condition e (0) yields 3 CLASSICAL ANALOG COMPUTER DIAGRAMS
o

(a - _ r i r' . i , nn k to solve the classical differential equa-

The goal of classical analog computation is to so integnM n umes
.
„

(1.12)
tion for the highest-order derivative of andenvallvC formed at *

differcmmtlfg J 1the 2 ?*
state gain"
the
. "dynamic
'

an 8ain" n integrator has a to yield the solution . lTie equation that

input of the irst integrator by summing the m
dcnUuw> «ah appropn
of a ixed-gain amplifier since the integrator's
f
f

ate coefficients (gains).

 Sec 1
4. State-Space Analog cw
Appendix I Analog Simulation \

478

the second-order differential equation fegrator s .

This format is funherTt 165 are formed
' *79

For example consider

.

trices will result in integrator gain

e + 0.5e+ 2.0£? = v(t) (1.15) magnitude scaling can be ha ndled in m ' in ml
with initial conditions
Consider
tude scale
a state-space
namely d , ,
t S
a smgle in ,hal
e(0) = ein, (1.16)
x = Ax + Bu
or
<K0) = einl (1.17) (1.19)

Solving for the highest order derivative yields

e = v(0 - 0.5e-2.0i (U8) i n ..
a

U (1.20)
Assuming that this equation is formed at the input of an integrator, the output would " 1 a „2 a V

be . and the initial condition (0) wou d have the opposite sign of - e as shown
r r.
.
-

with
of the - e s.gnal y.elds e. The initial condition of e
in Figure 11 An integration
would be entered with the opposite sign of +e.
m
-
€(«) x(0) =
(1.21)
L
e
v(i)
10 1
r
I 2 This system is simulated by the analog computer diagram shown in Figure 13 No-
I
tice that the interconnecting lines have been omitted for simplicity andlhat all coef-
5(Kl
icients have been assumed to be positive. (In actuality, most of the coefficients will

f
© -

be zero.)
Now. the input to each integrator forms the equation of the derivative of a
© 7
Figure 1.2 Classical analog com-
state variable, and the output will he that state variable with a sign change; an in-
puter diagram. verter often (but not always) will be required for computation or monitoring.Notice
that the initial condition of an integrator must be entered with a sign opposite to that
of the output, which in this case allows the initial conditions to be entered with the
Now (he equation for e must be wired at the input to integrator number 1. Scal-
ing -e with a pot set at 0.500 yields one term. The e signal must be inverted, scaled
same sign as that of the physical problem.
by 0.200, and then entered into the summing integrator with a gain of 10 to obtain
For example, consider the second-order system of Eq.tem(1.15). which .s used to
Ihe proper sign and coefficient of the term The system input v{i) must be available
erate the classical analog computer d,agram. THis sy. can be converted to

t
.

from a function generator or some similar source depending upon the input signal.
,
state-space form, yielding
Summation of these three terms with the gains shown yields Eq (1.18) for e. .

The classical approach to analog computer diagrams is not pursued further

here, as the state-space approach appears more natural and therefore will be dis-
cussed in the remainder of the chapter. wilh
[.,(0)1 m
x(0) = [Xi(0))
v

14 STATE SPACE ANALOG COMPUTER DIAGRAMS

As mentioned earlier the analog computer is designed to conveniently perform sin-

,
l*edee thatlat erthesystem i s pr o gram
solution for., is the
tice that the solution for., is
Z S
the ";;S.-that was obtamc
obt dj
** 2 dv, that
'-

;
gle integrations at a time; thus having an mh-order dynamic system model of n irst-
for coma ns mcn,t, Rgf
F.gua
ll M
_

put of amp 8. The equation for 0 co ams

.

f
700
200 .nH
and Jn
an intoarator
integrator gain
gain of
of 11 W. h a 'f lv be- ,hc case
f

order equations in slate-space format is advantageous since single integrations of

,

the derivative stale vector i yields the solution of the system The equations for the ' bviouslv
.

the case
. to be the same as Figure 1.2. which shoui
 sec.l.5 Magnitude And T me <5 „
.

Appendix I Analog Simulatio n

IVIAlGNlTUDE AND TIME SCALING

4B0

15
.

The purpose of analog computat. .

system variables and the voltaee<1S ,0 develop an
puter; thus, a conversion musf J y i \C?T0%y n lh ,
a 1
a
G
computer variables. The analoEv de froni Dh?3"3 on t

ma,ric«
,5
. . 1 Magnitude Scaling -

< j

Consider the set of nth-order linear stat e

sPace equations with n,;
-

22
'"
Puts, denoted
i
x = Ax + Bu
with initial conditions (1-24)

(1.25)
where x and u are the variables and input vectors renr ,- u .
X
!
Any system response or outnm v mav L t TTT
output y may be found by the linearc
the P
S
cal system
2 Figure 1.3 General stale-space ana- y = Cx + Du
log computer diagram .
(1.26)
(I
/if*

The physical system state variables x can be scaled to analog computer slate van-

ables e by the transformations

x = ae (1-27)

where

a 0 o ... o

I
(i a2 0 - 0
I 7
a = 0 0 a, - 0 (1.28)

200
.
0 0 0 .. On
© is a constant mh-order diagonal scaling matix (in P 1 J' f t0 inpuls
In a similar fashion, the inputs u to the phys.cal system can

r
v.(0)

v to the analog computer system by the transformation

0
V 1

2
i

Kn where
Figure 1.4 Slate-space analog com- 0
puter diagram for a second-order
t
i

system.

f
o -
 Sec. 1-5 Magnitude And T'
482 APPendiX' Analo9 Simulat 0n ,
c aling

is a constant Wth-order diagonal scaling matrix. Note that usually m = L *83

Thus, observing that x = ae and subsntuting the precedmg expressions for v *h a,
and u into Eq. (1.24). we obtain, after a bit of algebraic rearrangement,
e = a Aae + a~lBpv '
0r x
f «N - 1
(1.31) B = a 1 up
or Q in

e = Ae + Bv
CI.32) (1.38)
with initial conditions

e(0) = a 'x(O)
-

(1.33) or. in genera , the element in the /th

rowand
and outputs ythcommnbe comes
y = C ae + D iv
(1.34)
f
''
a .

or and similarily for a-.. (1.39)

For k outputs ,

y = Ce + Dv
(1.35)
Now notice that the inverse of a diagonal matrix is merely a diagonal matri
with the scalar inverse of the respective elements; that is .
C = Ca = ci an
,

(1.40)
0 0 0
LC*101 C*2a2 " Ckj,0,
_

and
o 1 0 0
o2
-

a . =
i _
0 D = D/3 = daft -
(1.36) (1.41)

I 152
0 0 0 . .
Time Scaling
a

Tim, the tilde matrices or analog computer, matrices become

,
Often the response of the physical system model proceeds at a slower or faster
,

pace than is practical for recording or plotting purpose

I I
2
(I
12
0!
1 I
n
(/
physical system may be complete in milliseconds or
For this reason, it is frequently desirable
may lat e hou j;1 ,
Q i
in
steady state .

„ 22 -a.2n
simulated response on the computer. This can conven.ently be done b) t
A = a l\a = a2 a2 23 a2 transformation
* (1.37) n/
i = yr .

and_ s

a
a
3 where y is a time scaling factor, t is the real lime y < 1 retards
Ml d2
computer time (y > 1 accelerates the solum of ys
. .

03
n Of n Qn -J
"
Wh,Ch ,he dia8"-1 are unchanged and
the solution) .
This transformation implies
dt = ydr
 Sec. 1.6 Selection Of Magnitud e
.

,
Appendix I Analog Simulati
4S4
on Sca,e Faci0rS
If the computed value of « is n
higher (rather than lower) to n, 8 COnvenieni „
485
or thai
1 =
*
dr 7 dt (1.44) Sample ;{
'

r state-var i a ble system becomes 10 u 0.1372?

Kus. the analog compute
d which would be rounded off to o 15 Vo11
VOll
(1-49)
e = yAe + yB\ (1.45) lected in a similar manner as 0r 0 20 cm/voU Th
'

6 0U,P
.

dr le f acl0r5 are se.

with initial conditions
e(0) = a xiO) (1.46) The preceding discussion specific
and outputs
,f predicting *
.em of and .„„.
how t0 ect ,he s
y = Ce + Dv (1.47) smce the
4
system
..
input- is- usually
'
-suany kno wnn (e(Jo a st
know T™*g isis rel«ivelv easv
Notice from the foregoing description of the system that time scaling affects the determination ofximax
proach set out next.
is sughtly uncult
en

-
U
11 «s greatly simpiified by the
only the A and B matrices and thus the integrator gains; it does not affect initial con-
an.
In some systems, the largest value of a t i
ditions or outputs. Time scaling affects only the time required to obtain a response .

tion. and the response decays thereafter In other in 6 at ilS initial condi -

You will know if time scaling is necessary if all of the integrator gams are very large
(> 100) or very small (< 0.01).
occurs at or near the steady-state value , as shown in EgSs '
maXimum K

1 .
6 SELECTION OF MAGNITUDE AND TIME SCALE FACTORS v
,
(0)

Just as the most difficult problem facing digital simulation is the selection of a proper X1 X
I

integration step size, the most difficult task in analog simulation is selecting the mag-
nitude scale factors for each state variable. The scale factors a establish the analogy
between the physical variables and the analog computer variables.They are selected
such that a maximum response in the physical system will result in a maximum re- Time Time
sponse in the computer variables that will be within certain limits.
Most analog computers operate best with signals between -10 volts and +10 Figure 1.5 Typical responses illustrating maximum valuer
volts. (Some use signals between -100 volts and +100 volts ) It is desirable to have
The initial conditions are known, and the steady-state maxima can be esti-
.

the analog computer variables be as large as possible but never to exceed ± 10 volts.
mated. To do the estimation, we observe that the steadv-state values occur when
,

in order to facilitate plotting and to achieve maximum accuracy with existing equip-
ment. Further since all amplifiers will produce a given level of noise it is desirable
,
x = 0, and thus,
,

to keep the signals as large as possible to maintain a high signal-to-noise ratio.

arfiirh the enerev or effort supplied by ihe
16.1 Selection of Magnitude Scale Factors This yields a set of algebraic equations m wa* h en „

c
inputs is put into the state variables. If Z these vanables

t
en-

State variables, then assuming tha t all of the mput en g For«.

Ihc magnitude scale factors are selected in such a manner that the maximum (ab-
eadystate ni (I.5i) b omc.
solute) value of the physical response of a state variable a: will cause a maximum re- tirely. we can observe the ultimate h one mpu
_

sponse ofthe computer variable g, to be about (but not greater than) 10 volts. Thus. ample consider
,
a second-order system wit
(1.48)
Imax a2l
 Sec 1.6 Selection Of Ma
gnitude A
Appendix I Analog Simulati on 6 Sc Fact ors
486
For example, if the matrix *87

We

A ssumed to be zero, it fo
llows that
A
=1 0 2501
100 75
. vere obtained, a time scale factor of 1 /inn
a
(1.59)
value. After time scaling: 100 Wn",',
would .reduc
_

m (1.54) e coeffici
enls o a usable

t
7A= 0 2 51
.

From Eq. (1.53). U 0 0 751

.

b2 Example LI Fluid RLC System (1.60)

"21
1 max (1.55)
As an example of the scaling process
* at u .
tions of state variables COns,der
luid syslemwilh
Whichever of these two equations yields the largest absolute value for xi will be used

f
as the steady-state maximum. Thus, ui - Pressure i
input (kPa)
*
i - Pressure in capacitor (kPa)
max
= MAX of i
Mfl||
or
(1.56)
,

2 = Row in inductor (cmVs)

state-space differential equations
And similarly,
1
II kPa

111
0 5
a22WH
x
*
2Hmax =
MAX of U
a 12
Ir/uii
or
(1-57) x
cm V
1
X cm v m)
-

10 5 -2.5-
We are now ready to estimate the maximum value we expect from a state vari- kPas- kPas
able. The maximum will occur either at the initial condition or at the value estimated and initial conditions
by the steady-state maximum method; that is r-20kPal
= MAX of {|x O) | or \x *
(oo) J] (1.58)
[ 1,(0)1
.

=
(1.62)
ximax m U(0)J 10 em'/s J
TTie method just outlined should predict all of the maximum expected values Let the system be subjected to a step input
of the state variables necessary to allow the selection of magnitude scale factorsjr M| = 10 kPa for f20
and /J.Then. having selected the scale factors, we can compute the matrices A and B.
The elements in those matrices represent the integrator gains (1/RC) to be used in The irst step in solving the system is to select the magnitude scale
.TTie steadv-state maximums can be predated from Eq.(l.bl

f
ires knowledee of x
wiring the computer diagram and thus have units of 1/second or 1/time. It is desir-
able for these gains lo be in the range 0 1 to 10.0 (or possibly 100.0). If all of the co-
.
res knowledge
quires
by setting x
, direct
sincelheinputhasn0
.

The second equation results m

i.- iuoa«w"
influence on a,.
efficients or gains are within this range the solution of the system can be obtained
10.v1(x) + 2.5x2(x) = 10ul
,

directly. If all of the gains are in this range except for one or so trade-offs can be ,
...,.-.
. ,* .
made by raising one scale factor Notice in Eq. (1.39) that increasing a scale factor
.

Byse.H„g.;M = Oandano .np

will decrease the gains in one row and raise the gains in one column. Since the A ma- in
1° (Itoa)
trix usually has numerous zero entries the trade-off of lowering one gain while rais- r
*
(x) = - iW = ">".«
,
.

(1.65b)
ing its symmetrical element can be effective.
X;(iO) = 10kPa to the second states
01.„n.o.
wingallofthempuno.o
16
. .
2 Selection of Time Scale Factors B.seUing.H Oandano
we ind that (16
f

If all of the gains are either too low or too high time scaling will be necessary. TIk
,

lime scale factor y alters all gains by a common amount in the A and B matrices.Tte . 40cm5/s
nmc scale factor is usually selected {x) =

in multiples of 10
 Sec. |.6 Selection Of Magnituc|
e AndT
Appendix I Analog Simulation lrT1e Scale F
actors
488 with initial conditions
489
iThee maximum
maximu
values for x can now be estimated from the maximum of eith erthe
. .siate
the steady
.

si
maxima: ei(0)l
initial conditions or e

r
= MAX of 1 ,(0)1 or *iH«JJ (1.67)
where a.s as previously defi
* I mat
-

ned
= MAX of {20 or 10} = 20lcPa and the an, (1.78)
,

a 08y >s ©ven by

= MAX of {k(0) | or (1.68)
= MAX of (0 or 40) = 40 cm3/ s volt

s can now be computed: " 2 = 4.0

The magnitude scale factor
£1?afi=20kPa =
2.0volt (1.69)

f
_

ai " 10 volt veil

_
= 40cmVs=40cmVs (1.70)
Tlte system input is a step input or a constant for i >,

' 10 volt volt maywude ot this constant is

lOkPa kPa =
=
ifkmx = 10 (Ul) Tf = 10 volt
Pi
l
= .

Vlm« 10 volt
VOlt volt (1.82)
The elements in A and B represent integrator eains n,. >
Next, we can compute the A and B matrices this system is shown in F.Pur.
Figure I1 6 . .
g anal0? computer diagram for
-

10 volts

A = -
5 2.5
(1.72)
.

021 l22
f

«2 10 1

\01 3
B =
25
(1.73) .
500
.

0 volts
The reader should verify lhat the elements in these matrices all have units of l/second.
The initial conditions of e are computed from the following (notice the units re-
sult in volts): .
250 {)
+ io 1
f y
-
-

' 0
e(0) = a xm) (1.74)
-

vols 10

or 250 Figure 1.6 Analog computer dia-

4 gram for Example M.
e ) = -xM) = rri"
2 k Pa
(-20kPa) - - 10 volt (1.75)
i

(1.76)
(0) = - 2(0) =
a, 4 cm ys
(0 cm3/s) = 0 volt
state variables e can be converted back into p
magnitude scale
o l s?em s a JJ -
! a Z* -

t
Recall that the initial condition of an integrator has a sign opposite to that of the inte ing the voltage scales by thebe handled in a similar fashion -

JJ J |hc ax| flicicnt.

-

grator output.Thust since the integrator output is -c, the initial condition is input as
+«((0). in other words
, Any y output could ble, the conversion < i]n
.

with its original sign

,
.

Ihc final simulation problem to be wired on the analog computer can be stated as
only one computer state evaria
scale, rather than i.
tor applied to the voltag of moreihan on o(
If an output is a function eco
pil f 0 10 1 Te, "

! [" o 1 (1.77) easier to let the computer he o obtain lhe C ooeft

A. . 5 -2.5 + 25
curves: in this case, pots would be usea w
"

. _
e2 _
.
 problems
Appendix I Analog Simulat ion
490
491

+ 20 r
* 10
It Using ciruit analysis with the stand a
pedance. derive the compUting 0n
I
: 5
(kPa) (volts) n,n Figure pu

20 - -
0
-

E
Time (s)

+ 40 + 10

, nhl. th , ********
.

,
'"erenual equation
(volis) 5 2 61 e1(0) = o volts

computer block diagram

40 10 - Figure 1.7 Responses from analog
IJ A mechanical system is represented in stale spa ce as
-
-

Time (s) computer for Example LI.

"i = position (mm)
*i = position (mm)
1 7 SUMMARY
x2 + 15 u1 x, = velocity (mm/s)
.

2~ 15 s2 xi 15
5
This appendix has introduced the fundamental concepts of operational amplifiers
and how they can be used to obtain the various functions required in differential with initial conditions (0) = 3.0 mm
equations (i.e., multiplication by a constant, addition and subtraction, integration. . t:(0) = 0.0 mm/s
etc.). A method was presented for taking these mathematical functions and forming
a differential equation in classical or state-space form. The response of the electrical Scale this system and obtain an analog computer solution of it.
circuit is then a solution of the differential equation, which might be analogous to Plot the following responses with an input u, = 2.0 mm for t > 0:.
the differential equation of some other type of system. Details of magnitude scaling y .
= position (mm)
and the selection of maximum values of the state variable were given.The prediction
N
of maximum values is of interest in general systems analysis beyond analog com- = 02
.
.
v - , = force (N)
puter scaling. The appendix concluded with the presentation of a methodology for mm/s
Ihe selection of lime scale factors together with some examples of the application of with the following prelab. laboniory. and postlab
Perform your work on the system
,

the methodology .

procedures:

REFERENCES

1 1 Jcnncss
.
.

Roger R. Analog Computation and Simulation: Laboratory Approach. Allyn &

Bacon. Boston I%5. .
Laboratory: u
12 Warficld. John N Introduction to Electronic Analog Computers Prentice Hall. Engle-
woo(ir|jffvNJJ959
.

.
a .
Wire the system on the analogosclloscope
comp op.. mode.
.

h .
O rve the responses on the
492 Appendix I Analog Simu,atjon APPEND IX)
c. When you arc sure (hat your scaling and responses arc correct (rescaling mi
necessary)./?/ /your outputs on the .r- plotter. S"1 be
d . Vary the pot settings for the a ,
the effect each of these has on your resp
d initial-condition coefficients and oh
63, anonse. ,

Scrve Questions Ah
Postlab:
a . Convert the computer units (volts) back into physical units on (he plot, and label *"c
axes properly.
b.
Discuss the effects of varying the aforementioned coefficients.
c Submit a summary of your work,
1 4 Obtain the solution to Problem 1.3 using digital simulation. Compare the anal
.

digital solutions to the analytical solution found in Appendix E. Plot all three I
for-Tj on a single graph. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method

L What are the purposes of modelinB and whn.,

dynamic system? nd whatwe .
with a model of a
2. What is the functional definition of linearitv'' Whn, m. i
What is a linear differential equation? '1,nCar eqUa,ion?
3.
What are the so-called elementary inputs that are used as inputs to dy-
namic systems? Are there other typical inputs?
4.
The solution to a nonhomogeneous differential equation is composed of
two parts. What are they, and how are they found?
5 .
Discuss the concept of the time constant of a irst-order differential equa-

f
tion. How can the time constant be determined from the linear differential
equation? How can the time constant be determined from the time re-
sponse of the system?
ion
6 . There are two performance factors for a irst-order differential equat

f
What are they? Explain what each factor means in terms of the response of
the system. „ . .
7 . There are three performance facers h faoo,
"f means..»»
S of *.K*
don. Wha, are .hey? Explum what eae
8 .
;zrrra-
namic systems.
m
 Questions About The Concent
Appendix J Questions About The Concepts Presented Pts Resented
29. What trade-offs are 1'
10. Discuss the meaning of effort and low variables for dynamic systems gration on the dioit T0' « *eleclino tV
£ 0mput ? siZe for „,

f
.

Mention the effort and low vanables in electncal, mechanical, luid and trade-offs can be
,

f
* SSfJ
,

for Runge-Kuttncepts

f
thermal systems. 30. D/.c the co
11 Explain the characteristics of the three types of fundamental components a imeg T t
e8rat,
1111311
to
val be selected? a
*a ate s,
'

that are the building blocks of all systems. What are examples of each type 0n -

of component in electrical, mechanical, luid, and thermal systems? 31. D«c and compare the , h:

f
12. Discuss the different types of friction in mechanical systems. analytical technique nd do n solutions tA
tions would anafy
'

13. What is an op-amp

and how can it be used in electronic circuits?
.

14. What different types of luid resistance are there, and what is the energy tions ,
and v,ce versa? 0nS m<"e desirable than stuj '

f
loss mechanism in each?
15. What types of luid capacitance are there, and what causes each?
f
16. What is a common explanation for the effect of luid inductance?

f
17. What are resistance and capacitance in a thermal system?
18. What is a good way to confirm that an equation has been derived using
consistent terms?
19. What are the general forms of the Laplace transform of a irst-, second-,

f
and higher order derivative? Discuss the form of the Laplace transform of
a differential equation.
20. How can the time domain solution of a differential equation be found by
the Laplace transform technique?
21. Discuss what is meant by partial fractions and why partial fraction expan-
sion is necessary in the solution of differential equations.
r 22. What is the transfer function of a dynamic system? How is it usually
expressed?
23. How are state variables defined to convert a classical linear «th-order dif-
ferential equation to a stale-space equation without input derivatives?
24. How are state variables defined to convert a classical differential equation
to state-space form with input derivatives? How does this affect the inputs
to the derivatives of the state variables?
25. How can a set of linear state-space differential equations be converted to a
classical differential equation?
26. Is the state-space representation of dynamic systems limited to linear sys-
tems? If a system is nonlinear can it be represented in state-space for-
,

mat? Can a nonlinear system always be reduced to a classical differential

equation?
27. Describe how a state-space differential equation representation can be de-
rived directly from systems circuit modeling equations or from engineering
modeling equations .

2«. Discuss the general approach to solving, and the format of the equations ,

used in the numerical integration of a irst-order differential equation on the

f

digital computer Name some of the integration methods that could be used.
.
 Answers to Selected Problems

ANSWERS TO SELECTED PTEB 2

S
PROBLEM 1
tune to describe the response of ons at *
the continuous response of1 a
b
Z! <*
whose behavior is analogou
2 . 6 Classical, transfer function ed st
s

at
'a
2 . 9 System dynamic characteristics ex pre l.
ural frequences, and dampmg 0 ot constant ,

2 U The classical form consists of a sintle nd. .

while the state-space form » compoS
.
'

0 „ f e
2 21 .
See Section 2.4.1.
2 . 24 The two defmirions are related to the so-called force-vohagc or W
current analog i es. We use the force-vol t age anal o gy becau a - o.-
vanable should be the rate of change of a physical variable with respect to
time (in this case, the rate of change of position) and because this selection
makes the concept of impedance more natural (i.e., a brick wall is a large
mechanical impedance).

CHAPTER 3
3 . 3 y = (2fc/3b) (8
-
y) + (V3) 8, y is the position of the right end of the
damper.
3 .
6 0 0.204.
9 my + my + Cr = Thrust m* * a
'

3 . 1(,5 inches long w*h a

312 Many solutions are possWe. One
0 5..x0 5
.
.
"

crosssecu0n v = (im
315 Assummg four uniform wheeKK J
»21 7 = inertia, k = stress.

3 24 The 0'"'
.

sz.Tte rotatioo
mass

496
 Answers to Selected Probl ems
Answers to Selected Probl
498 ems
11 1

my + 4ky + kaO
-

kz = 0
49

JO + kay + 3ka20 = 0 l
= V
_

mz + kz - ky = 0 C2
J = (ma2)/3 4 18
.

3 .
27 2ma2e + ka2e + fa sign (0) = 2aFit), f = friction force
1
330

2 + = ic (O)
9 + --,L cosd
' * <(> - e tane = 0 ,

L
Lm2gsind «2C +
L/T rcosfl
[MM
.
. ;
= 0
,

e +
_
0 + CD2 + R , i r
A'2

3 33 See Problem 3.24.

.

(0) = known ,
ifUfM + mzm
CHAPTER 4
4 21
.

4J 20 volts
e, - e 4
46
49
. 12.06 f 1
R ,
=
R, '

=v e = I-

f
.

= CDe
r R1R2 R3R4 ]
'c
4 with e4(0). + iL = + I c
5
(R1 + R2) (R3 + R4).
R + R. +
R3R4 /?. 1 1
5 (R, + R2) (R3 + R4) X= "-Xj + yUj
L
4 12
.

1 1 1 \ 1
:

= 'c, = CxDex with £,(0) , = fc I

ri(0) = /,(0). a:2(0) = e4(0)

4 24
r = R.Cu G = 10.
.

3
4 15
.

%= 'c, = C.De, with 6,(0), iL = With (0),

ic = C2De2 with e2(0).
.
=

.e+ = + 1
f

u,=e
0. - i - e,, x2 = iL , x, = e
I
i 1 1 1 »1 L
L
1 1

. (0) = ..(0). =
 Answers to Selected ProN ems
Answers to Selected Proble
500 rris

state variables: u, = gp -
0' = 7
4 27.

501

AM IfRmf,, = 100 kn, then voltage reading will be degraded by 7.6% (i

"
. e .
, read-
ing = 92.4% of undisturbed voltage). If Rme,„ -

1 Mft, then voltage read -

ing will be degraded by 0.8%.

i:

CHAPTER 5

5 .
3 Recall that p = M/V, and that dp = dp/dV\p tT dV, and that M= con-
stant.

56 .
30

Position
S 25 "
I
59 g _ Pressure
.

I 20 r
p
1-1
£
mm g j
£
HP t-W
max2' p 1 _
n _ ff
2 2
Bx (h/2) f/7/2) 0

12 u€ 12 u€ S 5
3
//7/
1 1
(I
5 15 .

0 1 2 3 4
5 ProWem 5 18 . Pneumatic actuator .

Time (s) incompressible oriice, no mass.

f
(using a positive exponent) Model of system using incompressible oriice equation with mass:

f
5 change force balance \oAh?x - Afz - k z = 0:
.
18 Model of system using incompressible orifice equation and no mass:

6/>o " 5P, =si gn((3) /C0 = -L AbP,-k z s

= *

= 8/'
state variables: u, = 8P0, x, = z. h = z>
,

f ,
signr0" z

k 1 3 ( 0+ ) IV
outputs: y,
 Answers to Selected Probl ems
502
Answers to Selected Probl ems
30

Position 503
Cos ntOQ

3
Pressure
_ 2or Press "re
/
? 20 V
ft

I 15
115

icr
10

5 r

1 0
0 t

0
0
3
0 ]
2 3 4 5 Problem 5.18 Pneumatic actuator 4
5
Time (s) incompressible orifice, with mass
,
Time (s) Pr(>bl€m 5 18
.

30
Model of system using compressible orifice equation (incompressible Position
approximation) with mass: -
25

change low equation to (neglecting temperature variations):

f

Pressure
S 20

< = QAcyjj * (8P0 + Pom) Vl - l sign(Pr - P?), Cd A0 = -

SFi + p
'
where P = and i f < 0.528 then P, = 0 528 10
r , .
z
d/0 + "aim

change continuity equation to:

ftp - P m~
A-
Pi
V jP\~ ' 1
I 3 5 Problem 5 18 Pneumatic acluaior,
.

Time (s) ail three models.

state variables: u, = 5P0, x, = z, x2 = i, x3 = SP

CHAPTER 6

P
6 . 3 If Qh and *, are constant (with respect to r). then
' =

+ and if 0.528, then Pf = 0.528 T

InKL. ['dj ... continue.
,

dr _

rt r Qh h
i3 = "(Vl I Axi (C- V T sign (pr _ - U
v aim / 6 . 6 Qh = 4455 watts
outputs: = z = x .
,
6 . 9 Qh = 136 watts
 Answers to Selected Probl ems
504
Answers to Selected Probl ems
50
6 .
12 Hint: 5*

tn- Tt) rff - TA (Tu + TM + Tl)\ and TL = TH - AT 45

r
=
h
eq =

iTH - TL) (Tn - Ti)

6 15. 40
.0

q* - <l<onv = MCpfB, <Jcolw = hA(TB - T„) J

'
I 35

iA hA hA

30
6 18
.

25
0 50
100
150
Time (s)
Note that the lop and bottom of the can might not experience convection .
SST2* Tem ere.
If the can is silling on a glass shelf, then the bottom of the can is sealed, and The settling time of the system is about 150 sernM
the liquid does not rise all the way to the top; thus, the area for convection seconds for the time constant of an individual ni ',o4 x = 6.04
might be just the sides.
For the wall of the can,

Btu 0.004 in CHAPTER 7

hr f T 12 in/ft = x 73 .

6 k Btu
37
hr ft 0F

therefore neglect conduction.

,
10
,
o)m = 1000rpm[l -e"'] t = 9.92 ms
,

For (he liquid inside of the can ,

Btu 2.6 in
2
N hdc hrft2oF 12 in/ft _ „ CHAPTER 8
= = =0
.

,
h 00079
.

4(137)h7fFF
8 . 3 Amplitude = 4.55 x KT3 units, phase = -89.7 degrees, it lags
therefore 8 6 a)/aj„ > 20
, a single-lump model is good .

= 1 38Hz. Amph-
.

8 9 a,n = 8 94rad/s = 1.42 Hz. i = 0.17. .

. .

Btu tude = 7.16 mm

0 767 ibm 1.0
Btuu MCp
.

Mini 0F
= 2. . _
_

- \M\n 15
hr ft lit u in
2 8 12 a. t-=
tide *suu .

20 Is2 + 8s + 32
'

hilt 32-7 144in2/ft2

1
W = 47= 6.76 hr b
0 0152 + 0.02s + 1
.

limcto50oF(in40oFair) = 2 1 hr .

134
timclo50oF(in lOTair) = 0 8 hr c
2 + 20s + 25
. .

s
 Answers to Selected Prohl ems
Answers to Selected Probl
506 ems

c.

d
1
m5s + 7 5)(?T -
501
- Ws2 + 600j + 1000
d .

! s 2 + 5 + 4
c
loar + 400j + 1
.

G
e.
25 .
2 5s2
.
+ 2s + 3 75 .

f
' 7s3 + 5s2 + 2s + 3 Gs
8s2 + 24s + 96
*. 5 " + 17 + 70 + 27s + 36
8 .
24 One solution is i? = 25
.
n c _ 0 2 ut
4 -

h
3 + 2s2 + 4s + 5
.

8 15.
CHAPTER 9
k
93 .
TF =
Us) /, V + + hbyV + Vik + + > + (6, + b2)k
"

Characteristic equation roots are -3.9978 ± ; 28.9194, and -7.7298.

8 18
. Damping Frequency, Time
Eigenvalues ratio rad/s constant

a. 125 ±/0.4841
-1 .
0 9186 .
1 2247
.
exit) = Ge0(l - e ] + ( e ) + e0 -

b . 0.1338 ± / 0.9424 (unstable) = Ge0

-
1 5176 . 0 658
.

0 0642 0 8314
9 .
6 See igure on next page .

c -0.0534 ± / 0.8297

f
. .

-
2 8933 . 0 3456 x
i u
.
I
x . = e. , .r, = -r-*r - ~ +
d . 0.0826 ± y ] .2488 (unstable)
-
1 9152 . 0 5221
.

e. 0 x2 = I,, 2~ L L
-

1 ±J2 0 4472
. 2 236
.

f . 0 ± ;2 0 2
-
1 10
.
m mm

g. -
0 269 ±; 1.769
. 0 1503
. 1 7893
. 9 .
15 a. Roots: A, = 1,A2 = 4 System is overdamped.
0 481 ±y 0.7413
-

. 0 5433
. 0 8837
.

+ C "* +
'
= 0. 2 5. :( r = 3) = 0233
zit) = Cie
-

h. -
0 3029 ±; 2 3077 0 1301 2 3275
d/s. i = 0.3266. 0268
. .
.

Roots = -0. 4 ± y 1.1576. a» , = 1. 2 247 ra

.

0 6971 ±y 0 5024
Table E.3. t = 5.1s. :(f = 15) =
-

. . 0 8113
. 0 8539
. b.

System is underdamped. See = 0.7071 ra d/ 8.88=s.:(/0.1768- wj

r; c Roots = -0 125 ± y 0.696.
d See Table E.3. t
.
-

8 21 a.
.

System is underdampe .

s + 8
9 18 a. 2(/= 1) = 0.0478 i(f = 1) = 0.1031
456
.

= -0. 0
b z(/= 5) = 0.0945 i(/ = =5)8)= 0
r;
b .
.
-

r(2i + 3) c z(r = 8) = 1 782.

i(r
 Answers to Selected Problems
Answers to Selected Problems
508

9 .
33 Equation of moii0n. mr2v

Successive amPHtudeso?pP
36 There is little lemperatUr " UlUrn r three
A* ,L
6
9 .
! xt : C
mal resistance .
Varlu e

0n0t
k

S 4
disease .

:;» : t,

>

C 3

:
CHAPTER 10
10.3
bu~
FiX
_

? G Aa-
z = _ p
o 0 003 M
0 000 0 001 0.002 .

GAa:D +7rr7D
.

+l
.

Time (s) Problem 9.6 Voltage response .

G Aa
p

b
9 21.

0 706
.

For each valve, there is onlv onp nicir.«

specif i cations sim „.aneoul 1 X t
-

2
35.3 X 10-6D -h 1 'h'«<
CD + 1
vaive #, has the bes, oLj Z '- .
.

(oo) = 3.53 volts

9 -
24 Steady slate value of displacement is a. 0.618 cm and b. 1.0 cm. Input am- Valve* Piston diameter (in) Stiffness (Ibf/in) Natural frequency (Hz) Damping ratio
plilude is doubled, but response output is not necessarily doubled for non-
0 75 17.671
linear system. I . 41.6 0 75
,

2 0 75 16.364 40.0 Oil

9 27 Roots = -1.0 ± jSA -1.0
.

. T. = 1 s.
,
3 0 75
.
14.8(X) 38.0 0 41
.

/
I 1

7
.

s
APPENDIX C

4 03
-
70
-
10

e =
35
0 2 5
-
65
l ime (s)
Problem 9.27 Transient response. L-20J
 wers
to Selected Problems
An

5\1
Answers to Selected Problems C 39
.

an = 4
510
C 42 .

C6 39
.

C9 U)
8
C 45
-

c - 2d =
23 -

03750 0 2500
.
075001
L
-

=1 0 3750
. - 0.2500 0 2500 \
.

0 1250
. 0.2500 -0 2500 \
.

C12 \/98
C 48.

"

[ 1.0000 -3.0000 1.0000"\

C15 22 -n ' 10 B = 1 -3.0000 3.0000 -l.OOOOl
11
\ 2.0000 -1.0000 o.oooo]
-

- 6 36 22
C=l 42 72 30 32
- 42
C 51.

a .,
= -0 866.
. 0 = 0.866
C l«
.

cl

APPENDIX D
C 21
.

D3
.

X =

C 24.

fieS 180 45
435 380 115
lABC]7
"

765 740 205

f 1.94441
X = i-6U1
45 68 13 1 0.2778]

C 21 .

332
D9
.
Tcooool
CM
IBI = 144
I0.0000J

C33
IBI = -2
 Answers to Selected Problems
Answers to Selected ProbI
512 ems
F
PlVjDlX
D 12.
513
F3
To. oooo
.

X = 0.0000
I 0.0000J
1
D I5 . F 6 (a)
.

0 2887
fo.oooo + 4S + 1 .

X = 0.0000 (b) s + 20
I 0.0000J s

I). 18 + 2 23- J10 S + S

r(A) = 3
F9 .

D 21 .

h
r(A) = 3, r(A ) = 3
+ 4s + 10
D 24 .

I" 0.618 1.0 1 Z{s) = -i&i±ioH ) _

A, = 1.7639 A2 = 6.2361 vector =

1 1-0 -0.0 618

.

D 27
Appendix G
.

A, = 2 + ;2.45 A, = 2 - ;2.45 vector [" -0.9258 -0.92581 G3 .

[o + y 0.3780 0 -/0
=

/ 0.3780 .

u, = v, .v, = 2, .r2 = Dz . x. = Dh x. = Dh
.

D 30
x$) = 20
"
.
A , = X

ro.8367 -0.83671 X2 = X3 t2(0) = 0

A, = 6 5826
.

A? = -2.5826 vector =
.

I 0.5477 0.5477 I v, = x xM = 50
.

1X33
L = - 6*1 - 5x2 - 4.r3 - 3a:4 + lOu, .t O) = 0
-
0.8367 -
0.83671 G6
A, = 2 + ;4.5826 A2 = 2 - /4 5826
. vector = .

0 + / 0.5477 0 - / 0.5477J Mi = w, n2 - V, xx
-

g. *a - S

x,=x 1
APPENDIX E
v2 = -20*,
.
-

2x2 + 10m, + «2
G9 .

Z(t) - zh + zp, x2 = i-2«(0

"

zh = Ae \ z = sin &h + C cos w / u, = «(0, xj + z,

til) = z0e sin (ot + (orle 1 - cos oj t

1 + (0,7)4 i 2
-o -o. + a xo.i)..
 514 Answers to Selected Proble m s

G I2 .

m, = v, Xi=e, x2 = e- 5v, x3 = e - 5v - 7v

i, = x2 + Su,
x2 = + 7W,
x3 = -O.&c, - 0.3 - 0.2*3 + (9 -

5 X 0.3 - 7 X O u,
x,(0) = 0
(0) = 0
(0) = 0-5a)

APPENDIX I

13
.

V \ n V \ - in 111111
x,H = uX max = 2 mm, x2{™) = - «lmM = 20

i/nor = max of { ,(0) I or I TC00)!) = max of {3 or 21 = 3 mm

A Bode plots 235.470-71
.

timax = max of { x2(0) or xfa) ] = max of {0 or 20) = 20

mm
break frequency. 238
s
accumulator, 148 bridge circuit 113
active circuits, electric, 99,122
.

3 mm mm
British units 54.347
,
n
= 03 .
.

algebraic equations, 378 bulk modulus 137-38 2W

10 v v
.
,

amplitude attenuation, 239

mm mm ampere, amp, 100 C
20
analog computer, 472
a2 = S =2 0 -
i
simulation, 15
capacitance:
.

lOv V
analytic solution, 14 electric, 25.102
/31= lOv = 0.2 mm Apollo Thirteen, 2 luid, 25.145,147,148

f
v area properties, 352 mechanical. 25

e, = 6.667e 2
automotive examples 41, 49, 65, 75, 85
, thermal, 26,183
(0) = 10 volts 92,198,258,306 capacitive impedance. 106
e2 = -2.256, - l Se, - 1.5v .
e2(0) = 0 volts capacitors in series and parallel. 108
I! capil ary, 151,153
center of mass, center of gravity. 352
basic performance factors 16,26,206 centroid, 352
232,388.411
characteristic equation. 30-31.
,

beams 354 2 470

,

characteristic p olynomial. 23 ,

bending stiffness constants 354

charge. 100
,

Bernoulli equation, 25,154

Biot number 188 choke, 104
blackbody 181
,
choked low 156 .

f
,
 Index
516 Ind
kinetic, 83
83
classical differential equation, 12, 22, damping, 25 potential .

heai ran-, .
26-27 damping ratio. 29, 241, 410 engineering disciplines, 10 45,

modeline examples, 61, 63, 71, 73,

critical, 412
equation of stale. 136,138
75. 84.114-15,117-19,121 overdamped, 412 equivalent thermal circuit 190.
*„
solutions, 234 underdamped, 411 Euclidean norm, 361
coefficient of friction. 90, 310 dashpot, 57 external disturbances, 10
cofaclor, 367 DC electric motor, 203-204 , 207 209 410 q n.
'

coil. 104
225-26,323 '
401
F
decibel, 235, 409
combined systems, 73
delta function, 36
compressible low equation, 156 farad. 103 diameter 152
f

density, 136,139 0, 357

.

approximation, 158 Faraday s law, 104

'

pos«ion servo 212

computational solutions, 15 design problems, 115 120, 127 255 .

,
' feedback. 210,213,217,219,222
conservation laws of engineering, 22 258,291,297,318 324 , ,
333 ilter. 115,127, 238
determinant, 365

f
charge, 24 irst law of thermodynamics. 25 1
differential operator, 12 106

f
energy, 25 ,

irst-order differential equations, 27

differentiator, 477

f
mass, 24
irst-order systems, 32. 61. 189. 205 impedance 42 ,

power, 25 diffusion equation, 188

f
207,233,239,259,303 323 400 electric 105 .

continuity equation, 25,146, 220 digital simulation, 15,27 259 265 463 ,
, .

e(l"ivalent 107
lapper-nozzle valve, 215,227
, ,
.

control: discharge coefficient 155,215 resistive 105

f
,

lexural inertia, 354 .

closed-loop, 206 dissipative elements 42 impulse input. 36

f
,

feedback, 206 disturbance sensitivity 204,208 light control system. 211 impulse-momentum linear and

f
,

open-loop, 204 doublet input, 36 low storage elements, 44

f
angular 23
low variable, 42,170
.

convection: dynamic characteristics 211, 223 inductance:

f
,

coefficient, 179 dynamic systems 7,11 luid, 136 electric 104.25

f
, .

equivalent for radiation, 182 simulation examples 278-87, 305. ,

fluid systems. 8,135 electromagnetic 104 .

table, 180 340 luid-mechanical systems. 9 luid. 26 150-51

f
.

f
forced, 179 dynamic thermal systems 188,297 ,
Fourier's law of heat conduction. 170 mechanical. 25
free, 179 dynamic variables. 11 frequency ratio, 243 mutual. 104
corner frequency ,
238 frequency response, 34, 231,246,249 self. 104
coulomb 100 simulation, 238 thermal. 26
,
E
coulomb friction 25 , irst-order system, 235,408 inductive impedance. 106

f
Cramer's rule 379,458 second-order systems, 246,419 inductors in series and parallel, 108
,
effort storage elements, 43
critical damping 242,412 ,
effort variable 42,169 friction. Coulomb, 59 inertia, discrete, 69
,

critical pressure ratio 157 inertial force. 83

,
eigenvalue, 288 388,470
inertial torque. 83
,

current, 100
eigenvector, 388,470 G
divider 111 ,
elastic modulus, 358
initialconditionUl.3l.m401.4lO.
451.456
electrical systems 8,99 Gaussian elimination. 380
D
,
inner product. 361
electromagnetic energy 181 global error, 267
electro-hydraulic servo system, 33,
,

Grashof number. 198

10 34
d
'
derivatives. 233.45J
Alcmbcrrs principle 23,81 , 221 ;
D-operator 12.31 signal:
,
electro-mechanical systems 9,203 , H pulse. 37
damper 57 electro-thermal systems 9
quadratic. 36
,
,

linear 58,68 ,

emissivity, 181 Hagen-Poiseuille low, 25

rotational 68 ,
energy: f
harmonic inputs. 38,231.238.405 ramped step.3'
translalional 57 ,
electric, 103 105
,
response, 405,416
 index

518 Index
equations, electric,
109
table, 356 nonlinear, 216
input (cont.) properties, 355 algebraic equations, 391
step. 34, 260, 402 . 414
material properties, 358 analysis, 215
universal. 36 mathematical models, 22 differential equations, 283
integrator. 476 MATLAB, 463
inverter, 474
examples, 284
programming language, 465 systems, 32
solutions, 240, 246, 248 250 252
,
' number, dimensionless
258, 264, 278, 282, 284 ,
286 '

Grashof, 198
matrix, 362 Nusselt, 180,198
joule. 100 eigenvalues, 388,470 Prandtl, 198
exponential, 263 Rayleigh, 180
K inversion, 368, 378
minor, 366
Reynolds, 145,153,156,180 ,
198
numerical integration: elKlronic 2(B
Kirchhoffs current law, 24,109 transponse, 363 h**
,

Adams method, 270 ,

212 34S
mechanical systems, 8,53 Euler's method, 265
,

L mixed systems, 9, 203

Runge-Kutta methods, 270
modeling, 10 Power, electric 100
variable step size methods, 279 .

Lagrange's equation, 83, 98 mechanical rotational systems 70 "

andtl number, 198 I
,
Nusselt number, 180,198
laminar, 143 mechanical translational systems ,
61
Laplace transform, 13, 233, 426 modeling examples: R
pair, 428 electric, 302 O
tables, 429 electro-mechanical, 323
ramp inpul 35 ,

technique, 27 luid-mechanical, 306, 331 ohm, 101

response 404,415
f

linear: mechanical, 61, 63, 65, 70 71, 73,,

Ohm's law, 101 rank 383.

combination, 14, 384 75,77,79,84-86,261,277 op-amp, 123,473 Rayleigh number 180 .

differential equation, 14, 384 servo, 206, 209, 212, 214, 221, 323 ,
equation, 124, 474 RC circuit electric, 238,259-60
,

equation, 14,384 331 order, 13 rectifier, 303

function, 14,384 thermal, 183,185-86,189 orifice, 154-55 residues, 436
system, 14 moment of inertia, table. 354 orthogonality, 361 resistance:
linearity, 383,428 motor speed control, 204, 206 output/input ratio, 13,31,233 electric. 25,101
linearization 218 luid, 151
,
outputs, 10

f
lumped-parameter model ,
thermal.
N overdamped, 412 luid, 25

f
188 mechanical, 25
overshoot, 263
thermal. 26
natural frequency, 29, 241, 278,410
M thermal, conduction. 176
undamped. 411 P
thermal, convection. 180
damped, 262,411
M-files 273,463,465 resistors in series and paralld W
,
Navier Stokes equation, 165 parallel axis theorem, 357
mach number 156 resonance. 243.418
, Newton's: partial fraction expansion, 434,471 response. U)
magnetic flux 104 law of cooling, 179 mijo.
,

passive components: Reynolds number. 145. VSS, ™

mass. 53 59,348 method, 392
,
electric, 99,109 198
discrete 59 ,
second law, 23, 54 luid, 145
lumped 60
f RL circuit. 284
Newtonian luid, 141 PD control 222 i clectncll 1-
,

RLC circuit,
f

,
moment of inertia 69 , node, 109
pendulum, 285,297 /
 index
520 Index
T
state variables, 26,32
robot. SCARA, 86
maximum value, 485
root Jocus plot. 471 tachometer. 207
roots. 30. 232, 471 state-space. 448 lest signals, 34, 39 Unda%ed n
roots, frequencies, and damping, 250, differential equations 13 ,
thermal:
format, 22, 26,32 conduction, 170
470
rotational systems, 67 modeling examples ,
32-33, 65 77 conductivity, 171
120-21, 195, 217 277, W conductivity, luids, 175
Runge-Kutta integration, 270 ,

f
284-85, 303
M-file 466 . conductivity, metals. 175 V
to transfer function conversion convection. 178
457,471
S effects, 169 vector 359
to zero-pole conversion 471 coefficient, 137 "nit
,

static:
,
, 360
s-domain, 13, 27,235,426 properties, conductors. 172 e

saturation, 326 equilibrium position 63 na comracla 154

yV,brali
K .

scalar, 359 gain, 28, 204, 208, 211, 213, 220

,

properties, insulators, 174 n absorb

°

222, 264
radiation. 181 v,ew factor 181 5'341 .

scalar product, 361 systems, 9.169 viscositv;

second-order: stiffness, 211, 213 220, 222 ,

thermo-mechanical systems. 9 absolute 141 144

systems, 7,11
.

differential equations, 29, 261, 409 kinematic 141 142

.

thermal systems 183

three-way valve, 215 .

systems, 33, 71,73, 75, 84, 210, 213, ,

viscous coupling 241
.

throat. 156
220,241,277,282 steady-state, 234 viscous friction 25
.

servovalve, 212,221 response, 11,234, 242 408 time constant, 28.204,208,402 .

time response. 34,259 voltage divider. UO

sealing time, 12 Stefan-Boltzmann constant 181 ,
voltage volt 100
examples, 262
,
.

shear modulus, 68, 358 step input, 34 volume:

SI units, 54,347 response, 260 402,414,471 ,
harmonic input, 405.416 dead 216 .

signal amplification, 243,245 step size selection: ramp input. 404.415,433

swept 216 .

signals and systems toolbox 240, 464, , linear systems, 273 steady-state. 408
469 nonlinear systems 276 ,
step input, 260-61,264,402.414.432 w
singular matrix ,
385 steps for: transient. 407
singularity, 383 deriving classical differential equa- time-domain, 13,236.426
water hammer effect 45 .

sinusoidal input response 405,416 , tion, electric 121 ,

tire adhesion. 315 watt. 101
solenoid, 117-18 deriving governing equations, me- torsion of rods, 68,352 weber. 104
specific heat 143,183 , chanical, 73 torsional stiffness constant. 68,353 weight. 54
ratio, 143 158,160 ,
deriving state-space differential torsional system, mechanical, 68,249 weiehl densilv.358
table, 184
equations, electric, 122 transfer function. 13.233
speed of sound 143 ,
modeling dynamic systems, 15 factored form, 435
Y
spool valve 212 ,
stereo system ,
129 format, 22.26
spring: stiff equations 288 modeling examples, 124. 126, 205.
constant 56,67
,
Youngs modulus. 137
,
summing circuit, electric 112 , 207, 210, 213, 220. 222, 264, 323.
linear hardening, softening 55
,
, summing junction 206, 222,476 , 332
rotational 67 Z
surface tension 136
partial fraction form. 435
,
,

stiffness 25,354 ,
Sutherland's equation for viscosity, polynomial form. 434 zeros. 251
torsional 67 163
to state-space conversion. 450,471
,

translational 55 ,
systems 10
spring-rrtass-damper 33,84,241
,
to zero-pole conversion, 471
equations 271
stability ,
235
,

units, 53
,
transient response. 11,234.407,418
state transition matrix 263 ,
similarity, 40
truncation error ,
267,280
turbulent 143
,