CNNS IMPQ&A UNIT1,2,3,4

UNIT-1
1. What is a network? Explain its components with
examples.

A network is a collection of interconnected devices

(like computers, servers, and printers) that share
resources and data. Components include:
- Nodes (e.g., computers, printers)
- Links (physical cables or wireless connections)
- Switches/Routers (manage data traffic)
- Protocols (rules like TCP/IP for communication)
Example: The internet is a global network connecting
millions of devices.

2. Describe the characteristics of a LAN and

WAN.

- LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small area

(like a home, office), high speed, low latency, privately
owned. Example: Office network.

- WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large areas

(like cities or countries), slower compared to LAN,
uses public or leased lines. Example: The internet.

3. Differentiate between point-to-point and

multipoint connections with examples.
 • Point-to-Point Connection:
1. One sender, one receiver.
2. Dedicated link between two devices.
3. Example: Phone call.
4. Example: Serial connection.
5. Secure and reliable.

• Multipoint Connection:
1. One sender, multiple receivers.
2. Shared link between multiple devices.
3. Example: Radio broadcast.
4. Example: Wi-Fi network.
5. Less secure than point-to-point.

4. Compare circuit-switching and packet-

switching networks.

- Circuit-Switching: Dedicated path is established for

the entire communication session. Example:
Traditional telephone networks.
- Packet-Switching: Data is broken into packets that
travel independently. Example: Internet
communication.

5. Describe the key responsibilities of the

physical layer in the OSI model.
Physical Layer Responsibilities:
1. Defines physical means of data transmission.
2. Establishes and manages physical connections.
3. Transmits raw bits over physical medium.
4. Manages signal encoding and decoding.
5. Specifies voltage and timing requirement
6. What is the main function of the data link layer, and
how does it ensure data integrity?

Main Function:
The main function of the Data Link Layer is to provide
error-free transfer of data frames between two devices on
the same network.

Data Integrity:
The Data Link Layer ensures data integrity through:
1. Framing: Divides data into manageable frames.
2. Error Detection: Uses checksums or CRCs to detect
errors.
3. Error Correction: Corrects errors using
retransmission or forward error correction.
4. Flow Control: Regulates data flow to prevent
congestion.
5. Acknowledgment: Sends acknowledgments to
confirm receipt of frames.

7. Differentiate between connectionless and

connection-oriented protocols with examples.
Connectionless Protocols:
1. No connection established before data transfer.
2. Data sent as individual packets (datagrams).
3. No guarantee of delivery or order.
4. Examples: UDP, IP, DNS.
5. Faster, but less reliable.
Connection-Oriented Protocols:
1. Connection established before data transfer.
2. Data sent as a continuous stream.
3. Guaranteed delivery and order.
4. Examples: TCP, FTP, SSH.
5. Slower, but more reliable.

8. Explain how the network layer manages source-to-

destination delivery of packets.
1. Routing: Determines best path for packet to travel.
2. Addressing: Uses IP addresses to identify source and
destination.
3. Packet Forwarding: Forwards packets to next hop on
path.
4. Packet Switching: Switches packets between networks.
5. Delivery: Ensures packet arrives at destination device.

9. Illustrate the responsibilities of the Transport layer:

Port address and Segmentation.
Port Addressing
1. Assigns port numbers: Assigns unique port numbers to
applications.
2. Identifies processes: Uses port numbers to identify
specific processes.

3. Enables multiplexing: Allows multiple applications to

share same connection.
Segmentation
1. Breaks data into segments: Divides data into smaller,
manageable segments.
2. Assigns sequence numbers: Assigns sequence numbers
to each segment.
3. Reassembles data: Reassembles segments at receiving
end in correct order.

10. Describe the functions of the session layer in dialog

control and synchronization. Dialog Control
1. Establishes connections: Sets up and manages
connections between applications.
2. Controls dialog: Manages the exchange of data between
applications.
3. Regulates data exchange: Controls the amount of data
that can be sent at one time.

Synchronization
1. Coordinates data transfer: Ensures that data is
transferred in the correct order.
2. Provides checkpoints: Establishes checkpoints to
ensure data integrity.
3. Manages dialog termination: Gracefully terminates the
dialog when finished.

11. What is the presentation layer responsible for, and

how does it handle encryption and compression?
Responsibilities:
1. Data formatting:
2. Data encryption:
3. Data compression:
4. Data representation:
Encryption and Compression:
1. Encrypts data: Uses algorithms like SSL/TLS to encrypt
data.
2. Compresses data: Uses algorithms like ZIP or LZW to
compress data.
3. Decrypts data: Decrypts encrypted data using
corresponding decryption algorithms.
4. Decompresses data: Decompresses compressed data
using corresponding decompression algorithms.

12. Explain the relationship between flow control and

error control in ensuring reliable communication.
- Flow Control: Manages data rate between sender and
receiver to prevent overflow.
- Error Control: Detects and corrects errors using methods
like checksums and retransmissions.

13. Differentiate between connectionless and

connection-oriented protocols with examples.
connectionless Protocols

- No connection establishment before data transfer

- Data sent as individual packets (datagrams)
- No guarantee of delivery or order
- Examples:
- UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
 - IP (Internet Protocol)
- DNS (Domain Name System)

Connection-Oriented Protocols
- Connection establishment before data transfer
- Data sent as a continuous stream
- Guaranteed delivery and order
- Examples:
- TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
- FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
- SSH (Secure Shell)

14. Explain the difference between analog and digital

signals. Provide examples.
- Analog Signals: Continuous waves, varying
amplitude/frequency. Example: FM radio.
- Digital Signals: Discrete binary values (0s and 1s).
Example: Computer data, Ethernet.

15. How does the Network Access layer work in TCP/IP

2022?
The Network Access Layer (or Link Layer) manages the
physical transmission of data over network hardware,
handling MAC addressing, and framing for local delivery.
UNIT-1
16. What is the OSI model and its layers? Write the
work of each layer.
The OSI model standardizes networking into 7 layers:
1. Physical: Transmits raw bits.
2. Data Link: Frames data and handles error detection.
3. Network: Routes packets (IP addressing).
4. Transport: Ensures reliable delivery (TCP/UDP).
5. Session: Manages sessions and synchronization.
6. Presentation: Data translation, encryption,
compression.
7. Application: Interfaces with end-user applications.

17. Explain the concept of signal encoding techniques.

Signal encoding techniques are methods used to convert
digital data into a signal that can be transmitted over a
communication channel.
1. Error Detection and Correction: Framing enables
error detection and correction, ensuring that data is
transmitted accurately.
2. Data Organization: Framing organizes data into
manageable frames, making it easier to transmit and
receive.
3. Flow Control: Framing provides a mechanism for flow
control, preventing network congestion and ensuring
reliable data transfer.
4. Frame Synchronization: Framing ensures that the
sender and receiver are synchronized, preventing data loss
or corruption.
5. Improved Network Efficiency: Framing improves
network efficiency by minimizing errors, reducing
retransmissions, and ensuring reliable data transfer.

18. Describe the significance of framing in the data link

layer. Significance of Framing
1. Error Detection and Correction: Framing allows for
error detection and correction by adding checksums or
cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs) to the frame.
2. Frame Synchronization: Framing helps the receiver
synchronize with the transmitter by identifying the
start and end of each frame.
3. Data Integrity: Framing ensures that data is
transmitted in its entirety, without duplication or loss,
by assigning sequence numbers to each frame.
4. Flow Control: Framing enables flow control by
regulating the amount of data that can be sent at one
time.
5. 5. Multiplexing: Framing allows multiple devices to
share the same communication channel by assigning
unique frame identifiers.
19. Discuss the use of coaxial cables in network
connections.
20. High bandwidth: Coaxial cables offer high-speed
data transfer rates, making them suitable for
applications like cable broadband and HD video
transmission.
21. Long-distance transmission: Coaxial cables can
transmit data over long distances without significant
signal degradation
22. Resistance to interference: The coaxial design
provides excellent shielding against electromagnetic
interference (EMI), ensuring reliable data
transmission.
23. Cost-effective: Coaxial cables are relatively
inexpensive compared to other cables
24. Wide compatibility: Coaxial cables are widely
supported by various devices,

25. Differentiate between OSI and TCP/IP models..

OSI Model
1. 7 layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport,
Session, Presentation, Application
2. Theoretical model: Developed by ISO (International
Organization for Standardization)
3. Generic: Not specific to any particular network
architecture
TCP/IP Model
1. 4 layers: Network Access, Internet, Transport,
Application
2. Practical model: Developed by Department of
Defense (DoD)
3. Internet-specific: Designed for the Internet and
other TCP/IP-based networks
21. Explain the process of error detection in data
communication.
Error detection is essential to ensure data integrity during
transmission over networks. Techniques include:
- Parity Bits: Adds an extra bit to data to make the number
of 1s either even (even parity) or odd (odd parity).
- Checksum: The sender adds up data segments, and the
sum (checksum) is sent with the data. The receiver
recalculates the checksum to detect errors.
- Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): Uses polynomial
division to detect errors in data blocks. It’s highly reliable
and widely used in networks like Ethernet.

22. What is Ethernet, and how does it operate at the

data link layer?
Ethernet is the most common technology for Local Area
Networks (LANs). It defines rules for how data is formatted
and transmitted over physical media (like cables). At the
data link layer, Ethernet operates by:
- Framing: Data is encapsulated in frames, each with a
header (including source and destination MAC addresses),
payload, and error-checking code.
- MAC Addressing: Each device on an Ethernet network
has a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address,
ensuring data delivery to the correct recipient.
- Error Detection: Ethernet uses Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC) to detect transmission errors within frames.
- Access Control: In shared media networks, Ethernet uses
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection) to avoid data collisions.

23. Describe the purpose and advantages of fiber optic

cables.
Fiber optic cables transmit data as light signals through
thin glass or plastic fibers, providing:

1. High-speed data transfer: Fiber optic cables offer

extremely high bandwidth
2. Long-distance transmission: Fiber optic cables can
transmit data over very long distances without signal
degradation, reducing the need for repeaters.
3. Security: Fiber optic cables are difficult to tap,
providing a high level of security for sensitive data
transmission.
4. Immunity to interference: Fiber optic cables are
resistant to electromagnetic interference (EMI), ensuring
reliable data transmission.
5. Reliability and durability: Fiber optic cables have a
long lifespan and are resistant to environmental factors,
making them a reliable choice for critical network
infrastructure.
24. Define MAC protocols and explain their
importance. MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are a
set of rules that govern how devices access and share a
common communication channel, such as a wireless
network or a local area network (LAN). These protocols
ensure that devices can communicate with each other
efficiently and reliably.

The importance of MAC protocols lies in their ability to:

- Manage access to the communication channel,

preventing collisions and ensuring efficient data
transmission
- Provide a mechanism for devices to share the channel,
allowing multiple devices to communicate simultaneously
- Ensure reliable data transfer by detecting and
correcting errors
- Support quality of service (QoS) by prioritizing traffic
and allocating bandwidth

25. Describe two methods of error correction.

two methods of error correction are

1. Retransmission Method: In this method, the receiver

detects an error in the received data and requests the sender
to retransmit the data. The sender retransmits the data, and
the receiver receives the corrected data.
2. Forward Error Correction (FEC) Method: In this
method, the sender adds redundant data to the original
data before transmission. The receiver uses this redundant
data to detect and correct errors. FEC methods include
Hamming codes, Reed-Solomon codes, and convolutional
codes.
26. What is CRC, and how does it assist in error detection?
Answer : CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is a method of
error detection that generates a checksum value based on
the data being transmitted. Here's how it assists in error
detection:
CRC works by dividing the data into blocks and generating
a checksum value for each block.

1. The sender transmits the data along with the CRC

value.
2. The receiver recalculates the CRC value based on the
received data.
3. If the recalculated CRC value matches the received
CRC value, the receiver assumes that the data was
transmitted correctly.
4. If the two values do not match, the receiver detects an
error and may request the sender to retransmit the
data.
5. CRC is effective in detecting errors because it can
detect single-bit errors, multiple-bit errors, and burst
errors.

27. Explain the difference between analog and

digital signals. Provide examples.
- Analog Signals: Represent data with continuous
waves that vary in amplitude, frequency, or phase.
They can have an infinite number of values within a
range.
Examples:
- Sound waves transmitted over traditional telephone
lines.
- FM/AM radio broadcasts.
- Digital Signals: Represent data using discrete values,
typically binary (0s and 1s). They are less susceptible
to noise and easier to process and store. Examples:
- Data transmitted over Ethernet or USB.
- Digital audio like MP3 files.

28. What is a STAR topology, and differentiate

between BUS and MESH topology.
STAR Topology: A network configuration in which all
devices connect to a central device (hub or switch),
which manages and directs data to its destination. BUS
Topology
1. All devices connect to a single cable (backbone).
2. Data transmissions are broadcast to all devices.
3. Single cable failure can bring down the entire
network.

MESH Topology
1. Each device connects to every other device.
2. Multiple paths for data to travel, providing
redundancy.

3. Fault-tolerant and scalable, with easy addition of

new devices.
29. What is a network? Explain its components
with examples.
A network is a collection of interconnected devices
(like computers, servers, and printers) that share
resources and data. Components include:
- Nodes (e.g., computers, printers)
- Links (physical cables or wireless connections)
- Switches/Routers (manage data traffic)
- Protocols (rules like TCP/IP for communication)
Example: The internet is a global network connecting
millions of devices.

30. Describe the characteristics of a LAN and WAN.

- LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small area (like
a home, office), high speed, low latency, privately
owned. Example: Office network.
- WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large areas
(like cities or countries), slower compared to LAN,
uses public or leased lines. Example: The internet
31. Describe the three common notations used to
represent an IPv4 address.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers used to identify devices
on a network.
- Dotted Decimal Notation: The 32-bit address is divided
into four 8-bit octets, each represented in decimal and
separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
- Binary Notation: The address is displayed in binary form,
with each octet shown as an 8-bit binary number (e.g.,
11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001).
- Hexadecimal Notation: Each 8-bit octet is represented in
hexadecimal, often used in programming or network
debugging tools (e.g., C0.A8.01.01).

32. What is classful addressing, and how is the IPv4

address space divided into classes?
Classful addressing was an early method of dividing the
IPv4 address space into five classes (A to E) based on the
leading bits of the address:
- Class A: Supports large networks, starts with 0 in binary
(1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0), with 8 bits for the network and 24
bits for hosts.
- Class B: Medium-sized networks, starts with 10 (128.0.0.0
to 191.255.0.0), with 16 bits for the network and 16 bits for
hosts.
- Class C: Small networks, starts with 110 (192.0.0.0 to
223.255.255.0), with 24 bits for the network and 8 bits for
hosts.
- Class D: Reserved for multicasting, starts with 1110
(224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255).
- Class E: Reserved for experimental use, starts with 1111
(240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255).

33. Why was classful addressing phased out in favor of

clas
1. Inefficient use of IP addresses: Classful addressing
wasted many IP addresses, as each network had to be
assigned a full class A, B, or C address range.
2. Limited scalability: Classful addressing limited the
number of networks that could be created, making it
difficult to support the growing number of networks.
3. Rigid address allocation: Classful addressing required
rigid adherence to address classes, making it difficult to
allocate addresses flexibly.
4. Waste of IP address space: Classful addressing led to a
significant waste of IP address space, as many addresses
were unused or unassigned.
5. Introduction of CIDR: Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR) was introduced, allowing for more flexible and
efficient use of IP addresses, making classful addressing
osless addressing?.
34. Explain the concept of Link-State Routing and how
it uses the Link-State Database.
Link-State Routing is a dynamic routing protocol where
routers maintain a complete map of the network. Each
router:
- Discovers neighbors and learns their link statuses.
- Builds a Link-State Database (LSDB) containing the
topology of the entire network.
- Uses algorithms like Dijkstra's Shortest Path First (SPF) to
calculate the optimal path.
Protocols like OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) use link-
state routing, offering faster convergence and better
scalability than distance-vector protocols.

35. What is the role of Path Vector Routing in inter-

domain routing?
1. Prevents routing loops
2. Provides route stability
3. Advertises entire path (ASes)
4. Supports policy-based routing
5. Ensures efficient inter-domain routing
UNIT-2
36. What is the role of the Transport Layer in the
TCP/IP model? Explain its function in process-to-
process communication.
The Transport Layer ensures reliable data delivery
between applications (process-to-process communication)
across networks. It provides:
- Segmentation and Reassembly: Divides data into
smaller packets and reassembles them at the destination.
- Port Addressing: Uses port numbers to distinguish
between different applications on the same device (e.g.,
HTTP uses port 80, FTP uses port 21).
- Error Checking & Flow Control: Ensures data arrives
accurately (TCP) or quickly without guarantees (UDP).

37. Explain the main features of the User Datagram

Protocol (UDP).
UDP is a connectionless transport protocol offering
minimal overhead and fast transmission. Key features
include:
- No Connection Establishment: Data is sent without
setting up a connection, reducing latency.
- No Error Correction: UDP doesn’t guarantee delivery or
order, suitable for applications where speed is critical.
- Lightweight: Minimal header information, making it
efficient for real-time applications like video streaming,
VoIP, and online gaming.
38. What is congestion control, and why is it necessary
in a network?
Congestion control prevents excessive data from
overwhelming network resources, which can lead to packet
loss, increased latency, and reduced throughput.
TCP congestion control mechanisms include:
- Slow Start: Gradually increases data transmission to
avoid overwhelming the network.
- Congestion Avoidance: Adjusts transmission rates based
on network feedback.
- Fast Retransmit and Recovery: Quickly retransmits lost
packets without waiting for timeouts.
Without congestion control, networks would become
unstable, leading to inefficient communication.

39. What are the main UDP services provided to

applications?
UDP services include:
- Low-latency Communication: Suitable for time-sensitive
applications like live broadcasts or online gaming.
- Multicasting Support: Efficient for sending data to
multiple receivers simultaneously (e.g., streaming
services).
- Stateless Communication: Ideal for simple request-
response protocols like DNS.

40. Describe how error control is handled at the

transport layer.
In TCP, error control is achieved using:
- Checksums: Ensures data integrity by verifying the sum
of bits in the segment.
- Acknowledgments (ACKs): The receiver sends an ACK
when data is received correctly.
- Retransmissions: If ACKs aren’t received, TCP
retransmits the data.
- Sequence Numbers: Ensure data is reassembled in the
correct order.
UDP, on the other hand, provides no error control, leaving
it to the application layer if needed.
UNIT-2
41. What is the role of HTTP in client-server
communication on the Web?
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the foundation of
data communication on the World Wide Web. It defines
how messages are formatted and transmitted between a
client (usually a web browser) and a server (hosting
websites).
Role in communication:
• The client sends an HTTP request (e.g., asking for a
webpage) to the server.
• The server responds with an HTTP response
containing the requested resources (like HTML
pages, images, or videos).
• HTTP follows a stateless protocol, meaning each
request is independent. To maintain sessions
(like login states), mechanisms like cookies are
used.

Example: When you enter a URL in your browser, an HTTP

request is made to retrieve and display the webpage.

42. What is Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and

how does it work?
SMTP is a protocol used for sending emails between
servers and from an email client to a mail server.
How it works:
- When you send an email, your client (like Outlook or
Gmail) uses SMTP to transfer the message to your email
server.
- The email server then forwards the message to the
recipient's email server, which stores it until the recipient
retrieves it using protocols like IMAP or POP3.
- SMTP typically operates over port 25, 587, or 465 (for
secure communication).
Limitations: SMTP is primarily for sending emails; it does
not handle retrieving emails.

43. Explain the DNS hierarchical name spaces. How is it

more suitable for large-scale systems like the Internet?
The Domain Name System (DNS) translates human- readable
domain names (like www.google.com) into IP addresses
(like 142.250.190.14).
Hierarchical Structure:
- Root Level: Represented by a dot (.), this is the highest
level.
- Top-Level Domains (TLDs): Include generic TLDs like
.com, .org, .net, and country-code TLDs like .in, .uk.
- Second-Level Domains: These are the names registered
by organizations or individuals (e.g., google in google.com).
- Subdomains: Optional subdivisions, like mail.google.com
or support.microsoft.com.
Suitability for large-scale systems:
- The hierarchical structure allows for distributed
management, improving scalability and reducing
bottlenecks.
- It enables redundancy and load balancing, essential for
the vast and dynamic nature of the Internet.

44. Compare and contrast the key features and

applications of 4G and 5G. What are the expected
improvements in terms of speed, connectivity, and use
cases?
- 4G:
- Speed: Up to 1 Gbps in ideal conditions.
- Latency: Around 50 ms.
- Applications: Video streaming, mobile browsing, VoIP,
and basic IoT.
- 5G:
- Speed: Can reach up to 10 Gbps, significantly faster than
4G.
- Latency: As low as 1 ms, enabling real-time applications.
- Applications: Autonomous vehicles, remote surgeries,
smart cities, enhanced VR/AR, and massive IoT
deployments.
Expected Improvements:
- Higher bandwidth to handle more devices simultaneously.
- Ultra-reliable low latency communication (URLLC),
essential for critical applications like autonomous driving.
- Better energy efficiency and network slicing for
customized services.
45. Describe the three common notations used to
represent an IPv4 address.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers used to identify devices
on a network. They are commonly represented using the
following notations:
- Dotted Decimal Notation: The 32-bit address is divided
into four 8-bit octets, each represented in decimal and
separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
- Binary Notation: The address is displayed in binary
form, with each octet shown as an 8-bit binary number
(e.g., 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001).
- Hexadecimal Notation: Each 8-bit octet is represented in
hexadecimal, often used in programming or network
debugging tools (e.g., C0.A8.01.01).
UNIT-2
46. What is Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and
how does it work?
SMTP is a protocol used for sending emails between
servers and from an email client to a mail server.
How it works:
• When you send an email, your client (like Outlook or
Gmail) uses SMTP to transfer the message to your
email server.
• The email server then forwards the message to the
recipient's email server, which stores it until the
recipient retrieves it using protocols like IMAP or
POP3.
• SMTP typically operates over port 25, 587, or 465 (for
secure communication).

47. What are the basic functions of the Transport

layer?
The Transport Layer in networking ensures the
reliable and efficient transfer of data between two
devices. Its basic functions include:
- Segmentation and Reassembly: Breaks large data
into smaller segments and reassembles them at the
destination.
- Error Detection and Correction: Ensures data
integrity using methods like checksums and
acknowledgments.
- Flow Control: Manages the rate of data transmission
to prevent overwhelming the receiver (e.g., TCP sliding
window).
- Port Addressing: Uses port numbers to distinguish
between different applications on the same device
(e.g., HTTP uses port 80, FTP uses port 21).

48. What is congestion control, and why is it

necessary in a network?
Congestion control prevents excessive data from
overwhelming network resources, which can lead to
packet loss, increased latency, and reduced
throughput.
TCP congestion control mechanisms include:
- Slow Start: Gradually increases data transmission to
avoid overwhelming the network.
- Congestion Avoidance: Adjusts transmission rates
based on network feedback.
- Fast Retransmit and Recovery: Quickly retransmits
lost packets without waiting for timeouts.
Without congestion control, networks would become
unstable, leading to inefficient communication.

49. What is classful addressing, and how is the

IPv4 address space divided into classes?
Classful addressing was an early method of dividing the
IPv4 address space into five classes (A to E) based on
the leading bits of the address:
- Class A: Supports large networks, starts with 0 in
binary (1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0), with 8 bits for the
network and 24 bits for hosts.
- Class B: Medium-sized networks, starts with 10
(128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0), with 16 bits for the
network and 16 bits for hosts.
- Class C: Small networks, starts with 110 (192.0.0.0 to
223.255.255.0), with 24 bits for the network and 8 bits
for hosts.
- Class D: Reserved for multicasting, starts with 1110
(224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255).
- Class E: Reserved for experimental use, starts with
1111 (240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255).

50. What are APIs, and why are they important in

network applications?
Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) are sets of
rules and protocols that allow different software
applications to communicate with each other.
Importance in network applications:
- Integration: APIs enable applications to interact with
external services, like connecting a mobile app to a
cloud database or a payment gateway.
- Automation: They allow for automated data exchange
between systems, such as automating server
configurations or data retrieval from web services.
- Standardization: APIs provide consistent interfaces
for developers, simplifying the development of
complex network applications.
Examples: RESTful APIs for web services, Socket APIs
for real-time network communication.
UNIT-2
51. What are the application layer protocols? Explain any 3.
Application layer protocols provide services directly to user
applications for network communication.
- HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for
transferring web pages over the internet.
- FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Enables the transfer of
files between computers on a network.
- DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names
into IP addresses to locate websites.

52. Describe the role of DNS in network

communications.
the role of DNS in network communications are

1. Translates Domain Names to IP Addresses: DNS

converts human-readable domain names into machine
readable IP addresses.
2. Enables Device Discovery: DNS facilitates device
discovery, allowing devices to find and communicate
with each other.
3. Provides Scalability and Flexibility: DNS is a
distributed database, enabling efficient and reliable
network communication.
4. Ensures Network Security: DNS provides
authentication mechanisms, such as DNSSEC, to
 ensure the integrity and authenticity of domain name
and IP address mappings.
5. Facilitates Resource Location: DNS helps locate
resources, such as websites, email servers, and file
transfer protocol (FTP) servers.

53. What is a Switch? Define the types. Answer

: A switch is a networking device that connects
multiple devices within a network and forwards
data packets between them.

Types of Switches:
1. Unmanaged Switch: Simple plug-and-play device with
no configuration options.
2. Managed Switch: Can be configured and monitored for
advanced network management.
3. Smart Switch: Combines features of managed and
unmanaged switches with some configuration options.
4. PoE (Power over Ethernet) Switch: Supplies power to
connected devices over Ethernet cables.
5. Stackable Switch: Multiple switches can be stacked
together for increased port density and scalability.
6. Modular Switch: Allows for adding or removing
modules as needed for flexibility and customization.
54. What is the role of the Transport Layer in
the TCP/IP model? Explain its function in
process-to-process communication. The.Role
of the Transport Layer:
1. Provides reliable data transfer
2. Ensures error-free data delivery
3. Guarantees data sequencing
4. Flow control and congestion avoidance
5. Multiplexing and demultiplexing

Function in Process-to-Process
Communication:

1. Establishes connections between processes

2. Segments data into manageable chunks
3. Assigns port numbers for process
identification
4. Provides acknowledgment and retransmission
5. Terminates connections between processes

55. Define web services and their application

in networks.
Web services are standardized ways for
applications to communicate over the internet
using protocols like HTTP. They facilitate
interoperability between different systems,
regardless of platform or language.
Applications:
- APIs that allow apps to interact with cloud
services.
- SOAP and RESTful services for exchanging
structured data.
- Microservices architecture in modern web
applications.
UNIT-2
56 . Explain the differences between Wi-Fi and
Cellular Networks.

57. What is the role of HTTP in client-server

communication on the Web?
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the foundation
of data communication on the World Wide Web. It
defines how messages are formatted and transmitted
between a client (usually a web browser) and a server
(hosting websites).

58. What is the role of Path Vector Routing in

inter-domain routing?
1. Prevents routing loops
2. Advertises entire path
3. Provides route stability
4. Supports policy-based routing
5. Used in BGP routing protocol
59. Explain the concept of Link-State Routing and
how it uses the Link-State Database.
Link-State Routing is a dynamic routing protocol
where routers maintain a complete map of the
network. Each router discovers neighbors, builds a
Link-State Database (LSDB), and uses algorithms like
Dijkstra's Shortest Path First (SPF) to calculate the
optimal path.

60. Define network security and its importance in

modern networks.
Network security involves protecting network
infrastructure from unauthorized access, misuse, or
attacks. It includes measures like firewalls, encryption,
intrusion detection systems (IDS), and antivirus
software.
Importance:
- Protects sensitive data from breaches.
- Ensures the integrity, availability, and confidentiality
of data.
- Safeguards against threats like malware, phishing,
and DDoS attacks.
61. Define network security and its importance in
modern networks. Network Security: A set of policies,
technologies, and practices designed to protect networks,
devices, and data from cyber threats.
Importance:
- Protects sensitive information from cyberattacks.
- Prevents unauthorized access and data breaches.
- Ensures the availability and reliability of network
services.
- Helps businesses comply with security regulations.

62) What are the types of vulnerability?

- Software Vulnerabilities – Bugs, outdated software, and
misconfigurations.
- Hardware Vulnerabilities – Weak encryption in
hardware, manufacturing flaws.
- Human Vulnerabilities – Phishing attacks, weak
passwords, social engineering.
- Network Vulnerabilities – Unsecured Wi-Fi, open ports,
and weak protocols.

63) Difference between threats and vulnerabilities.

64) What are the advantages and disadvantages of
symmetric encryption?

Advantages:
- Faster encryption and decryption.
- Requires less computational power.

Disadvantages:
- Key distribution is difficult.
- If the key is compromised, all communication is at risk.

65) List and explain the fundamental principles of

network security (any 5).

1. Confidentiality – Ensures only authorized users access

sensitive data.
2. Integrity – Prevents unauthorized modification of data.
3. Availability – Ensures that network services remain

accessible.
4. Authentication – Verifies user and system identities.
5. Non-repudiation – Prevents denial of actions
performed by users.
66) Comparison between symmetric and asymmetric
encryption methods.

67) Explain the concept of hashing with an example.

Hashing: Converts data into a fixed-length string (hash)

using a mathematical function.

Example:
Input: "Hello"
SHA-256 Output:
2cf24dba5fb0a30e26e83b2ac5b9e29e1b161e5c1fa7425e7
3043362938b9824

Hashing is used in password storage, data integrity, and

digital signatures.

68) Explain common threats in network security.

- Malware – Viruses, worms, ransomware that damage
systems.
- Phishing – Deceptive emails tricking users into revealing
credentials.
- Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks – Overloading a
network to make services unavailable.
- Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attacks – Intercepting
communication between two parties.
- SQL Injection – Injecting malicious SQL queries into
databases.

69) Explain all 3 techniques for ensuring integrity.

1. Hashing – Converts data into a unique fixed-size hash
value (e.g., SHA-256).
2. Checksums – Verifies data integrity by generating a
checksum value (e.g., CRC).
3. Digital Signatures – Uses cryptographic signing to
verify data authenticity.

70) Describe how a hash function is used in digital

signatures.
- The sender hashes the message.
- The hash is encrypted using the sender’s private key
(digital signature).
- The receiver decrypts the hash using the sender’s public
key and compares it with the computed hash.
- If both hashes match, the message is verified as

authentication.
71) What is key management, and why is it important
in cryptography?
Key Management: The process of generating, storing,
distributing, and retiring cryptographic keys securely.

Importance:
- Ensures confidentiality and integrity of data.
- Prevents unauthorized access to sensitive keys.
- Supports secure communication in cryptographic
systems.

72) Explain the difference between encryption and

hashing.
73) Differentiate between authentication and
authorization.

74) List and explain the main goals of network

security.
1. Confidentiality – Prevents unauthorized access to
sensitive data.
2. Integrity – Ensures data is not altered during
transmission.
3. Availability – Keeps network resources accessible to
legitimate users.
4. Authentication – Verifies the identity of users or
systems.
5. Non-repudiation – Ensures users cannot deny their
actions.

75) Define confidentiality, integrity, and availability in

the context of network security.
- Confidentiality – Ensures only authorized users can
access data.
- Integrity – Protects data from unauthorized

modifications.
- Availability – Ensures that network services remain
accessible.
76) SSL/TLS protocols are what kind of protocol?
Explain their working.
Type: Secure communication protocols that provide
encryption for data transmission over networks.

Working:
1. Handshake Process – Client and server exchange keys
and agree on encryption parameters.
2. Authentication – Server sends its digital certificate to
verify identity.
3. Key Exchange – Secure session key is generated and
shared.
4. Data Encryption – Secure communication starts using
symmetric encryption.

77) What are wireless security protocols? How do they

work to provide security?

Types of Wireless Security Protocols:

1. WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) – Weak encryption,
easily breakable.
2. WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) – Stronger encryption
using TKIP.
3. WPA2 – Uses AES encryption, more secure than WPA.
4. WPA3 – Advanced security with Simultaneous

Authentication of Equals (SAE).

Working: Encrypts wireless communications to prevent
eavesdropping and unauthorized access.

78) What is the secure tunneling technique? Explain

both types of it.

Definition: A method of securely transmitting data over an

untrusted network by encapsulating data in another
protocol.

Types:
1. Voluntary Tunneling – Initiated by the client using
software like VPNs.
2. Compulsory Tunneling – Established at the network
level by the ISP or gateway.

79) Explain how dynamic firewall configurations

enhance security compared to static configurations.

Dynamic Firewalls:
- Adapt to changing network conditions and threats.
- Can block suspicious traffic in real time.
- Use deep packet inspection and machine learning for
threat detection.

Static Firewalls:

- Have fixed rules and do not adapt to new threats.

- Require manual updates to configuration.
80) What is a network security protocol? Give 5
examples with why we are using it.

Definition: A set of rules governing secure communication

over a network.

Examples:
1. SSL/TLS – Secures web traffic using encryption.
2. IPsec – Provides secure IP communication via
encryption and authentication.
3. HTTPS – Secure version of HTTP for safe web browsing.
4. SSH – Securely connects to remote systems.
5. VPN (Virtual Private Network) – Creates encrypted
tunnels for secure remote access.
81) WPA vs. WPA2?

82) WPA2 vs. WPA3?

83) Describe the importance of VPN and where we can

use it.

Importance:
- Encrypts internet traffic to ensure privacy.

- Protects against cyber threats and surveillance.

- Allows remote access to corporate networks securely.

Uses:
- Secure remote work and corporate networks.
- Accessing geo-restricted content.
- Protecting personal data on public Wi-Fi.

84) Explain how dynamic firewall configurations

enhance security compared to static configurations.

Dynamic Firewalls:
- Adapt in real-time to new threats.
- Use AI/ML for advanced threat detection.
- Automatically update rules to counter attacks.

Static Firewalls:
- Rely on pre-configured rules.
- Need manual updates for new threats.

85) What is the full form of IPsec? Explain its working.

Full Form: Internet Protocol Security (IPsec).

Working:
- Secures IP communication by encrypting and
authenticating packets.
- Uses two main protocols:

1. AH (Authentication Header) – Ensures data integrity

and authentication.
2. ESP (Encapsulating Security Payload) – Provides
encryption and confidentiality.

- Works in Transport Mode (encrypts data only) or Tunnel

Mode (encrypts entire packet).
86) What is a VPN? Explain its working in case of
network security.

Definition: A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a secure

connection that encrypts internet traffic and masks the
user’s IP address.

Working:
1. User connects to a VPN server – The device sends
encrypted data to a VPN server.
2. Data Encryption – VPN uses protocols like OpenVPN or
IPsec to secure data.
3. IP Masking – The VPN server assigns a new IP address
to hide the user's real identity.
4. Secure Communication – All data travels through a
secure tunnel, protecting it from hackers and surveillance.

87) What is a firewall and how does it function?

Definition: A firewall is a security device or software that

monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predefined rules.

Functioning:
- Filters traffic based on security rules.
- Blocks unauthorized access while allowing legitimate
communication.

- Detects and prevents malware and network attacks.

88) Explain firewall and types of firewall.

Types of Firewalls:
1. Packet Filtering Firewall – Examines data packets and
allows/block based on rules.
2. Stateful Inspection Firewall – Tracks active
connections for better security.
3. Proxy Firewall – Intermediary between users and the
internet for additional security.
4. Next-Generation Firewall (NGFW) – Uses deep packet
inspection and AI for advanced threat protection.
5. Cloud-Based Firewall – Protects cloud environments
from cyber threats.

89) Explain the differences between Intrusion

Detection Systems (IDS) and Intrusion Prevention
Systems (IPS).

90) Explain the features of the IP Security (IPsec)

Protocol in network security.
Key Features of IPsec:
1. Encryption – Encrypts data to ensure confidentiality.
2. Authentication – Verifies sender identity using digital
signatures.
3. Integrity – Ensures data is not tampered with during
transmission.
4. Key Management – Uses protocols like IKE (Internet
Key Exchange) for secure key handling.
5. Tunnel and Transport Modes – Provides flexibility in
encryption level.
91. Explain the features of IP Security Protocol in case
of network security.
1. Encryption – Protects data from unauthorized access
by encrypting IP packets.
2. Authentication – Verifies the sender’s identity to
prevent spoofing.
3. Integrity – Ensures data is not altered during
transmission.
4. Tunnel & Transport Mode – Supports two modes:
Transport Mode: Encrypts only the data payload.
Tunnel Mode: Encrypts the entire IP packet.

5. Key Management – Uses protocols like IKE (Internet

Key Exchange) for secure key exchange.
6. Confidentiality – Prevents eavesdropping on
network traffic.
7. Compatibility – Works with IPv4 and IPv6 networks.
8. End-to-End Security – Protects communication
without relying on application-layer encryption.
92. Write the difference between SSL/TSL and IPsec?

93.What are the secure communication protocol ?

Briefly explain about it.
Secure Communication Protocols
1. SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer
Security) – Encrypts web traffic (HTTPS), emails, and
other internet services. TLS is an improved version of
SSL.

2. IPsec (Internet Protocol Security) – Provides

encryption and authentication for IP traffic, used in
VPNs.
3. SSH (Secure Shell) – Secures remote access to
devices and servers.
4. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) –
Secure version of HTTP, encrypts web traffic.
5. S/MIME (Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extensions) – Secures email communication with
encryption and digital signatures.
6. PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) – Encrypts emails and
files to protect privacy.
7. Wi-Fi Security Protocols (WPA2, WPA3) – Ensures
secure wireless communication.