Lesson 1: Internetworking​ • They can filter the network based on layer 3

​ (Network layer) information such as an IP address.

Internetworking Basics:​
​ Router functions in the network:
Local Area Network (LAN) • Packet switching
- that’s connected using a hub, which is basically • Packet filtering
just an antiquated device that connects wires • Internetwork communication
together.​ • Path selection
​ ​
Network Segmentation​ Packet Switching
- is breaking up a massive network into a number to - it forwards or filter frames using logical addressing
smaller one.​ and provide an important capacity.​
​ ​
Networking Devices: Internetwork
• Routers - is connect two or more networks together and
• Switches use logical addressing (IPv4 or IPv6).​
• Bridges ​
​ Collision Domain
Cause LAN Traffic Congestion: - is an Ethernet term used to describe a network
• Too many hosts in a collision or broadcast domain scenario in which one device sends a packet out
• Broadcast storms on a network segment and every other device on
• Too much multicast traffic that same segment is forced to pay attention no
• Low bandwidth matter what.​
• Adding hubs for connectivity to the network ​
• A bunch of ARP broadcasts​ Bridges and Switches
​ - basically do the same thing—break up collision
Routers domains on a LAN​
- are basically employed to efficiently break up a ​
broadcast domain
- are allowed to “hear” all broadcasts sent out on
that specific segment.
- routers provide connections to wide area network
(WAN) services as well via a serial interface for
WAN connections​
​
Broadcast Domain
- the set of all devices on a network segment​
​

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​
WLAN devices:
- These devices connect wireless devices such
​ as computers, printers, and tablets to the
​ network. Since pretty much every device
Two advantages to using routers: manufactured today has a wireless NIC, you just
• They don’t forward broadcasts by default. need to configure a basic access point (AP) to
connect to a traditional wired network.
Access Points or APs: Advantages of Reference Models:​
- These devices allow wireless devices to connect • It divides the network communication process into
to a wired network and extend a collision domain smaller and
from a switch, and are typically in their own simpler components, facilitating component
broadcast domain or what we’ll refer to as a Virtual development, design,
LAN (VLAN). and troubleshooting.
- An AP can be a simple standalone device, but • It allows multiple-vendor development through the
today they are usually managed by wireless standardization of
controllers either in house or through the internet. network components.
​ • It encourages industry standardization by clearly
Firewalls: defining what
- These devices are network security systems functions occur at each layer of the model.
that monitor and control the incoming and outgoing • It allows various types of network hardware and
network traffic based on predetermined security software to
rules, and is usually an Intrusion Protection System communicate.
(IPS).​ • It prevents changes in one layer from affecting
​ other layers to
Internetworking Models:​ expedite development.
• In the late 1970s, the Open Systems ​
Interconnection (OSI) reference model OSI
was created by the International Organization for - is a logical model, not a physical one.
Standardization (ISO) to - It’s essentially a set of guidelines that developers
break through this barrier. can use to create
• The OSI model was meant to help vendors create and implement applications to run on a network.
interoperable network - It also provides a framework for creating and
devices and software in the form of protocols so implementing
that different vendor networking standards, devices, and internetworking
networks could work in peaceable accord with each schemes.​
other.
• OSI model is the primary architectural model for OSI define into 2 Layers:
networks. It describes - The three top layers define how the applications
how data and network information are within the end
communicated from an application stations will communicate with each other as well
on one computer through the network media to an as with users.
application on another - The bottom four layers define how data is
computer. The OSI reference model breaks this transmitted end to end.​
approach into layers. ​
​ ​
The Layered Approach:​ ​
​
Reference Model ​
- is a conceptual blueprint of how communications ​
should take place.​ ​
​
Layers ​
- processes required for effective communication ​
and divides them into logical groupings hierarchical ​
or layered architecture a communication system is ​
design.​ ​
The following network devices operate at all - Think of it as the OSI model’s translator, providing
seven layers of the OSI model: coding and conversion services. One very effective
• Network management stations (NMSs) way of ensuring a successful data transfer is to
• Web and application servers convert the data into a standard format before
• Gateways (not default gateways) transmission.​
• Servers ​
• Network hosts​ The Session Layer:
​ • The Session layer is responsible for setting up,
The OSI reference model has the following managing, and dismantling sessions between
Seven Layers: Presentation layer entities and keeping user data
• Application layer (layer 7) separate. Dialog control between devices also
• Presentation layer (layer 6) occurs at this layer.
• Session layer (layer 5) ​
• Transport layer (layer 4) Three Different Modes:
• Network layer (layer 3) • Simplex
• Data Link layer (layer 2) • Half-duplex
• Physical layer (layer 1) • Full-duplex
​ ​
Simplex - is simple one-way communication,
kind of like saying something and not getting a
reply.​

Half-duplex - is actual two-way communication,

but it can take place in only one direction at a
time, preventing the interruption of the transmitting
device.​
​
​
​
​
The Application Layer:​
Full-duplex - is exactly like a real conversation
• The Application layer of the OSI model marks the
where devices can transmit and receive at the
spot where users actually communicate to the
same time, much like two people arguing or
computer and comes into play only
interrupting each other during a telephone
when it’s clear that access to the network will be
conversation.​
needed soon.​
​
​
The Transport Layer:
• Here are a few good examples of these kinds of
- The Transport layer segments and reassembles
events:
data into a single data stream.
• File transfers
- Services located at this layer take all the various
• Email
data received from upper-layer applications, then
• Enabling remote access
combine it into the same, concise data stream.
• Network management activities
- These protocols provide end-to-end data
• Client/server processes
transport services and can establish a logical
• Information location
connection between the sending host and
​
destination host on an internetwork.
The Presentation Layer:
- The Transport layer is responsible for providing
• The Presentation layer gets its name from its
mechanisms for multiplexing upper layer
purpose: It presents data to the Application layer
- Applications, establishing sessions, and tearing
and is responsible for data translation and code
down virtual circuits.
formatting. ​
Connection-Oriented Communication: The Protocols Involved Ensure That The
• Call Setup Or A Three-way Handshake - a Following Will Be Achieved:​
device that transmit and establish a - The segments delivered are acknowledged back
connection-oriented communication session to the sender upon
with a remote device their reception.
-The two operating systems communicate by - Any segments not acknowledged are
sending messages over the network confirming that retransmitted.
the transfer is approved and that both sides are - Segments are sequenced back into their proper
ready for it to take place.​ order upon arrival at
​ their destination.
Steps In The Connection-oriented Session— - A manageable data flow is maintained in order to
that Three-way Handshake:​ avoid congestion,
​ overloading, or worse, data loss.
• The First “connection agreement” segment is a ​
request for Synchronization (SYN). ​
• The Second segments Acknowledge (ACK) the ​
request and establish connection parameters— the ​
rules—between hosts. These segments request ​
that the receiver’s sequencing is synchronized here ​
as well so that a bidirectional connection can be ​
formed. ​
• The Third segment is also an acknowledgment, ​
which notifies the destination host that the ​
connection agreement has been accepted and ​
that the actual connection has been established. ​
Data transfer can now begin.​ ​
​ A service is considered connection-oriented if it
has the following characteristics:
• A virtual circuit, or “three-way handshake,” is set
up.
• It uses sequencing.
• It uses acknowledgments.
• It uses flow control.
​
Windowing
• Window is the quantity of data segments,
measured in bytes, that the transmitting machine is
allowed to send without receiving an
Acknowledgment.​
​
​
​ ​
Flow Control:​ ​
- Its job is to ensure data integrity at the Transport
layer by allowing applications to request reliable ​
data transport between systems. ​
- Flow control prevents a sending host on one side ​
of the connection from overflowing the buffers in ​
the receiving host.​ ​
Acknowledgments - Reliable data delivery
ensures the integrity of a stream of data sent from
one machine to the other through a fully functional
data link.​

Positive Acknowledgment - with

retransmission—a technique that requires a
receiving machine to communicate with the
transmitting source by sending an acknowledgment
message back to the sender when it receives data.​

​
​
• Network Addresses Protocol - specific network
addresses. A router must maintain a routing table
for individual routing protocols because each routed
protocol keeps track of a network with a different
addressing scheme.​
​
Interface - The exit interface a packet will take
when destined for a specific network.​

Metric - The distance to the remote network.

Different routing protocols use different ways of
computing this distance.​
​ ​
​ A router in an internetwork. Each router LAN
The Network Layer: interface is a broadcast domain. Routers break up
- The Network layer, or layer 3, manages device broadcast domains by default and provide WAN
addressing, tracks the location of devices on services.​
the network, and determines the best way to ​
move data.
- Network layer to transport traffic between
devices that aren’t locally attached.
​ ​
Data Packets - these are used to transport user ​
data through the internetwork.​ Here are some router characteristics that you
- Protocols used to support data traffic are called should never forget:
routed protocols, and IP and IPv6 are key • Routers, by default, will not forward any broadcast
examples​ or multicast
​ packets.
Route Update Packets - these packets are used • Routers use the logical address in a Network layer
to update neighboring routers about the header to
networks connected to all routers within the determine the next-hop router to forward the packet
internetwork.​ to.​
• Routers can use access lists, created by an
Routing Protocols - send route update packets.​ administrator, to control security based on the types
​ of packets allowed to enter or exit an interface.​
​
• Routers can provide layer 2 bridging functions if - It works like this: a host receives a frame and
needed and can simultaneously route through the looks in the LLC header to find out where the
same interface. packet is destined—for instance, the IP protocol at
• Layer 3 devices—in this case, routers—provide the Network layer.
connections between virtual LANs (VLANs). - The LLC can also provide flow control and
• Routers can provide quality of service (QoS) for sequencing of control bits.​
specific types of network traffic.​ ​
​ Switches and Bridges at the Data Link Layer
The Data Link Layer:​ Layer 2 switching is considered hardware-based
- The Data Link layer provides for the physical bridging because it uses specialized hardware
transmission of data and handles error called an application-specific integrated circuit
notification, network topology, and flow control. (ASIC).
- Data Link layer will ensure that messages are - ASICs can run up to high gigabit speeds with very
delivered to the proper device on a LAN using low latency rates.
hardware addresses and will translate messages ​
from the Network layer into bits for the Physical
layer to transmit.
- The Data Link layer formats the messages, each
called a data frame, and adds a customized header
containing the hardware destination and source
address. This added information forms a sort of
capsule that surrounds the original message in
much the same way that engines, navigational
devices, and other tools were attached to the lunar
modules of the Apollo project.​
​
Data Link Layer​ ​
​
The Physical Layer:
Physical layer does two things: it sends bits and
receives bits. Bits come only in values of 1 or 0 - a
Morse code with numerical values.
​ - The Physical layer communicates directly with
​ the various types of actual communication
The IEEE Ethernet Data Link layer has Two media. Different kinds of media represent these bit
Sublayers: values in different ways.​
• Media Access Control (MAC) - Defines how ​
packets are placed on the media. Contention for Hubs at the Physical Layer
media access is “first come/first served” access - A hub is really a multiple-port repeater.
where everyone shares the same bandwidth— - A repeater receives a digital signal, reamplifies or
hence the name. regenerates that signal, then forwards the signal
- Logical Topology - it’s the signal path through a out the other port without looking at any data.
physical topology.​ - A hub does the same thing across all active ports:
any digital signal received from a segment on a hub
• Logical Link Control (LLC) - Responsible for port is regenerated or reamplified and transmitted
identifying Network layer protocols and then out all other ports on the hub.​
encapsulating them. ​
- An LLC header tells the Data Link layer what to do ​
with a packet once a frame is received. ​
Topologies at the Physical layer​ Extra Notes:​
• The physical topology of a network refers to the ​
physical layout of the 1. Cloud - Ginagamit para hindi na pupunta
devices, but mostly the cabling and cabling layout. physically sa isang unit kung saan walang internet ​
• The logical topology defines the logical path on
which the signal will travel 2. Characteristics of Router:​
on the physical topology.​ - Giving signals to a device​
- Filtering​
Topology Types - Configure​
Bus: In a bus topology, every workstation is - Giving IP Address​
connected to a single cable, meaning every host is ​
directly connected to every other workstation in the 3. IPv4 has only 32 bite and it has 8 bite and
network.​ maximum is into 255 per bite​
​
Ring: In a ring topology, computers and other 4. IPv6 has only 128 bite
network devices are cabled together in a way that ​
the last device is connected to the first to form a 5. Radio Frequency - Antena​
circle or ring.​ ​
​ 6. Router > Switch > Patch Panel > Access Point​
Star: The most common physical topology is a star ​
topology, which is your Ethernet switching physical 7. Example ng mga Duplex​
layout. A central cabling device (switch) connects Simplex = -> ​
the computers and other network devices together. Half-duplex = - - -> < - - - ​
This category includes star and extended star Full-duplex = —--> <—---​
topologies. Physical connection is commonly made ​
using twisted-pair wiring.​ 8. There are Five Class ID
- A to E​
Mesh: In a mesh topology, every network device is
cabled together with connection to each other.
Redundant links increase reliability and
self-healing. The physical connection is commonly
made using fiber or twisted-pair wiring.​

Hybrid: Ethernet uses a physical star layout

(cables come from all directions), and the signal
travels end-to-end, like a bus route.​
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