PRINCIPLES OF

THERMODYNAMICS
MIE 2203
Heat

Natukunda Faith
Chapter Aims

• Heat transfer modes,

Explain key
concepts related • heat transfer rate,
to energy and
the first law of
• power cycle,
thermodynamics refrigeration cycle,
and heat pump cycle.
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Heat • Heat is a form of energy that is transferred
across a boundary by virtue of a temperature
difference.
• It is measured in joules (J)

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 • The heat capacity of a substance is the energy needed to change its
temperature by 1 K (1 0C)

Quantity • Unit: Joule per Kelvin (J K-1)

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 (𝑄) = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐶) × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (∆𝜃)
of Heat 𝐶=
𝑄
𝐽/𝐾
∆𝜃
• Specific Heat Capacity (c): This is the amount of heat energy required to
change the temperature of one kilogram of the substance by one Kelvin.
• Unit: Joule per kilogram per Kelvin J kg-1 K-1
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑄)
= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚) × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑐)
× 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (∆𝜃)
𝑄
𝑐 = 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑚∆𝜃
• Note: 𝐶 = 𝑚𝑐
• Where C = Heat capacity, m = mass, c = Specific Heat Capacity
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Heat change without change in
Temperature
• The Latent Heat (L) of a substance is the heat energy needed
to change the state of a substance without a change in
temperature. Unit = Joule J
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚 × 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 (𝐿)
• The specific Latent Heat of Fusion is the amount of heat
energy required to change 1kg of the substance from a solid to
a liquid, without changing its temperature. Unit: Joule per
kilogram (J kg-1)
• The specific Latent Heat of Vaporisation is the amount of heat
energy required to change 1kg of the substance from a liquid
to a gas, without changing its temperature. Unit: Joule per
kilogram (J kg-1)
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Heat Transfer, Q
• Heat transfer only occurs at the boundary of a
system.
• The direction of heat transfer is from the high
temperature system to the low temperature
system.
• The temperature difference is the ‘potential’ or
‘force’ and heat transfer is the ‘flux’
• Heat flow into a system (heat gain) is positive
• Heat flow out of a system (heat loss) is negative
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 Heat transfer can be written as
Heat Transfer, Q •
an integral product of the
intensive property T and
differential change of an
extensive property Χ like
entropy, s
2 2 2
𝑄1−2 = න 𝛿𝑄 = න 𝑇 𝑑Χ = න 𝑇 𝑑𝑆
1 1 1
• Heat transfer is an inexact
differential.
• It is a path function.
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Modes of Heat transfer
For any particular application, energy transfer by heat
can occur by one or more of three modes:
• conduction
• radiation
• convection

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 • Conduction is the transfer of energy from more
Conduction energetic particles of a substance to less energetic
adjacent particles due to interactions between them.
• The time rate of energy transfer by conduction is
quantified by Fourier’s law.
• An application of Fourier’s law to a plane wall at
steady state is shown in the figure.
𝑑𝑇
ሶ
𝑄𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
• By Fourier’s law, the rate of heat transfer across any
plane normal to the x direction, 𝑄ሶ 𝑥 is proportional to
the wall area, 𝐴, and the temperature gradient in the
𝑑𝑇
x direction, .
𝑑𝑥
•kis a proportionality constant; a property of the wall
material called the thermal conductivity.
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Conduction
• The minus sign is a consequence of energy transfer in the
direction of decreasing temperature.
• Inthis case, temperature varies linearly with x, and thus
𝑑𝑇 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
= (< 0)
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
• and gives
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑄ሶ 𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴
𝐿

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 • Thermal radiation is energy transported by
Thermal electromagnetic waves (or photons).

Radiation • Unlike conduction, thermal radiation requires no

intervening medium and can take place in a vacuum.
• The time rate of energy transfer by radiation is
quantified by expressions developed from the
Stefan-Boltzman law.
• An application involving net radiation exchange
between a surface at temperature 𝑇𝑏 and a much
larger surface at 𝑇𝑠 < 𝑇𝑏 is shown below is given by
𝑄ሶ 𝑒 = 𝜀𝜎𝐴 𝑇𝑏4 − 𝑇𝑠4
Where A is the area of the smaller surface, 𝜀 is a
property of the surface called its emissivity, 𝜎 is the
Stefan-Boltzman constant.
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 • Convection is energy transfer between a solid surface
and an adjacent gas or liquid by the combined effects
Convection of conduction and bulk flow within the gas or liquid.
• The rate of energy transfer by convection is quantified
by Newton’s law of cooling.
• An application involving energy transfer by convection
from a transistor to air passing over it is shown in the
figure.
• Energy is transferred in the direction of the arrow and
quantified by
𝑄ሶ 𝑐 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑓
• A is the area of the transistor’s surface and h is an
empirical parameter called the convection heat transfer
coefficient.
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Thermodynamic Cycles
• A thermodynamic cycle is a sequence of processes
that begins and ends at the same state.
• Examples of thermodynamic cycles include
• Power cycles that develop a net energy transfer by work
in the form of electricity using an energy input by heat
transfer from hot combustion gases.
• Refrigeration cycles that provide cooling for a refrigerated
space using an energy input by work in the form of
electricity.
• Heat pump cycles that provide heating to a dwelling using
an energy input by work in the form of electricity.
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 • The energy transfers by heat and work shown on
Power Cycle the figure are each positive in the direction of the
accompanying arrow. This convention is
commonly used for analysis of thermodynamic
cycles.
• 𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 is the net energy transfer by work from the
system per cycle of operation
• in the form of electricity, typically.
• 𝑄𝑖𝑛 is the heat transfer of energy to the system per
cycle from the hot body
• drawn from hot gases of combustion or solar
radiation.
• 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the heat transfer of energy from the system
per cycle to the cold body
• discharged to the surrounding atmosphere or nearby
lake or river.
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Power Cycle
• Applying the closed system energy balance to each cycle
of operation,
∆𝐸𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑄𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
• Since the system returns to its initial state after each cycle,
there is no net change in its energy: ∆𝐸𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 0, and the
energy balance reduces to give
𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
• Thus, the net energy transfer by work from the system
equals the net energy transfer by heat to the system, each
per cycle of operation.
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Power Cycle
• The performance of a system undergoing a power cycle is evaluated on
an energy basis in terms of the extent to which the energy added by
heat, 𝑄𝑖𝑛 , is converted to a net work output, 𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 . This is represented
by the ratio
𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝜂= (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)
𝑄𝑖𝑛
• called the thermal efficiency.
• An alternative form is obtained
𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= =1− (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛
• Using the second law of thermodynamics, we will show that the value of
thermal efficiency must be less than unity: 𝜂 < 1 (< 100%).
• That is, only a portion of the energy added by heat, 𝑄𝑖𝑛 , can be obtained as
work. The remainder, 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 , is discharged.

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Power Cycle - Example
• A system undergoes a power cycle while receiving 1000 kJ by
heat transfer from hot combustion gases at a temperature of 500
K and discharging 600 kJ by heat transfer to the atmosphere at
300 K. Taking the combustion gases and atmosphere as the hot
and cold bodies, respectively, determine for the cycle, the net
work developed, in kJ, and the thermal efficiency.
• Substituting into 𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 ,
𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 1000 𝑘𝐽 − 600 𝑘𝐽 = 400 𝑘𝐽
𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 400 𝑘𝐽
• Then, 𝜂 = ,𝜂= = 0.4 (40%)
𝑄𝑖𝑛 1000 𝑘𝐽
• Note the thermal efficiency is commonly reported on a percent
basis.

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Refrigeration • A system undergoing a refrigeration cycle is
shown in the figure.
Cycle • As before, the energy transfers are each
positive in the direction of the accompanying
arrow.
• 𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 is the net energy transfer by work to the
system per cycle of operation
• usually in the form of electricity.
• 𝑄𝑖𝑛 is the heat transfer of energy to the system
per cycle from the cold body
• drawn from a freezer compartment.
• 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the heat transfer of energy from the
system per cycle to the hot body
• discharged to the space surrounding the
refrigerator.
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Refrigeration Cycle
• Since the system returns to its initial state after each cycle,
there is no net change in its energy: Δ𝐸𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 0, and
• The energy balance reduces to give
𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛
• Thus, the net energy transfer by work to the system equals
the net energy transfer by heat from the system, each per
cycle of operation.

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Refrigeration Cycle
• The performance of a system undergoing a refrigeration cycle is
evaluated on an energy basis as the ratio of energy drawn from
the cold body, Qin, to the net work required to accomplish this
effect, 𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 :
𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝛽= (𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)
𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
• called the coefficient of performance for the refrigeration cycle.
• An alternative form is obtained
𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝛽= (𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛
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Heat Pump • The heat pump cycle analysis closely parallels
Cycle that given for the refrigeration cycle.
• But now the focus is on 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 , which is the heat
transfer of energy from the system per cycle to
the hot body
• such as to the living space of a dwelling.
• 𝑄𝑖𝑛 is the heat transfer of energy to the system
per cycle from the cold body
• drawn from the surrounding atmosphere or the ground.
• As before, 𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 is the net energy transfer by
work to the system per cycle,
• usually provided in the form of electricity.
• As for the refrigeration cycle, the energy balance
reads
𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛
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Heat Pump Cycle
• The performance of a system undergoing a heat pump cycle is
evaluated on an energy basis as the ratio of energy provided to
the hot body, 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 , to the net work required to accomplish this
effect, 𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 :
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝛾= (ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)
𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
• called the coefficient of performance for the heat pump cycle.
• An alternative form is obtained
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝛾= (ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛

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Heat Pump Cycle - Example
• A system undergoes a heat pump cycle while discharging 900
kJ by heat transfer to a dwelling at 20oC and receiving 600 kJ
by heat transfer from the outside air at 5oC. Taking the dwelling
and outside air as the hot and cold bodies, respectively,
determine for the cycle, the net work input, in kJ, and the
coefficient of performance.
• Substituting into 𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛 ,
𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 900 𝑘𝐽 − 600 𝑘𝐽 = 300 𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 900 𝑘𝐽
• Then, 𝛾= , 𝛾= =3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑄𝑖𝑛 300 𝑘𝐽
• Note the coefficient of performance is reported as its numerical
value, as calculated here.

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Similarities between Heat and Work
• Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a
system and its surroundings.
1. Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they
cross the boundaries. That is, both heat and work are
boundary phenomena.
2. Systems possess energy but not heat or work.
3. Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike
properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state.
4. Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the
path followed during a process as well as the end states).
5. Both are energy interactions

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Question
• It is required to melt 5 tonnes/h of iron from a charge at
15 ℃ to molten metal at 1650 ℃. The melting point is
1535 ℃, and the latent heat is 270 kJ/kg. the specific
heat in solid state is 0.502 and in liquid state
(29.93/atomic weight) kJ/kgK. If an electric furnace has
70% efficiency, find the kW rating needed.
• If the density in molten state is 6900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and the
bath volume is three times the hourly melting rate, find
the dimensions of the cylindrical furnace if the length to
diameter ratio is 2. The atomic weight of iron is 56.
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