EXPERIMENT-1

DETERMINATION OF YBUS USING INSPECTION METHOD

AIM:-TO FORM Y-BUS MATRIX FOR THE GIVEN 5-BUS SYSTEM.

MATLAB PROGRAM:-

clear;
clc;
basemva =100;
nbus=5;
linedata=[ 1 2 0.02 0.06 0.03 1
1 3 0.08 0.24 0.025 1
2 3 0.06 0.18 0.02 1
2 4 0.06 0.18 0.02 1
2 5 0.04 0.12 0.015 1
3 4 0.01 0.03 0.01 1
4 5 0.08 0.24 0.025 1];
nline=length(linedata(:,1));
j=sqrt(-1);
for k = 1:nline
lp(k)=linedata(k,1);
lq(k)=linedata(k,2);
r(k)=linedata(k,3);
x(k)=linedata(k,4);
ysh(k)=linedata(k,5);
a(k)=linedata(k,6);
z(k)=r(k)+j*x(k);
y(k)=1/z(k);
end
ybus=zeros(nbus,nbus);
for k=1:nline
ylp(k) =[1/(a(k)^2)-1/a(k)]*y(k);
ylq(k)=[1-1/a(k)]*y(k);
y(k)=y(k)/a(k);
end
for k=1:nline
ybus(lp(k),lq(k))=ybus(lp(k),lq(k))-y(k);
ybus(lq(k),lp(k))= ybus(lp(k),lq(k));
ybus(lp(k),lp(k))=ybus(lp(k),lp(k))+y(k)+ylp(k)+j*ysh(k);
ybus(lq(k),lq(k))=ybus(lq(k),lq(k))+y(k)+ylq(k)+j*ysh(k);

end
ybus

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2
 EXPERIMENT-2
FORMATION OF ZBUS USING ZBUS BUILDING ALGORITHM

AIM:- To Form ZBus using ZBus building algorithm.

MATLAB PROGRAM:-

clear all;
close all;
clc;
zbus=[0];
q=1;
j=sqrt(-1);
i=0;
while q==1
Case = input('which case is to be implemented=')
if Case == 1
if i==0
zb= input('Enter the value of impedance=')
zbus=[zb]
end
if i>0
zb=input('Enter the value of impedance=')
l=Length(zb1);
for d=1: l+1
for e=i: l+1
if d<=1 && e<=1
zbus1(d,e)=zb1(d,e);
end
if d== l +1 && e== l +1
zbus1(d,e)=zb;
end
if d== l +1 && d~=e || e== l +1 && d~=e
zbus1(d,e)=0;
end
end
end
zbus=[zbus1]
end
end
if Case == 2
z_new =input('Enter the value of impedance for new bus =')
m= length(zbus);
for a=1:m
for b=1:m
z_temp(a,b) = zbus(a,b)
end

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 end
for c = 1:m
z_temp(c,m+1) =zbus(c,m);
z_temp(m+1,c) =zbus(c,m);
z_temp(m+1,m+1)= zbus(m,m)+z_new;
end
zbus = [z_temp]
i = i+1;
end
if Case == 3
z_new = input('Enter the value of impedance =');
m = length(zbus);
for a=1:m
for b=1:m
z_temp(a,b) = zbus(a,b);
end
end
for c = 1:m
z_temp(c,m+1) = zbus(c,m);
z_temp(m+1,c) = zbus(m,c);
z_temp(m+1,m+1) = zbus(m,m)+z_new;
end
zbus = [z_temp];
m = length(zbus);
for i=1:m-1
for k =1:m-1
z(i,k) = zbus(i,k) - ((zbus(i,m)*zbus(m,k))/zbus(m,m));
end
end
zbus = [z]
end
if Case == 4
z1 = input('Enter the value of impedance = ');
j = input('Enter the value of bus j = ');
k = input('Enter the value of bus k = ');
m = length(zbus);
for a=1:m
for b=1:m
z_temp(a,b) = zbus(a,b);
end
end
for c = 1:m
z_temp(c,m+1) = zbus(c,j)-zbus(c,k);
z_temp(m+1,c) = z_temp(c,m+1);
end
z_temp(m+1,m+1) = z1+zbus(j,j)+zbus(k,k)-2*zbus(j,k);
zbus = [z_temp];

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 m = length(zbus);
for i=1:m-1
for k = 1:m-1
z(i,k) = zbus(i,k) - ((zbus(i,m)*zbus(m,k))/zbus(m,m));
end
end
zbus = [z]
end
q = input('do you want to quit = ');
zb1 = [zbus];
end

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EXPERIMENT-3

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 GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD
Aim : To conduct Load Flow analysis for the given 4-Bus system using Gauss-Seidel method
% Y-BUS FORMATION
clear;
clc;
basemva=100;
% n code v delta Pg Qg Pd Qd Qmin Qmax Qsh
busdata = [ 1 0 1.04 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 1.04 0 100 0 50 0 20 100 0
3 2 1.00 0 0 0 100 -50 0 0 0
4 2 1.00 0 0 0 -30 10 0 0 0];
% lp lq r x ysh tap
linedata =[ 1 2 0.05 0.15 0.0 1
1 3 0.1 0.3 0.0 1
2 3 0.15 0.45 0.0 1
2 4 0.1 0.3 0.0 1
3 4 0.05 0.15 0.0 1];
nline=length(linedata(:,1));
j=sqrt(-1);
i=sqrt(-1);
for k=1:nline
lp(k)=linedata(k,1);
lq(k)=linedata(k,2);
r(k)=linedata(k,3);
x(k)=linedata(k,4);
ysh(k)=linedata(k,5);
a(k)=linedata(k,6);
z(k)= r(k)+j*x(k);
y(k)=1/z(k);
end
nbus=length(busdata(:,2));
ybus=zeros(nbus,nbus);
% PI METHOD FOR OFF-NOMINAL ADMITTANCE OF TRANSFORMER
for k=1:nline
ylp(k)=[1/(a(k)^2)-1/a(k)]*y(k);
ylq(k)=[1-1/a(k)]*y(k);
y(k)=y(k)/a(k);

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end
for k=1:nline
ybus(lp(k),lq(k))=ybus(lp(k),lq(k))-y(k);
ybus(lq(k),lp(k))=ybus(lp(k),lq(k));
ybus(lp(k),lp(k))=ybus(lp(k),lp(k))+y(k)+ylp(k)+0.5*j*ysh(k);
ybus(lq(k),lq(k))=ybus(lq(k),lq(k))+y(k)+ylq(k)+0.5*j*ysh(k);
end
% Load flow solution by Gauss-Seidel Method
nbus=length(busdata(:,1));
for n=1:nbus
bus(n)=busdata(n,1);
kb(n)=busdata(n,2);
vm(n)=busdata(n,3);
delta(n)=busdata(n,4);
Pg(n)=busdata(n,5);
Qg(n)=busdata(n,6);
Pd(n)=busdata(n,7);
Qd(n)=busdata(n,8);
Qmin(n)=busdata(n,9);
Qmax(n)=busdata(n,10);
Qsh(n)=busdata(n,11);
delta(n)=pi/180*delta(n);
e(n)=vm(n)*cos(delta(n))+j*vm(n)*sin(delta(n));
P(n)=(Pg(n)-Pd(n))/basemva;
Q(n)=(Qg(n)-Qd(n))/basemva;
S(n)=P(n)+j*Q(n);
dv(n)=0;
end
maxerror=0.1;
iter=0;
for n=1:nbus
vc(n)=0+0*j;
vnew(n)=0+0*j;

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 end
while (maxerror>0.00001 & iter<15)
for m=1:nbus
for n=1:nbus
yv(n)=0+0*j;
end
if kb(m)==0 % Slack bus
vc(m)=vm(m);
e(m)=vc(m) ;
end
if kb(m)==2 %Load bus
(k+1 ) 1
%V p = ¿
Y pp
for k=1:nbus
if k~=m
yv(m)=yv(m)+ybus(m,k)*e(k);
end
end
vc(m)=(conj(S(m))/conj(e(m))-yv(m))/ybus(m,m);
% Vp(k+1) (accelerated) = Vp(k) + a (Vpk+1 -Vpk)
error(m)=abs(vc(m)-e(m));
e(m)=e(m)+1.4*(vc(m)-e(m));
end
if kb(m)==1 %Generator bus
n
% Ip = ∑ Y pq V q
q =1

% Ip = YppVp + ∑ Y pq V q
q =1
q≠ p
% S = VI*; S* = V*I; P - jQ = V*I ; Q = - imag (V*I)
n

% Qp = -imag [Vp*. (YppVp + ∑ Y pq V q ¿ ]

q =1
q≠ p
for k=1:nbus
if k~=m
yv(m)=yv(m)+ybus(m,k)*e(k);
end

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 end
cos(m)=real(e(m))/abs(e(m));
sin(m)=imag(e(m))/abs(e(m));
e(m)=vm(m)*cos(m)+j*vm(m)*sin(m);
Qnew(m)=-imag(conj(e(m))*(yv(m)+ybus(m,m)*e(m)))*100;
if(Qnew(m))<Qmin(m)
Q(m)=Qmin(m)/basemva;
S(m)=P(m)+j*Q(m);
e(m)=1.0+0*j;
vc(m)=((conj(S(m))/conj(e(m)))-yv(m))/ybus(m,m);
e(m)=e(m)+1.4*(vc(m)-e(m));
elseif Qnew(m) >Qmax(m)
Q(m)=Qmax(m)/basemva;
S(m)=P(m)+j*Q(m);
e(m)=1+0*j;
vc(m)=((conj(S(m))/conj(e(m)))-yv(m))/ybus(m,m);
e(m)=e(m)+1.4*(vc(m)-e(m));
else
Q(m)=Qnew(m)/basemva;
S(m)=P(m)+j*Q(m);
vc(m)=((conj(S(m))/conj(e(m)))-yv(m))/ybus(m,m);
% Vi (new) = Vispecified Cosm
cos(m)=real(vc(m))/(abs(vc(m)));
sin(m)=imag(vc(m))/(abs(vc(m)));
vnew(m)=vm(m)*cos(m)+j*vm(m)*sin(m);
e(m)=vnew(m);
end
end
end
maxerror=max(error);
iter=iter+1;
iter
e
end

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 % CALCULATION OF LINE POWER FLOWS
ysh=zeros(nbus,nbus);
yln=zeros(nbus,nbus);
for k=1:nline
yln(lp(k),lq(k))=yln(lp(k),lq(k))+y(k);
yln(lq(k),lp(k))=yln(lp(k),lq(k));
ysh(lp(k),lq(k))=ysh(lp(k),lq(k))+j*ysh(k);
ysh(lq(k),lp(k))=ysh(lp(k),lq(k));
end
for i=1:nbus
for k=1:nbus
sln(i,k)=0+0*i;
end
end
% Spq = VI* = {Vp [(Vp -Vq )*Y*lnpq]+ Vp.Vp*Y*shpq}
for m=1:nbus
for n=1:nbus
sln(m,n)=((e(m)*(conj(e(m))-conj(e(n)))*conj(yln(m,n)))+
(e(m)*conj(e(m))*conj(ysh(m,n))))*basemva;
end
end
sln

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 EXPERIMENT - 4
SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS IN A POWER SYSTEM

Aim : To analyze various types of faults in Transmission line model.

Procedure:

Fig.1 Simulink model

1. Open Simulink library browser from MATLAB
2. From simulink library browser, create a new model from the file menu.
3. Select the “sim Power systems” toolbox from simulink library browser
4. Place Three phase inductive source (generator), distributed parameter line, 3-ph
RLC series branch and 3-phase fault in the workspace
5. Interconnect the Components to form the network as given in the Fig. (1)
6. Choose ground input and ground output appropriately.
7. Select “three-phase inductive source (generator)” and specify the parameters
Source voltage : 11kV
Frequency : 50Hz
Source positive sequence impedance : 1.0 +j 0.25
Source zero sequence impedance : 0.001+j 0.05
* Convert reactance to Inductance
8. Select “Distributed parameters line” as transmission line and specify the
parameters
Length of the line : 10 km
Positive sequence impedance of the line : 1.0 + j 0.10

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 Zero sequence impedance of the line : 1.0 + j 0.30
* Convert impedance to Inductance/kilometer and resistance/ kilometer Apply a
very minimal value for capacitance may be give n, so that it can be neglected
(approximately 0.000001)
9. Select “Series RLC Branch” as load and specify the parameters
Positive sequence: 3+j0.25
* Convert reactance to Inductance
10. Select “Three phase fault” block to form SLG fault and specify the parameters
Select phase A to ground fault
Fault resistance : 0.01ohms
Ground resistance: 0.01ohms
The fault transition time shall be 0.1s and 0.3s.
11. Measurements blocks are connected suitably to show the current and voltage
waveforms
12. Setup the simulation time as 4seconds and obtain the waveforms of the fault
current and the phase to ground voltages.

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17
 EXPERIMENT-5
TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS BY “POINT BY POINT METHOD”
Aim: To perform transient stability analysis and draw Swing Curve for the given power
system Network by Point by Point Method.
clear;
clc;
t=0;
tf=0;
tfinal=0.5;
tc=0.125; %(FOR FAULT CLEARED AT 2.5 CYCLES:tc=0.05,
6.25CYCLES:tc=0.125, SUSTAINED FAULT:tc=0.5to1.0)
tstep=0.05;
M=2.52/(180*50); % M = H/πf
i=2;
delta=21.64*pi/180;
ddelta=0;
time(1)=0;
ang(1)=21.64;
pm=0.9;
pmaxbf=2.44;
pmaxdf=0.88;
pmaxaf=2.00;
d2 δ
M 2 =Ps −Pe =Pa
dt
%
d2 δ
M =Ps −Pm Sin δ
dt 2
%
% M: Moment of Inertia ;  : Torque angle; Ps = Shaft Power,
% Pe = Electromagnetic Power ; Pa : Accelerating Power
while t<tfinal
if t==tf
paminus=0.9-pmaxbf*sin(delta);
paplus=0.9-pmaxdf*sin(delta);
paav=(paminus+paplus)/2;
pa=paav;

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 end
if(t==tc)
paminus=0.9-pmaxdf*sin(delta);
paplus=0.9-pmaxaf*sin(delta);
paav=(paminus+paplus)/2;
pa=paav;
end
if(t>tf&t<tc)
pa=0.9-pmaxdf*sin(delta);
end
if(t>tc)
pa=0.9-pmaxaf*sin(delta);
end
t
pa
% ∆n = ∆n-1 + [Pa(n-1). ∆t2]/M
ddelta=ddelta+(tstep*tstep*pa/M);
% n = n-1 + ∆n
delta=(delta*180/pi+ddelta)*pi/180;
deltadeg=delta*180/pi;
t=t+tstep;
pause
time(i)=t;
ang(i)=deltadeg
i=i+1;
end
axis ([0 0.6 0 160])
plot(time,ang,'ko-')
grid

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 EXPERIMENT-6
CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS

Aim : To perform contingency analysis for a given 4-bus system.

Software required: Power World Simulator
Bus data:

Line data:

Power World Simulator diagram:

24
Procedure:
1. Open Power World Simulator.
2. Click on ‘File’ tab on top right corner of the simulator window.
3. Select ‘New Case’ and click on it. This opens a new .pwd file where various components of
the power system are to be placed and connected.
4. Select ‘Edit Mode’.
5. Click on ‘Draw’ tab.
6. Click on ‘Network’ icon.
7. Select a ‘Bus’ from components listed under ‘Network’ icon and place it in the presently
opened .pwd file. A dialogue box corresponding to this bus bar is opened, in which name
of the bus bar (if any), voltage rating (in kV), etc., can be given. Select ‘System Slack bus’
option under the ‘Bus Information’ tab in the dialogue box. Specify the Voltage
magnitude (in pu) and Voltage angle (in degrees) in this tab.
8. Select rest of the buses in the system from components listed under ‘Network’ icon and
place them in the presently opened .pwd file. Mention Voltage magnitude (in pu) if the
selected bus is a PV bus else leave the default value (flat voltage profile) unchanged.
9. Select a ‘Transmission Line’ from components listed under ‘Network’ icon and place it in
between respective buses in the presently opened .pwd file by first clicking on the
sending end bus, moving the mouse to increase the visible length of the line and double

25
 clicking on the receiving end bus. A dialogue box corresponding to this line is opened, in
which the series resistance, series reactance, shunt conductance, shunt susceptance, line

limits, etc., can be given.

10. Select a ‘Generator’ from components listed under ‘Network’ icon and place it on the
respective bus in the presently opened .pwd file. A dialogue box corresponding to this
generator is opened, in which the MW and MVAR values, MW and MVAR limits, set
point voltage magnitude (in pu), etc., can be given.
11. Click on ‘Run’ mode.
12. Click on ‘Tools’ tab.
13. Click on a play button symbol to simulate the load flows and ensure the connectivity
through current flow.
14. If the current flow is seen in all the lines, click on pause button beside play button to
pause the simulation.
15. Click on ‘Contingency Analysis’ under ‘Tools’ tab.
16. Right click on the ‘Contingency Analysis’ sub-window opened in Step 15.
17. Select ‘Insert Special’ and then ‘Auto Insert Contingencies…’
18. Click on ‘Single transmission line’ in the dialogue box opened in step 17.
19. Click on ‘Do Insert Contingency records’ and then click on ‘Yes’ tab in sub-dialogue box.
20. Right click again on the ‘Contingency Analysis’ sub-window.
21. Repeat Step 17.
22. Click on ‘Single generating unit’ in the dialogue box opened in step 21.
23. Repeat Step 19.
24. Right click again on the ‘Contingency Analysis’ sub-window.
25. Select ‘Contingency records’ and then ‘Run Contingency Analysis’.
26. Observe the violations under ‘Violation’ column in ‘Contingency Analysis’ sub-window.
27. Click on a red coloured number in ‘Violation’ column to observe details of violation
(voltage at a particular bus, power flow in a particular line, etc.).

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 EXPERIMENT-7
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RELIABILITY ANALYSIS

AIM:-To apply cutset approach to 6-bus RDS using MATLAB programming and to validate
results for performance indices with theoretical calculations.

Reliability Evaluation
A Radial Distribution System consists of a set of series components, including lines,
cables, disconnects (or isolators), bus bars, etc. A customer connected to any load point
of such a system requires all components between customer and the supply point to be
operating. Consequently the principle of series systems can be applied directly to these
systems.
Load Point Indices
It is important to mention that load point indices are vital to calculate system reliability indices.
These load point indices are characterized as:
1) Average failure rate (λ): Frequency of interruption the load point has suffered over a
Particular period.
2) Average outage time (r): The average outage time for each interruption over a particular
Period.

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3) Average annual outage time (U): Average unavailability time for load point due to all
Interruption suffered over the reporting epoch.
The following Equations describe the mathematical representation of load point indices.

Where λsys,i is the system failure rate at ith load point,

Usys,i is system annual outage duration at ith load point,
λk, rk are the failure rate and average repair time of kth distributor segment,
S is the set of distributor segments connected in series upto ith load point.
The reliability indices that have been evaluated using classical concepts are the three
primary ones of average failure rate, average outage duration and average annual
unavailability or average annual outage time.
Customer Orientated Indices: The Customer orientated indices that are most commonly
used are defined as
System Average Interruption Frequency Index, SAIFI:
This index counts the average number of sustained interruptions (more than 5 min)
during the reporting period (usually annual). This is one of the mostly used indices by
utilities. It is given by

Total Number of Customer Interruptions

SAIFI =
Total Number of Customers Served f/yr
where Ni is the number of customers of load point i.
System Average Interruption Duration Index, SAIDI:

SAIDI is also very commonly used. It is the average duration of an interruption and is

usually reported annually. It is given by

29
 Total Duration of Customer Interruptions
SAIDI=
Total Number of Customers Served hr/yr

Customer Average Interruption Duration Index, CAIDI:

It describes the duration of an average customer suffering from interruption. It is given

by

Total Duration of Customer Interruptions

CAIDI=
Total Number of Customer Interruptions hr

Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index, CAIFI:

This describes the average interruption frequency for customers who were counted as

suffering from interruption only once. It is given by

Total Number of Customer Interruptions

CAIFI =
Total Number of Customers Affected

Average Service Availability Index, ASAI:

Customer Hours Service Availability

ASAI=
Customer Hours Service Demand

Average Service Unavailability Index, ASUI:

Customer Hours Service Unavailability

ASUI=1− ASAI =
Customer Hours Service Demand
Where 8760 is the number of hours in a calendar year.
The system performance is assessed because of the following three important reasons:
 It establishes the chronological changes in system performance and therefore helps to
identify weak areas and the need for reinforcement.
 It establishes existing indices which serve as a guide for acceptable values in future
reliability assessments.
 It enables previous predictions to be compared with actual operating experience.
Cutset Approach

30
 A cut set is a set of system components which, when fail, cause failure of the entire
system.
Minimal cut set:A minimal cut set is a set of system components which, when fail, cause
failure of the entire system; but when any one component in the set does not fail, the
system will not fail as a whole.
From the definition, all components of each cut set must fail in order for the system to
fail. Consequently, the components in one cut set are effectively connected in parallel.
Furthermore, if there are more than one cut set, then the system fails if all the
components in any one of the cut sets fails. Hence, all the cut sets are effectively
connected in series. Therefore, given a system/network, one can obtain a simple
parallel-series model based on the cut sets for the reliability analysis.

Fig.1 Minimal Cutset diagram

MATLAB PROGRAM:-
clc
clear all
nbus=6;
n=5;
m=[1;2;3;4;3];
l=[0.05 0 0 0
0.05 0.3 0 0
0.05 0.3 0.22 0
0.05 0.3 0.22 0.23
0.05 0.3 0.51 0 ];
r=[1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 0.5 0
1 1 0.5 0.5
1 1 0.5 0 ];
Nc=[500;400;600;350;350];
for j=1:n
ls=0;
lr=0;
for i=1:m(j)
ls=ls+l(j,i);

31
 lr=lr+(l(j,i)*r(j,i));
end
lx(j)=ls;
rx(j)=lr/ls;
ux(j)=lr;
end
Rdata=zeros(n,3);
for j=1:n
Rdata(j,1)=lx(j);
Rdata(j,2)=ux(j);
Rdata(j,3)=Nc(j);
end
x1=0;
x2=0;
x3=0;
for i=1:length(Rdata(:,1))
x1=x1+(Rdata(i,1)*Rdata(i,3));
x2=x2+(Rdata(i,2)*Rdata(i,3));
x3=x3+(Rdata(i,3));
end
lx
rx
ux
SAIFI=x1/x3
SAIDI=x2/x3
CAIDI=SAIDI/SAIFI
x4=x3*8760;
ASAI=(x4-x2)/x4
ASUI=1-ASAI

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 EXPERIMENT-8
ECONOMIC DISPATCH OF THERMAL UNITS
AIM: To perform economic dispatch of thermal units using MATLAB programming.
Software Used: MATLAB
Theory:
Scheduling is the process of allocation of generation among different generating units.
Economic dispatch is cost effect mode of allocation of generation among different units in
such a way that the overall cost of generation should be minimum. For economic dispatch
there are 3 methods.
1) Analytic Method
2) Graphical Method
3) λ- iterative Method
These methods to be adopted depends on
a) No. of generating Units
b) Incremental fuel cost curves
c) Mathematical formulation
ALGORITHM:
1. Read the given cost data and find number of generators
2. Read the values of a,b,d, po,E, Pgi(min),Pgi(max) and ∆λ.

36
 3. Choose a suitable value of lamda.
4. Set generator counti=1.
5. Compute Pgi.
6. Check whether Pgi is greater than Pgi(max).
7. If yes then set Pgi=Pgi(max).
8. If no check whether Pgi is less than Pgi(min).
9. If yes then set Pgi=Pgi(min).
10. If no then increment i=i+1.
11. Check i=n or not.
12. If yes then compute ∆p=[ƩPgi-pd].
13. If no go to step no.5.
14. Check if ∆p<E.
15. If yes then print power generations of all units and compute cost of generation.
16. If no check ƩPgi>pd
17. If yes decrease λ by ∆λ i.e. λ=λ-∆λ
18. If no increase λ by ∆λ i.e λ=λ+∆λ
19. Go to step no.3 and repeat the procedure until the last generator done.
MATLAB PROGRAM:
clc
clear all
pd=259; % 259 MW
costdata=[ 1 0.074 1.083 100
2 0.089 1.033 70
3 0.074 1.083 100
4 0.089 1.033 70
5 0.053 1.17 40];
ng=length(costdata(:,1));
uno=costdata(:,1);
a=costdata(:,2);
b=costdata(:,3);
c=costdata(:,4);
lambda=1;

37
delp=0.001;
dellambda=0;
iter=0;
while abs(delp)>=0.001
iter=iter+1;
lambda=lambda+dellambda;
sum=0;
totgam=0;

for i=1:ng
p(i)=(lambda-b(i))/(2*a(i));
sum=sum+p(i);
totgam=totgam+0.5*(1/a(i));
end
delp=pd-sum;
dellambda=delp/totgam;
end
p'
num=1./(2*a);
pf=num/totgam

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39
 EXPERIMENT - 9
FDLF METHOD FOR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
clear;
clc;
rxratio=1.5;
% n v delta pd qd ysh
busdata=[ 1 1.05 0 0.000 0.000 0
2 1.00 0 0.278 0.069 0
3 1.00 0 0.442 0.084 0
4 1.00 0 0.195 0.066 0
5 1.00 0 0.149 0.05 0
6 1.00 0 0.26 0.016 0.5 ];
% lp lq z
linedata=[ 1 2 0.052
2 3 0.035
2 4 0.0645
4 5 0.0117
4 6 0.075 ];
nline=length(linedata(:,1));

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nbus=length(busdata(:,1));
j=sqrt(-1);
for k=1:nline
lp(k)=linedata(k,1);
lq(k)=linedata(k,2);
z(k)=linedata(k,3);
x(k)=sqrt((z(k)^2)/(((rxratio)^2)+1));
r(k)=rxratio*x(k);
z(k)=r(k)+j*x(k);
y(k)=1/z(k); %branch admittance
end
%initiation of G MATRIX
G=zeros(nbus,nbus);
%finding off diagonal elements of G MATRIX
for k=1:nline
G(lp(k),lq(k))=G(lp(k),lq(k))-real(y(k));
G(lq(k),lp(k))=G(lp(k),lq(k));
end
%finding diagonal elements of G MATRIX
for n=1:nbus
for k=1:nline
if ((lp(k)==n)||(lq(k)==n))
G(n,n)=G(n,n)+real(y(k));
end
end
end
invG=inv(G(2:nbus,2:nbus));
%reading the bus data
for k=1:nbus
bus(k)=busdata(k,1);
vm(k)=busdata(k,2);
delta(k)=busdata(k,3);
pd(k)=busdata(k,4);
qd(k)=busdata(k,5);

41
 delta=pi/180*delta;
end
maxerror=1;
iter=0;
while(maxerror>0.0001 & iter<30)
iter=iter+1;
%initialisation of isp,ical % Specified and calculated currents
for k=1:nbus-1
isp(k)=0;
ik(k)=0;
end
%calculation of specified e.c.i. % Equivalent current injection
for k=1:nbus-1
isp(k)=[conj(pd(k+1)+j*qd(k+1))/vm(k+1)];
end
%calculation of ik
for n=2:nbus
for k=1:nline
if lp(k)==n||lq(k)==n
if lp(k)==n
ik(n-1)=ik(n-1)+y(k)*(vm(lp(k))-vm(lq(k)));
end
if lq(k)==n
ik(n-1)=ik(n-1)+y(k)*(vm(lq(k))-vm(lp(k)));
end
end
end
end
%calculation of ical including the effect of shunt capacitance
for n=2:nbus
ik(n-1)=ik(n-1)+(j*busdata(n,6)*vm(n));
end
%finding e.c.i.mismatcher
for n=1:nbus-1

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 id(n)=-isp(n)-ik(n);
end
for i=1:nbus-1
delir(i,1)=real(id(i));
delii(i,1)=imag(id(i));
end
dele=invG*delir; %change in bus voltage(real part)
delf=invG*delii; %change in bus voltage(imag part)
%calculation of modified bus voltages
for i=1:nbus-1
e(i)=real(vm(i+1))+dele(i);
f(i)=imag(vm(i+1))+delf(i);
vm(i+1)=e(i)+j*f(i);
end
maxerror=max(max(abs(dele)),max(abs(delf)));
Em=abs(vm);
ang=angle(vm);
iter
Em
ang
end

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 EXPERIEMENT-10
YBUS BY SINGULAR TRANSFORMATION METHOD

Aim : To develop a program for Ybus formation by singular transformation

method

MATLAB Program :
clc;
clear all;
disp( ' formation of bus admittance matrix ');
nb = input ( 'enter the no of buses' );
nl = input ( 'enter the no of lines' );
for j= 1:nl
sb(j)=input ('enter the starting bus');
eb(j)=input ('enter the ending bus ');
z(j) =input ('enter the input values');
b(j) =input ('enter the values');
end
y=zeros(nl,nb);
for i=1:nl
k=sb(i);
m=eb(i);
y(i,k)=1;
y(i,m)=-1;
end

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u=zeros(nl, nl);
for i=1:nl
u(i, i)=1/z(i)+b(i)/2;
end
t=y';
x=t*u*y;
x
y
u
t

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46