Chapter 1

Life Processes
Class 4

IGCSE Biology

Prepared by A. Stephanou
Life Processes
• Movement
• Respire
• Sensitivity

• Growth
• Reproduction
• Excretion
• Nutrition

• Control (internal conditions)

Cell Structure
Cell structure
Cell Structure and Function
Function of cells which animal and plant cells have in common:

Part Function
nucleus Surrounded by a double membrane with nuclear pores. Contains
chromosomes, which carry the genes. Genes control the activities of the
cell by determining which proteins are to be made by the cell
cytoplasm A jelly-like substance. Most chemical processes take place here,
controlled by enzymes. Contains the organelles
cell membrane Selectively permeable, controls the movement of substances into and
out of the cell
mitochondrion Surrounded by a double membrane. Inner membrane form stalks called
cristae. Site of aerobic respiration, forming energy in the form of ATP
ribosomes Consist of two sub-units. Made of proteins and ribosomal RNA. Protein
synthesis happens here
Cell Structure and Function
Extra parts of plant cells not found in animal cells

Part Function

cell wall Strengthens the cell, made up of a polysaccharide called cellulose,

helps keep the cells shape, freely permeable

chloroplasts Made of a double membrane. The inside consists of thylakoid

membranes where chlorophyll pigments are found. Chloropyll
absorbs light energy for photosynthesis
permanent vacuole Filled with cell sap (made up of dissolved sugars, minerals and
solutes) to help keep the cell turgid
Nucleus
Mitochondrion
Ribosome
Chloroplast
Enzymes
• All chemical reactions taking place in a cell are controlled by enzymes

• The chemical reactions in a cell are called metabolic reactions

• There are “building up reactions” called anabolic reactions and “breaking down
reactions” called catabolic reactions

• The reactions of respiration, digestion and photosynthesis take place with the help
of enzymes INSIDE the cells are called intracellular enzymes

• Enzymes that are secreted OUTSIDE the cells for a reaction to take place are called
extracellular enzymes. E.g. the way that mould on bread feeds, or how bacteria
decay dead matter
Enzymes
• Cells contain hundreds of different enzymes – each catalysing a different
reaction

• This is how activities of the cell are controlled – the nucleus contains genes,
which control the production of enzymes, which catalyse different reactions
within the cell

• genes → proteins (enzymes) → catalyse reactions

Structure of an enzyme
• Enzymes are specific because each one has a unique shape

• The unique shape is brought about by the enzymes active site

• The molecule that an enzyme acts on is called a substrate

• When the substrate joins with the active site, it

lowers the energy needed for the reaction to start,
allowing the products to be formed easier
Enzyme action
• Each enzyme's active site is suitable for one specific type of substrate – just
like a lock that has the right shape for only one specific key
Characteristics that all enzymes share:
1) Biological catalysts – they speed up chemical reactions

2) They are proteins

3) Each enzyme is specific

4) Unchanged/unused at the end of a reaction

5) Have an optimum temperature and pH

Enzymes and temperature
• At low temperatures, enzyme reactions are slow

• They speed up as the temperature rises until an optimum temperature is

reached

WHY?

• After this point the reaction will slow down and eventually stop

WHY?
Enzymes and temperature
• As the temperature increases – the kinetic energy of the enzyme and
substrate molecules increases

• This increases the number of successful collisions between substrate and

enzyme therefore increasing the rate of reaction
Enzymes and temperature
• After the reactions’ optimum temperature has been reached the rate of
reaction decreases

• This is because high temperatures destroy proteins and enzymes are proteins

• The active site of the enzyme gets destroyed

• The enzyme has been denatured

• Less successful collisions decreases the rate until all the enzymes are destroyed
and the reaction stops

• Once an enzyme has been denatured its structure and function are destroyed
and can never be regained
Enzymes and temperature
Enzymes and temperature
Enzyme activity and temperature for an enzyme with optimum temperature
of 70°C

Enzyme
activity

Temperature °C
Enzymes and pH
• Making the solution more acid or alkaline will slow the reaction down

• At extremes of pH (either side of the optimum) the activity decreases

because the active site’s specific shape is altered, so the substrate will not fit
so well

• Some enzymes, such as those used in digestion, are adapted to work faster
in unusual pH conditions and may have an optimum pH of 2 (very acidic) if
they act in the stomach
Enzymes and pH
Enzyme activity and pH for an enzyme of pH 8
Enzymes and pH
Enzyme activity and pH for an enzyme of pH 2

Enzyme
activity

pH
Enzymes and substrate concentration
• If we the substrate concentration is
increased the rate of reaction will increase
but only up to a point

• Initially there are many active sites

available however as substrate
concentration increases, the active sites are
busy (*remember no change in enzyme
concentration), at some point all the active
sites will be busy and are not able to
support more substrate – the rate of
reaction has reached its maximum

• If more substrate is added the rate of

reaction will not change – the rate has
reached a plateau
Enzymes
Experiment 1:
An investigation into the effect of temperature and the activity of amylase
Enzymes
Experiment 2:

An investigation into the effect of pH on the activity of catalase

How does the cell get its energy?
RESPIRATION!!

• This energy is obtained by breaking down food molecules – GLUCOSE – to

release their stored chemical energy, together with the help of oxygen
(oxidation)
• Glucose contains stored chemical energy that can be converted into other
forms of energy that the cell can use

• Carbon dioxide and water are released as waste products

• Respiration releases heat energy, but most of the energy released is used to
make ATP

• This process takes place in the mitochondria of every single cell

Why do cells require energy?
The chemical energy stored in the ATP molecule can be used for a
number of processes:
- Cell division
- Active transport
- Chemical reactions such as building large proteins
- Muscle contraction for movement
Respiration - ATP
• Respiration releases energy, while other cell processes use it up

• ATP is a method of transferring energy

• Cells do not store much ATP – as it is formed it is used up for cellular

processes
Respiration - ATP
• ATP is made up of an organic molecule called adenosine, which is attached to
three phosphate groups – called adenosine triphosphate

• In a cell, ATP is broken down to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) releasing energy

Respiration
• The reaction for aerobic respiration is:

glucose + oxygen water + carbon dioxide + ATP

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2 + ATP

Remember respiration takes places in a series of small steps not in

one go. Each step is catalysed by a different enzyme.

Where does the oxygen come from?

Where does the carbon dioxide and water go?
Anaerobic respiration
• In some cases muscle cells can respire without oxygen

• This is called anaerobic respiration

• In anaerobic respiration the glucose is not completely broken down therefore

less energy is released
Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells
• If the muscles are overworked, blood cannot reach them fast enough to deliver
oxygen for aerobic respiration

• To supply muscles with some energy until the heart rate increases and sends
enough blood, the muscles respire anaerobically

• Anaerobic respiration in muscles produces lactic acid. It builds up in the

bloodstream – causing muscle cramps

glucose → lactic acid + some E

Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells
glucose lactic acid + (little E)

C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + (little E)

• After exercise we continue to breathe deeply to supply oxygen to fully

oxidise (breakdown) the lactic acid

• The volume of oxygen needed to completely oxidise the lactic acid built up
during anaerobic respiration is called oxygen debt
Anaerobic respiration in yeast cells
• Called fermentation

• Yeast (single-celled fungi) can respire with and without oxygen

• Anaerobic respiration of yeast cells can be used to produce alcohol

such as beer and baking bread

glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide + (some E)

C6H12O6 C2H5OH + 2CO2 + (some E)

Practical work on respiration
Activity 3 -
Demonstrating the production of carbon dioxide
Hydrogen carbonate indicator
turns yellow in the presence of
carbon dioxide

What do you expect to happen?

Demonstrating the production of carbon dioxide
Hydrogen carbonate indicator
turns yellow in the presence of
carbon dioxide.

The indicator will turn yellow.

This is because the small

organisms are respiring producing
carbon dioxide.
 Simple respirometer The respirometer can be used to
show that living organisms respire.

Two apparatus can be set up – one

using germinating seeds and one
Oil droplet
using boiled seeds washed in
disinfectant.

What is the purpose of the soda

lime / KOH?

Germinating What do you expect to happen to

or boiled the oil droplet?
seeds
Soda lime /
KOH
 Simple respirometer The oil droplet will move to the
left.

This is because the seeds are

respiring, USING oxygen in the
Oil droplet
tube and giving OUT carbon
dioxide.

However the carbon dioxide is

being absorbed by the soda lime.
So the air pressure drops in the
Germinating tube. In order to equalise air
seeds pressures, air moves from the
Soda lime / capillary tube into the boiling tube,
KOH pulling the oil droplet with it
More complex respirometer

What is the purpose of the 3-way tap?

More complex respirometer

What is the purpose of the 3-way tap?

The 3-way tap allows the respirometer to be isolated so the experiment

can begin.
It also allows the respirometer to be re-set – by allowing air to enter
without having to take the apparatus apart.
It also allows the coloured liquid to be returned to the starting position,
allowing for repeated measurements
Even more complex respirometer
 Activity 4 -
Demonstrating the production of heat
The seeds are washed in
disinfectant before starting the
experiment. Why?

What do you expect to happen?

 Demonstrating the production of heat
The seeds are washed in disinfectant before
starting the experiment.

This is because there are microorganisms on the

surface of the seeds. If they are not removed then
they will also respire.

We are proving that it is the seeds that are

respiring.

What do you expect to happen?

The temperature will rise in the flask with the

germinating seeds. This is because they are
respiring producing energy in the form of heat.
Demonstrating anaerobic respiration in yeast
Lime water turns milky in the presence of
carbon dioxide.

The hydrogencarbonate indicator turns yellow

in the presence of carbon dioxide.

What do you expect to happen?

How is anaerobic respiration achieved?

Demonstrating anaerobic respiration in yeast
Lime water will turn milky.
The hydrogencarbonate indicator will turn
yellow.

This is because the yeast are respiring

anaerobically to produce carbon dioxide.

How is anaerobic respiration achieved?

Oxygen is excluded from the yeast solution

because the liquid paraffin does not let it pass
into the solution.
Movement within living systems
• Cells must receive the substances required for respiration (e.g. glucose and
oxygen) and to remove waste products (carbon dioxide, water)

• In order to do this these substances must pass through the cell membrane

• The cell membrane is selectively permeable which means that is allows some
substances to pass through it but not others according to size and charge
Movement within living systems
• There are three main ways that molecules move in and out of cells:

-Diffusion

-Osmosis

-Active transport
Diffusion
• Diffusion occurs when molecules collide due to their kinetic energy, causing
them to spread out

• This gives the effect that the substance is moving from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration (or ‘down a concentration
gradient’)

• When the particles are evenly spread out diffusion appears to stop
Diffusion

High Low
concentration concentration

Diffusion ALONG the

concentration gradient
•http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_gateway/living/diffusionrev1.shtml
 Diffusion
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:

• Increasing temperature (increases KE of particles)

• Increasing the concentration difference e.g. by replacing air in the lungs with
fresh air rich in oxygen

• Decreasing diffusion distance e.g. by having a thin layer of cells lining the
lungs

• Increasing the surface area for diffusion e.g. by folding (alveoli, villi in small
intestine)
Diffusion
• Both the dissolved food particles and the oxygen particles must pass into our
blood stream so that they can be transported around the body to the cells

• Each particle diffuses (performs diffusion) at particular sites within the body
Diffusion – Surface area to volume ratio
Diffusion – Surface area to volume ratio
• Small organisms have a high surface area to volume ratio

• This means that their surface area allows the diffusion of substances to reach the
small volume of cell fast enough to sustain life

• Large organisms have a small surface area to volume ratio

• Large organisms have a small surface area compared to their large volume. They
would not be able to absorb all the substances they need simply by diffusion

• This is why large organisms have a circulatory system

Activity 5 – Demonstration of diffusion in a jelly
Osmosis
• Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a dilute (hypotonic)
solution to a more concentrated (hypertonic) solution across a partially
permeable membrane

• Movement of water is down the concentration gradient

Osmosis
Osmosis
The effect of osmosis on plant cells:

cell wall

cell membrane
Osmosis
The effect of osmosis in plant cells:

• Flaccid – when a plant cell has lost water, the cytoplasm no longer pushes
against the cell wall

• Turgid – when a plant cell is fully inflated with water, the cytoplasm pushes
against the cell wall creating a turgor pressure

• Plasmolysed – when a plant cell has lost water, causing the cell membrane to
pull away from the cell wall
Osmosis
• The effect of osmosis on animals cells – red blood cells:
Active Transport
• Active transport is the process by which dissolved molecules move across a
cell membrane from a lower to a higher concentration

• In active transport, particles move against the concentration gradient - and

therefore require an input of energy (ATP) from the cell

• Where does the energy come from?

Active Transport
• Sometimes dissolved molecules are at a higher concentration
inside the cell than outside, but, because the organism needs
these molecules, they still have to be absorbed

• Specific carrier proteins pick up molecules and take them through

the cell membrane against the concentration gradient

• In humans, active transport takes place during the digestion of

food in the small intestine

• Carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars such as

glucose

• The glucose is absorbed by active transport from the villi, into the
blood capillaries to be passed into the blood and taken around
the body

• Plant roots take up mineral ions from the soil by active transport
Cell division and differentiation
• After fertilisation, a zygote undergoes mitosis to produce an embryo

• Mitosis is under control of genes

• First of all the chromosomes in the nucleus are copied, and then the nucleus splits
in two (each nucleus is genetically identical)

• Then the cytoplasm divides forming two daughter cells

• The cell number of the embryo doubles with each division, the cells become
specialized to carry out particular roles

• This specialization is also under control of the genes, and is called differentiation
Cell division and differentiation
Cell division and differentiation
• Different kinds of cells develop depending on where they are located in the embryo

• In order for cells to function differently, they must produce different proteins and
different genes code for the production of these different proteins

• Some of the genes in each cell are switched on to produce proteins that give a cell is
permanent structure and function. Others are switched off

• Each different type of cell has different genes switched on and off

• Cells from an early embryo are considered to be early embryonic stem cells and are
able to divide and produce any type of cell
Cell division and differentiation
Cell division and differentiation
• The general term ‘stem cell’ refers to undifferentiated cells that can divide
and produce specialized cells

• Stem cells are able to divide to make more stem cells and produce cells of
different types

• The term ‘cell differentiation’ refers to the process by which cells become
different, specialised cell types
Example of cell differentiation
Specialised cells
Cell Function Adaptation
Palisade leaf cell Absorbs light energy for Packed with chloroplasts. Regular,
photosynthesis closely packed cells form a
continuous layer for efficient
absorption of sunlight

Root hair cell Absorbs water and mineral ions Long 'finger-like' process with very
from the soil thin wall, which gives a large
surface area for absorption

Sperm cell Fertilises the egg cell - female The head contains genetic
gamete information & enzymes to help
penetrate the egg cell. The middle
section is packed with
mitochondria for energy. The tail
helps with movement
Specialised cells
Cell Function Adaptation
Nerve cell - neurone Carries nerve impulses (messages) Very long – elongated to carry
messages long distances. Has a
protective fatty coat to insulate
the message and allow rapid
message transfer
Guard cell - lower leaf epidermis Acts as a pore to allow gas Have a curved banana shape to
exchange on the lower leaf allow an opening or pore between
epidermis. cells
Exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide
and release of water vapour.

Smooth muscle cell – intestine wall Moves food through the gut Elongated, can contract to move
food through the gut
Cells, tissues and organs
• Cells with a similar structure and function work together to form tissues
e.g. muscles, epithelial tissue, leaf tissue

• A collection of several tissues carrying out a particular function makes up an

organ e.g. lungs, heart, skin, leaves, roots

• An organ system is formed when several organs work together e.g.

digestive system, circulatory system
Stem cells
• Cells from an early embryo are considered to be early embryonic (totipotent)
stem cells and are able to divide and produce any type of cell
Stem cells
• Cells from an early embryo are considered to be early embryonic (totipotent)
stem cells and are able to divide and produce any type of cell

• Cells from the blastocyst that have already begun to differentiate are called
pluripotent stem cells (they have the ability to divide and produce some types
of cells but not all)

• Some types of cells may be adult stem cells – they have lost the ability to
differentiate into any type of cell and produce only specific cells eg. Cells in the
bone marrow can divide many times but are only able to produce different
type of white and red blood cells
Stem cells
Uses of stem cells
• The use of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease, or to repair damaged tissues is called
stem cell therapy

Potential stem cell therapies could include:

• making nerve cells to repair broken spinal cords or damaged brain tissue

• making heart cells to replace heart tissue damaged due to coronary heart disease

• making new bone marrow cells to cure blood abnormalities e.g. leukaemia

• making cartilage tissue to repair worn joints

• making new retinal cells to cure blindness

• making pancreas cells that make insulin to cure diabetes

Uses of stem cells
Therapeutic cloning as a source of
stem cells

• In therapeutic cloning, an embryo

is produced with the same genes
as the patient

• A 5-day old embryo is the best

source of embryonic stem cells

• Stem cells from embryos created in

this way are not rejected by the
patient’s body so they may be used
for medical treatment without the
patient having to take drugs to
suppress their immune system
(which reduce the body’s ability to
fight infection)
Uses of stem cells
• There are three main sources of stem cell that could potentially be used as
medical treatments.

They all have different advantages and disadvantages

The three main sources are:

(i) Embryonic stem cells (ES Cells)

(ii) Adult / tissue stem cells
(iii) Induced pluripotent stem cells (IPS cells)
Uses of stem cells
i) Embryonic stem cells

• These cells are extracted from very early

embryos donated from unused/spare
eggs from IVF clinics

• They are cultured and grown in

laboratory incubators

• Growth factor chemicals may be added to make the cells differentiate into the cell
type that is required

• The cells have the potential to turn into any type of cell
Uses of stem cells
i) Embryonic stem cells

• ES cells can also be produced by cloning

• An adult cell nucleus from a patient can be placed into an enucleated egg cell
and mitosis started

• The embryo that results from this can be used to harvest stem cells

• The cells will have the same DNA as the patient in which they will be used
Uses of stem cells
i) Advantages of using embryonic stem cells

✓ES cells can make any cell type

✓There are many spare embryos from IVF that would otherwise be discarded

✓Using them for stem cells would mean that they have been used to improve
other human lives

✓If cloned ES-cells are produced, they will have identical genes to the patient
and so will not be rejected
Uses of stem cells
i) Disadvantages of using embryonic stem cells

Using ES cells raises ethical issues about ‘killing’ potential human lives

If spare embryos from IVF are used, they will not be genetically identical to a patient
and so could be rejected by the patient’s immune system

Human embryos are difficult to grow in culture and very fragile. This makes cloning
inefficient

To obtain human eggs and embryos, women need to donate eggs; there may be too
few potential donors. (Recently, the use of enucleated animal eggs has been
proposed to avoid this problem.)

It is difficult to make ES cells differentiate into the correct cell types. If they do not
differentiate properly, they may form tumours and cancers in the body
Uses of stem cells
(ii) Adult / Tissue stem cells

• Adult stem cells are extracted from body tissues and grown in laboratory
cultures

• These cells are found in the bodies of children and adults

• The cells can only differentiate into a limited number of different cell types

• For example, bone marrow stem cells can only form blood cells
Uses of stem cells
(ii) Advantages of Adult / Tissue stem cells

✓These cells are easier to control as they are already partly differentiated

✓They are less likely to cause tumours

✓There are fewer ethical issues than when using ES cells as no embryos are killed

✓There are no concerns regarding a shortage of embryos or need for donors

✓If a patient’s own cells are used, they will be genetically identical and not rejected by
the patient
Uses of stem cells
(ii) Disadvantages of Adult / Tissue stem cells

Difficult to produce from adult stem cells making it difficult to create therapies
for spinal cord and brain repair

Adult stem cells can be difficult to extract

Cells can age so adult stem cells taken from older people may not last long
 Uses of stem cells
(iii) Induced pluripotent stem cells (IPS cells)

• Skin cells are grown in culture and reprogrammed into IPS cells by adding genes

• Growth factors are added to make the IPS cells differentiate into different cell types

• IPS cells have recently been developed by researchers

• They are made by taking skin cells from a patient and genetically modifying them by
adding genes to ‘turn back the clock’ and reprogram them

• The IPS cells are grown in laboratory culture and then made to differentiate into the
required cell types by adding chemical growth factors
 Uses of stem cells
(iii) Advantages of Induced pluripotent stem cells (IPS cells)

✓There are few ethical issues as embryos are not used

✓Many different cell types can be made

✓There are no concerns regarding a shortage of embryos or need for donors

✓If cloned ES-cells are produced, they will have identical genes to the patient and
so will not be rejected
 Uses of stem cells
(iii) Disadvantages of Induced pluripotent stem cells (IPS cells)

The success rate for producing them is low and they are still very much
experimental

By genetically modifying them they could form tumours and cancers