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Computer
electronics
Kirchhoff’s Laws:

1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): The total current entering a junction in a circuit is equal to the
total current leaving the junction.

2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): The sum of all voltages around a closed loop in a circuit is zero.

Circuit theory is a fundamental aspect of electrical engineering, and it involves the analysis of
electrical circuits. Here are some common terms used in circuit theory:
1. Voltage (V): The potential difference between two points in a circuit, measured in volts
(V).
2. Current (I): The flow of electric charge through a conductor, measured in amperes (A).
3. Resistance (R): The opposition to the flow of current in a circuit, measured in ohms (Ω).
4. Ohm's Law: A fundamental law stating that V = I * R, which relates voltage, current, and
resistance in a circuit.
5. Power (P): The rate at which electrical energy is transferred by a circuit, measured in
watts (W). It can be calculated using P = V * I.
6. Capacitance (C): The ability of a component to store charge, measured in farads (F).

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7. Inductance (L): The property of a component that resists changes in current, measured
in henries (H).
8. Impedance (Z): The total opposition to current in an AC circuit, combining resistance
and reactance, measured in ohms (Ω).
9. Reactance (X): The opposition to current in an AC circuit due to capacitance or
inductance, measured in ohms (Ω).
10. Frequency (f): The number of cycles per second in an AC circuit, measured in hertz (Hz).
11. Node: A point in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are connected.
12. Branch: A path in a circuit connecting two nodes.
13. Loop: A closed path in a circuit where no node is encountered more than once.
14. Mesh: A loop that does not contain any other loops within it.
15. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL): The sum of the voltages around any closed loop in a
circuit is zero.
16. Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL): The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum
of currents leaving the node.
17. Thevenin's Theorem: A method for simplifying complex circuits to a single voltage
source and series resistance.
18. Norton's Theorem: A method for simplifying complex circuits to a single current source
and parallel resistance.
19. Superposition Theorem: A principle stating that the total response in a linear circuit is
the sum of the responses caused by each independent source acting alone.
20. AC (Alternating Current): An electric current that periodically reverses direction.
21. DC (Direct Current): An electric current that flows in one direction only.
22. Phasor: A complex number representing a sinusoidal function in the frequency domain.
23. Resonance: A condition in an AC circuit where the inductive and capacitive reactances
are equal, resulting in a purely resistive impedance.
24. Quality Factor (Q): A measure of the damping of an oscillator or resonator, indicating
the sharpness of the resonance peak.
25. Transfer Function: A mathematical representation of the relationship between the input
and output of a system in the frequency domain.

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These terms form the foundation for understanding and analyzing electrical circuits, whether
they are simple DC circuits or more complex AC circuits.

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Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) are fundamental principles in
circuit analysis. Below are solved examples of complex circuits using KCL and KVL.

Example 1: KCL and KVL in a Multi-Loop Circuit

Problem Statement:
Consider the following circuit:
Copy
R1 = 2Ω R2 = 4Ω
┌───/\/\/\───┬───/\/\/\───┐
│ │ │
V1 = 10V R3 = 6Ω V2 = 5V
│ │ │
└────────────┴────────────┘
Find the currents through each resistor.

Solution:
1. Assign currents:
o Let I1I1 be the current through R1R1 and V1V1.
o Let I2I2 be the current through R2R2 and V2V2.
o Let I3I3 be the current through R3R3.
2. Apply KCL at the junction:
I1=I2+I3I1=I2+I3
3. Apply KVL to the left loop (containing V1V1, R1R1, and R3R3):
V1−I1R1−I3R3=0V1−I1R1−I3R3=0
Substituting values:
10−2I1−6I3=0(Equation 1)10−2I1−6I3=0(Equation 1)
4. Apply KVL to the right loop (containing V2V2, R2R2, and R3R3):
V2−I2R2−I3R3=0V2−I2R2−I3R3=0

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Substituting values:
5−4I2−6I3=0(Equation 2)5−4I2−6I3=0(Equation 2)
5. Solve the system of equations:
o From KCL: I1=I2+I3I1=I2+I3.
o Substitute I1=I2+I3I1=I2+I3 into Equation 1:
10−2(I2+I3)−6I3=010−2(I2+I3)−6I3=0
Simplify:
10−2I2−8I3=0(Equation 3)10−2I2−8I3=0(Equation 3)
o From Equation 2:
5−4I2−6I3=05−4I2−6I3=0
o Solve Equations 2 and 3 simultaneously:
{10−2I2−8I3=05−4I2−6I3=0{10−2I2−8I3=05−4I2−6I3=0
Multiply Equation 3 by 2:
20−4I2−16I3=020−4I2−16I3=0
Subtract Equation 2 from this:
(20−4I2−16I3)−(5−4I2−6I3)=0(20−4I2−16I3)−(5−4I2−6I3)=0
Simplify:

15−10I3=0 ⟹ I3=1.5 A15−10I3=0⟹I3=1.5A

Substitute I3=1.5 AI3=1.5A into Equation 2:

5−4I2−6(1.5)=0 ⟹ 5−4I2−9=0 ⟹ I2=−1 A5−4I2−6(1.5)=0⟹5−4I2−9=0⟹I2=−1A

Substitute I2=−1 AI2=−1A and I3=1.5 AI3=1.5A into KCL:
I1=I2+I3=−1+1.5=0.5 AI1=I2+I3=−1+1.5=0.5A
6. Final Answer:
o I1=0.5 AI1=0.5A (through R1R1)
o I2=−1 AI2=−1A (through R2R2, direction opposite to assumption)
o I3=1.5 AI3=1.5A (through R3R3)

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Example 2: KCL and KVL in a Circuit with Dependent Sources

Problem Statement:
Consider the following circuit:
Copy
R1 = 3Ω R2 = 2Ω
┌───/\/\/\───┬───/\/\/\───┐
│ │ │
V1 = 12V Ix V2 = 6Ix
│ │ │
└────────────┴────────────┘
Find the value of IxIx.

Solution:
1. Assign currents:
o Let IxIx be the current through R2R2.
o Let I1I1 be the current through R1R1 and V1V1.
2. Apply KCL at the junction:
I1=IxI1=Ix
3. Apply KVL to the loop:
V1−I1R1−V2=0V1−I1R1−V2=0
Substituting values:
12−3I1−6Ix=012−3I1−6Ix=0
Since I1=IxI1=Ix:

12−3Ix−6Ix=0 ⟹ 12−9Ix=012−3Ix−6Ix=0⟹12−9Ix=0
Solve for IxIx:
Ix=129=1.33 AIx=912=1.33A
4. Final Answer:

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o Ix=1.33 AIx=1.33A

These examples demonstrate the application of KCL and KVL in solving complex circuits. Let me
know if you need further clarification or additional examples!
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Kirchhoff's laws are fundamental for analyzing electrical circuits. They consist of two
rules: Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL). Here's how you can
apply them to determine individual currents in a circuit:

Step 1: Understand Kirchhoff's Laws

1. Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL):
o The sum of currents entering a junction (node) equals the sum of currents
leaving the junction.
o Mathematically: ∑Iin=∑Iout∑Iin=∑Iout.
2. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL):
o The sum of voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is zero.
o Mathematically: ∑V=0∑V=0.

Step 2: Analyze the Circuit

1. Identify all junctions (nodes) and loops in the circuit.
2. Assign current variables (I1,I2,I3,…I1,I2,I3,…) to each branch of the circuit.
3. Assign polarities to the voltage drops across resistors and sources (e.g., positive to
negative for voltage sources).

Step 3: Apply Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

 Write equations for each junction (node) in the circuit.
 For example, at a junction where three currents meet:
I1=I2+I3I1=I2+I3
(Current entering = Currents leaving).

Step 4: Apply Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

 Write equations for each closed loop in the circuit.
 For example, in a loop with a battery and resistors:
Vbattery−I1R1−I2R2=0Vbattery−I1R1−I2R2=0

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(Sum of voltage rises = Sum of voltage drops).

Step 5: Solve the System of Equations

 Combine the equations from KCL and KVL to form a system of linear equations.
 Solve for the unknown currents using substitution, elimination, or matrix methods.

Example Problem
Consider the following circuit:
Copy
R1
┌───┐
│ │
V1 │ │ R2
│ │
└───┘
R3
1. Assign currents:
o Let I1I1 flow through V1V1 and R1R1.
o Let I2I2 flow through R2R2.
o Let I3I3 flow through R3R3.
2. Apply KCL at the junction:
I1=I2+I3I1=I2+I3
3. Apply KVL to the loops:
o Loop 1 (left loop): V1−I1R1−I3R3=0V1−I1R1−I3R3=0.
o Loop 2 (right loop): −I2R2+I3R3=0−I2R2+I3R3=0.
4. Solve the system of equations:
o From KCL: I1=I2+I3I1=I2+I3.

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o From Loop 1: V1=I1R1+I3R3V1=I1R1+I3R3.

o From Loop 2: I2R2=I3R3I2R2=I3R3.
Substitute and solve for I1,I2,I3I1,I2,I3.

Key Points
 Ensure consistent current directions and voltage polarities.
 Use as many independent equations as there are unknowns.
 Double-check your calculations to ensure accuracy.
By following these steps, you can determine the individual currents in any circuit using
Kirchhoff's laws.

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