Classroom Notes Engineering Hydrology

The peak discharge for a nonstandard 𝐸𝑅 of duration 𝑡𝑅 is in m3 /s

Synthetic Unit Hydrograph 𝑄𝑝 = 2.78𝐶𝑝 𝐴/𝑡𝑝′
Snyder's Method (1938), based on a study of a large number
The time base of a unit hydrograph is given by Synder as
of catchments in the Appalachian Highlands of eastern United
𝑡𝑝′
States developed a set of empirical equations for synthetic-unit 𝑇𝑏 = 3 + days = (72 + 3𝑡𝑝′ ) hours
hydrographs in those areas. These equations are in use in the USA, 8
where 𝑇𝑏 = time base.
and with some modifications in many other countries, and
constitute what is known as Snyder's synthetic-unit hydrograph.
To assist in the sketching of unit hydrographs, the widths of unit
hydrographs at 50 and 75% of the peak have been found for US
catchments by the US Army Corps of Engineers. These widths (in
time units) are correlated to the peak discharge intensity and are
given by
5.87
𝑊50 = 1.08
𝑞
𝑊75 = 𝑊50 /1.75
where
𝑊50 = width of unit hydrograph in h at 50% peak discharge
𝑊75 = width of unit hydrograph in h at 75% peak discharge
𝑞 = 𝑄𝑝 /𝐴 = peak discharge per unit catchment area in m3 /s/
km2
The first of the Snyder's equation relates the basin lag 𝑡𝑝 , defined
Example: Two catchments 𝑨 and 𝑩 are considered
as the time interval from the mid-point of rainfall excess to the
meteorologically similar. Their catchment characteristics are
peak of the unit hydrograph, to the basin characteristics as
given below.
𝑡𝑝 = 𝐶𝑡 (𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑎 )0.3
Catchment 𝑨 Catchment 𝑩
Where
L = 30 km L = 45 km
𝑡𝑝 = basin lag (in hours)
Lca = 15 km Lca = 25 km
𝐿 = basin length measured along the water course from the A = 250 km2 A = 400 km2
basin divide to the gauging station (in km) For catchment 𝑨, a 2-h unit hydrograph was developed and was
𝐿𝑐𝑎 = distance along the main water course from the gauging
found to have a peak discharge of 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔. The time to peak
station to a point opposite to the watershed centroid (in km)
from the beginning of the rainfall excess in this unit hydrograph
𝐶𝑡 = a regional constant representing watershed slope and
was 𝟗. 𝟎 𝒉.
storage effects.
Solution
Snyder adopted a standard duration 𝑡𝑟 hours of effective rainfall
For Catchment A:
given by
𝑡𝑝 𝑡𝑅 = 2.0 h
𝑡𝑟 =
5.5 Time to peak from beginning of 𝐸𝑅
3 𝑡𝑅
The peak discharge 𝑄𝑝𝑠 ( m /s) of a unit hydrograph of standard 𝑛 𝑇𝑝 = + 𝑡𝑝′ += 9.0 h
2
duration 𝑡𝑟 h is given by Snyder as
𝑛 𝑡𝑝′ = 8.0 h
2.78𝐶𝑝 𝐴 21 𝑡𝑅 21
𝑄𝑝𝑠 = 𝑡𝑝′ = 𝑡 + = 𝑡 + 0.5 = 8.0
𝑡𝑝 22 𝑝 4 22 𝑝
7.5 × 22
𝑡𝑝 = = 7.857 h
where 𝐴 = catchment area in km2 and 𝐶𝑝 = a regional constant. 21
Values of 𝐶𝑝 in the range 0.31 to 0.93 𝑡𝑝 = 𝐶𝑡 (𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑎 )0.3 7.857 = 𝐶𝑡 (30 × 15)0.3 𝐶𝑡 = 1.257

If a non-standard rainfall duration 𝑡𝑅 h is adopted, then modified 𝑄𝑝 = 2.78𝐶𝑝 𝐴/𝑡𝑝′ 50 = 2.78 × 𝐶𝑝 × 250/8.0 𝐶𝑝 = 0.576
basin lag is give by For Catchment B: Using the values of 𝐶𝑡 = 1.257 and 𝐶𝑝 =
𝑡𝑅 − 𝑡𝑟 21 𝑡𝑅
𝑡𝑝′ = 𝑡𝑝 + = 𝑡𝑝 + 0.576 in catchment 𝐵, the parameters of the synthetic-unit
4 22 4
hydrograph for catchment 𝐵 are determined.
here 𝑡𝑝′ = basin lag in hours for an effective duration of 𝑡𝑅 h and
𝑡𝑝 is as given by Snyder’s First Equation. 𝑡𝑝 = 1.257(45 × 25)0.3 = 10.34 h
10.34
𝑡𝑟 = = 1.88 h
5.5

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Using 𝑡𝑅 = 2.0 h, i.e. for a 2-h unit hydrograph, Further on the basis of a large number of small rural watersheds,
21 2.0 SCS found that 𝑡𝑝 ≈ 0.6𝑡𝑐 , where 𝑡𝑐 = time of concentration.
𝑡𝑝′ = 10.34 × + = 10.37 h 𝑡𝑟
22 4 𝑇𝑝 = ( + 0.6𝑡𝑐 )
2
Peak Discharge
2.778𝐴
2.78 × 0.576 × 400 Equilibrium discharge of 𝑆𝑛 - curve = where 𝐴 is in km2
𝑄𝑝 = = 61.77 m3 /s, say 62 m3 /s 𝐷
10.37 and 𝐷 is in hours.
5.87
𝑊50 = = 44 h The SCS triangular unit hydrograph is a popular method used in
(62/400)1.08
watershed development activities, especially in small watersheds.
44
𝑊75 = = 25 h
1.75 Example: Develop a 30-minute SCS triangular unit hydrograph
Time base, 𝑇𝑏 = 72 + (3 × 10.37) = 103 h for a watershed of area 550 ha and time of concentration of 50
minutes.
SCS Triangular Unit Hydrograph Solution
𝐴 = 550ha = 5.5 km2
Dimensionless unit hydrographs based on a study of a large 𝑡𝑟 = 30 min = 0.50 h 𝑡𝑐 = 50 min = 0.833 h
number of unit hydrographs are recommended by various 𝑡𝑝 = 0.6𝑡𝑐 = 0.6 × 0.833 = 0.50 h
𝑡
agencies to facilitate construction of synthetic unit hydrographs. 𝑇𝑝 = ( 𝑟 + 𝑡𝑝 ) = 0.25 + 0.50 = 0.75 h
2
A typical dimensionless unit hydrograph developed by the US Soil 𝐴 5.5 15.25 m3
Conservation Services (SCS) is known as SCS Triangular Unit 𝑄 = 2.08 = 2.08 × =
𝑇𝑝 0.75 s
Hydrograph. 𝑇𝑏 = 2.67𝑇𝑝 = 2.67 × 0.75 = 2.00 h

Example A 6 -h unit hydrograph of a basin is triangular in shape

and has a peak of 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔. The peak occurs at 18 hours from
the start and the base length of the unit hydrograph is 54 hours.
(a) What is the area of the catchment represented by the unit
hydrograph?
(b) Calculate the equilibrium discharge of the 𝑺𝒏 -curve of the
basin.
The value of 𝑄𝑝 and 𝑇𝑝 may be estimated using a simplified model (c) Calculate the flood hydrograph due to a rainfall excess of 2.5
of a triangular unit hydrograph suggested by SCS. cm in the first 6 hour period and 3.5 cm in the next 6 hour
𝑄𝑝 = peak discharge in m3 /s interval. The base flow can be assumed to be 𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔 constant
𝑡𝑟 = duration of effective rainfall through out.
𝑇𝑝 = time of rise = time to peak
𝑛 = (𝑡𝑟 /2) + 𝑡𝑝 Solution
𝑡𝑝 = lag time
(a) Volume of runoff due to 1 cm of rainfall excess = Area of 𝑈𝐻
𝑇𝑏 = base length
If 𝐴 = area of the basin km2
SCS suggests that the time of recession 1 1
𝑛 (𝐴 × 106 ) × = × 54 × (3600) × 60
100 2
= (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑝 ) = 1.67𝑇𝑝 5,832,000
Thus 𝑇𝑏 = 2.67𝑇𝑝 𝑛 𝐴= = 583.2 km2
104
Since the area under the unit hydrograph is equal to 1 cm,
If 𝐴 = area of the watershed in km2 , (b) 𝑄𝑠 = equilibrium discharge of 𝑆⬚ - curve =
2.778𝐴
where 𝐴 is
𝐷
1 1 in km2 and
𝑄𝐹 × (2.67𝑇𝑝 ) × (3600) = × 𝐴 × 106 𝐷 is in hours. In the present case
2 100
2𝐴 × 104 A 2.778𝐴 2.778×583.2
𝑄𝑝 = = 2.08 𝑄𝑠 = = = 270 m3 /s
3600 × 2.67𝑇𝑝 𝑇𝑝 𝐷 6

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(c) Calculations of the flood hydrograph
Determination of Runoff
1. Binnie’s Percentages:
Sir Alexander Binnie measured the runoff from a small catchment
near Nagpur (Area of 16 km2) during 1869 and 1872 and
developed curves of cumulative runoff against cumulative rainfall.
From these, he established the percentages of runoff from
rainfall. These percentages have been used in Madhya Pradesh
and Vidarbha region of Maharashtra for the estimation of runoff
yield.

2. Barlow’s Tables:
Barlow, the first Chief Engineer of the Hydro-Electric Survey of
India (1915) on the basis of his study in small catchments (area =
130 km2) in Uttar Pradesh expressed runoff R as
R = Kb P
where Kb = runoff coefficient which depends upon the type of
catchment and nature of monsoon rainfall. Values of K b are given
A study of the annual hydrographs of streams enables one to in his Table.
classify the streams in to three classes as (i) perennial, (ii)
intermittent, and (iii) ephemeral. 3. Strange’s Tables:
Strange (1892) studied the available rainfall and runoff in the
A perennial stream is one that always carries some flow in it. border areas of present-day Maharashtra and Karnataka and has
There is considerable amount of groundwater flow throughout obtained yield ratios as functions of indicators representing
the year. Even during the dry seasons, the water table will be catchment characteristics.
above the bed of the stream.
4. Inglis and DeSouza Formula:
The intermittent stream has limited contribution from the
As a result of careful stream gauging in 53 sites in Western India,
groundwater. During the wet season, the water table is above the
Inglis and DeSouza (1929) evolved two regional formulae between
streambed and there is contribution of the base flow to the
annual runoff 𝑅 in cm and annual rainfall 𝑃 in cm as follows:
stream flow. However, during dry seasons the water table drops
For Ghat regions of western India
to a level lower than that of the streambed and the stream dries
𝑅 = 0.85𝑃 − 30.5
up. For Deccan plateau
1
An ephemeral stream is one that does not have any base-flow 𝑅= 𝑃(𝑃 − 17.8)
254
contribution as the GWT remains below stream water level. The
stream becomes dry soon after the end of the storm flow. 5. Khosla's Formula:
Khosla (1960) analyzed the rainfall, runoff and temperature data
Different Catchment Shape Parameters for various catchments in India and USA to arrive at an empirical
relationship between runoff and rainfall. The time period is taken
as a month. His relationship for monthly runoff is

𝑅𝑚 = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝐿𝑚
where 𝑅𝑚 = monthly runoff in cm and 𝑅𝑚 ≥ 0
𝑃𝑚 = monthly rainfall in cm
𝐿𝑚 = monthly losses in cm
𝑇𝑚 = mean monthly temperature of the catchment
in ∘ C
𝐿𝑚 = 0.48𝑇𝑚 for 𝑇𝑚 > 4.5∘ C
𝑇𝑚 ≤ 4.5∘ C, the loss 𝐿𝑚 may provisionally be
assumed as
𝑻∘ C 𝟒. 𝟓 −𝟏 −𝟔. 𝟓
𝐿𝑚 ( cm) 2.17 1.78 1.52

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6. Water Budget/Watershed Simulation: The CN value ranges from 30 to 100. A higher CN indicates less
The hydrologic water-budget equation for the determination of infiltration and more runoff (e.g., urban areas), while a lower CN
runoff for a given period is written as suggests more infiltration and less runoff (e.g., forested areas).
The CN is typically derived from tables provided by the NRCS
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑠 + 𝐺0 = 𝑃 − 𝐸𝑒𝑡 − Δ𝑆 based on land use, soil type, and moisture conditions.
in which 𝑅𝑠 = surface runoff, 𝑃 = precipitation, 𝐸𝑒𝑡 = actual
Hydrologic Soil Groups (HSGs):
evapotranspiration, 𝐺0 = net groundwater outflow and Δ𝑆 =
change in the soil moisture storage. Soils are classified into four hydrologic soil groups: A, B, C, and D.
o Group A: Soils with high infiltration rates (sandy or gravelly).
7. SCS-CN Method: o Group B: Soils with moderate infiltration rates.
The SCS-CN (Soil Conservation Service - Curve Number) Method o Group C: Soils with low infiltration rates.
is a widely used empirical model for estimating direct runoff (or o Group D: Soils with very low infiltration rates (clay or impervious
excess rainfall) from a given rainfall event. Developed by the US soils).
Soil Conservation Service (now known as the Natural Resources
The choice of soil group is critical in determining the CN.
Conservation Service, NRCS) in 1969, this method is particularly
popular in hydrology for watershed management, flood
estimation, and water resource planning. Currently, it is a well- Antecedent Moisture Conditions (AMC):
established method, having been widely accepted for use in USA AMC refers to the soil moisture condition before the rainfall
and many other countries. The details of the method are event. The SCS-CN method recognizes three categories:
described in this section o AMC I: Dry soil (lower potential for runoff).
o AMC II: Average moisture condition (standard CN is calculated
SCS-CN Method Formula
for this condition).
The main equation used in the SCS-CN method to calculate direct
runoff (or excess rainfall) 𝑄 is: o AMC III: Wet soil (higher potential for runoff).
(𝑃 − 𝐼𝑎 )2
𝑄= for 𝑃 > 𝐼𝑎 Steps to Apply the SCS-CN Method:
𝑃 − 𝐼𝑎 + 𝑆
(If 𝑃 ≤ 𝐼𝑎 , then 𝑄 = 0, meaning no runoff occurs) 1 Determine CN: Based on land use, soil type, and hydrologic
Where: condition, select the appropriate curve number from NRCS
𝑄 = Direct runoff (cm or inches), tables.
𝑃 = Total rainfall (cm or inches), 2 Calculate 𝑆 : Using the equation 𝑆 =
25400
− 254 (in mm).
𝐼𝑎 = Initial abstraction (losses due to interception, 𝐶𝑁

surface storage, and infiltration before runoff begins), 3 Estimate Initial Abstraction 𝐼𝑎 : Use 𝐼𝑎 = 0.2𝑆.
𝑆 = Potential maximum retention (or infiltration) after
4 Determine Effective Rainfall 𝑃 : Subtract the initial
runoff begins (cm or inches).
abstraction from the total rainfall to find the excess rainfall.
The initial abstraction 𝐼𝑎 is often approximated as a fraction of the (𝑃−0.2𝑆)2
5 Calculate Runoff 𝑄 : Apply the runoff equation 𝑄 =
potential maximum retention 𝑆 : 𝑃+0.8𝑆
to estimate direct runoff.
𝐼𝑎 = 0.2𝑆
Thus, the equation becomes: Example: Please give detailed solution of - In the standard SCS-
(𝑃 − 0.2𝑆)2 CN method of modeling runoff due to daily rainfall, if CN=75, the
𝑄= for 𝑃 > 0.2𝑆 runoff magnitude for a one-day rainfall of 100 mm is nearly
𝑃 + 0.8𝑆
(a) 17 mm (b) 31 mm (c) 41 mm (d) 57 mm

Calculation of 𝑆 Given Data

The potential maximum retention 𝑆 is related to the Curve Curve Number (𝐶𝑁) = 75
Number 𝐶𝑁 by the following relationship: Rainfall 𝑃 = 100 mm.

25400 𝑆 (Potential maximum retention)

𝑆= − 254 ( in mm) 25400
𝐶𝑁 𝑆= − 254
CN
1000 Substitute the value of 𝐶𝑁 = 75 into the equation
𝑆= − 10 (in inches)
𝐶𝑁 25400
Curve Number (CN): 𝑆= − 254 = 338.67 − 254 = 84.67 mm
The Curve Number is a dimensionless parameter that represents 75
the potential runoff response of a watershed. It accounts for
Initial Abstraction 𝐼𝑎 assumed to be 𝐼𝑎 = 0.2𝑆
various factors like soil type, land use, vegetation cover,
hydrologic condition, and antecedent moisture conditions (AMC).

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𝐼𝑎 = 0.2 × 84.67 = 16.93 mm Date 𝑷(𝒎𝒎) 𝑸(𝒎𝒎)
Since 𝑃 > 𝐼𝑎 , runoff will occur. July 1 50 13.80
Runoff Depth 𝑄 July 2 20 0.75
(𝑃 − 𝐼𝑎 )2 July 3 30 3.70
𝑄=
(𝑃 − 𝐼𝑎 ) + 𝑆 July 4 18 0.41
Total 𝟏𝟏𝟖 𝟏𝟖. 𝟔𝟔
Substitute the values 𝑃 = 100 mm, 𝐼𝑎 = 16.93 mm, and 𝑆 =
84.67 mm into the formula:
Total runoff volume over the catchment 𝑉𝑟 = 350 × 104 ×
(100 − 16.93) 2 18.66/(1000)
𝑄= = 𝟔𝟓, 𝟑𝟏𝟎m3
(100 − 16.93) + 84.67
(83.07)2 6890.60
𝑄= = = 41.07 mm Example: A small watershed near Nagpur is 250 ha in size and
83.07 + 84.67 167.74 has group C soil. The land cover can be classified as 𝟑𝟎% open
forest and 𝟕𝟎% poor quality pasture. Assuming AMC at average
Example In a 350-ha watershed the 𝑪𝑵 value was assessed as 70
condition and the soil to be black soil, estimate the direct runoff
for 𝑨𝑴𝑪-III. (a) Estimate the value of direct runoff volume for
volume due to a rainfall of 75 mm in one day. Use SCS-CN
the following 4 days of rainfall. The AMC on July 𝟏st was of
equation applicable to Indian conditions. (CN = 60 for open
category III. Use standard SCS-CN equations.
forest & CN = 86 for pasture)
Date July 1 July 2 July 3 July 4 Solution
Rainfall (𝐦𝐦) 50 20 30 18 Land use % CN Product
(b) What would be the runoff volume if the 𝐂𝐍III value were Open forest 30 60 18.00
80?
Pasture (poor) 70 86 60.20
Total 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟕𝟖. 𝟐𝟎
Solution
(a) Given 𝐶𝑁III = 70 𝑆 = (25400/70) − 254 = 108.6
Average 𝐶𝑁 = 78.20
(𝑃 − 0.2𝑆)2 The relevant runoff equation for Black soil and 𝐴𝑀𝐶-II is
𝑄 = for 𝑃 > 0.2𝑆
𝑃 + 0.8𝑆
[𝑃 − (0.2 × 108.86)]2 [𝑃 − 21.78]2 (𝑃 − 0.1𝑆)2 [75 − (0.1 × 70.81)]2
𝑛 = = for 𝑃 > 21.78 mm 𝑄= = = 33.25 mm
𝑃 + (0.8 × 108.86) 𝑃 + 87.09 𝑃 + 0.9𝑆 75 + (0.9 × 70.81)

Date Total runoff volume over the catchment 𝑉𝑟 = 250 × 104 ×

𝑷(𝐦𝐦) 𝑸(𝐦𝐦) 33.25/(1000) = 𝟖𝟑, 𝟏𝟐𝟓m3
July 1 50 5.81
July 2 20 0
July 3 30 0.58
July 4 18 0
Total 𝟏𝟏𝟖 𝟔. 𝟑𝟗

Total runoff volume over the catchment 𝑉𝑟 = 350 × 104 × 6.39/

(1000)
= 𝟐𝟐, 𝟑𝟔𝟓m3

(b) Given 𝐶𝑁III = 80 𝑆 = (25400/80) − 254 = 63.5

(𝑃 − 0.2𝑆)2
𝑄 = for 𝑃 > 0.2𝑆
𝑃 + 0.8𝑆
[𝑃 − (0.2 × 63.5)]2 [𝑃 − 12.7]2
𝑛 = = for 𝑃 > 12.7 mm
𝑃 + (0.8 × 63.5) 𝑃 + 50.8

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Stream Flow Measurement 2. Bubble Gauge
Streamflow representing the runoff phase of the hydrologic
cycle is the most important basic data for hydrologic studies.

Measurement of Stage
The stage of a river is defined as its water-surface elevation
measured above a datum. This datum can be the Mean-Sea
Level (MSL) or any arbitrary datum connected independently to
the MSL.
Manual Gauges
1. Staff Gauge
The simplest of stage measurements are made by noting the
elevation of the water surface in contact with a fixed graduated
staff. It is fixed rigidly to a structure, such as an abutment, pier,
wall, etc with clearly and accurately graduated permanent
markings. In this gauge, compressed air or gas is made to bleed out at a
very small rate through an outlet placed at the bottom of the
river. A pressure gauge measures the gas pressure which in turn
is equal to the water column above the outlet

Sometimes, it may not be possible to read the entire range of

water-surface elevations of a stream by a single gauge and in
such cases the gauge is built in sections at different locations.
Such gauges are called sectional gauges. Stage Data
The stage data is often presented in the form of a plot of stage
2. Wire Gauge against chronological time known as stage hydrograph. In
It is a gauge used to measure the water-surface elevation from addition to its use in the determination of stream discharge,
above the surface such as from a bridge or similar structure. In stage data itself is of importance in design of hydraulic
this, a weight is lowered by a reel to touch the water surface. A structures, flood warning and flood-protection works.
mechanical counter measures the rotation of the wheel which is
proportional to the length of the wire paid out. The operating
range of this kind of gauge is about 25 m.

Automatic Stage Recorders

1. Float-Gauge Recorder
In a Float-Gauge Recorder a float operating in a stilling well is
balanced by means of a counterweight over the pulley of a
recorder. Displacement of the float due to the rising or lowering
of the water-surface elevation causes an angular displacement
of the pulley and hence of the input shaft of the recorder. Measurement of Velocity
To protect the float from debris and to reduce the water surface Current Meters
wave effects on the recording, stilling wells are provided in all The most commonly used instrument in hydrometry to measure
float-type stage recorder installations. the velocity at a point in the flow cross-section is the current
meter. It consists essentially of a rotating element which rotates
due to the reaction of the stream current with an angular
velocity proportional to the stream velocity.
There are two main types of current meters
1. Vertical-axis meters, and 2. Horizontal-axis meters.

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Classroom Notes Engineering Hydrology
1. Vertical-Axis Meters The value of 𝐾 is obtained from observations at lower stages
These instruments consist of a series of conical cups mounted and lie in the range of 0.85 to 0.95
around a vertical axis. The cups rotate in a horizontal plane and
a cam attached to the vertical axial spindle records generated Determination of Discharge
signals proportional to the revolutions of the cup assembly.
The Price current meter and Gurley current meter are typical 1. Area-Velocity Method
instruments under this category. The normal range of velocities This method of discharge measurement consists essentially of
is from 0.15 to 4.0 m/s. measuring the area of cross section of the river at a selected
section called the gauging site and measuring the velocity of
flow through the cross-sectional area.
For purposes of discharge estimation, the cross section is
considered to be divided into a large number of subsections by
verticals. The average velocity in these subsections is measured
by current meters or floats.

2. Horizontal-Axis Meters
These meters consist of a propeller mounted at the end of
horizontal shaft. These come in a wide variety of size with
propeller diameters in the range 6 to 12 cm, and can register
velocities in the range of 0.15 to 4.0 m/s.
Ott, Neyrtec and Watt-type meters are typical instruments • The segment width should not be greater than 1/15 to 1/20
under this kind. of the width of the river.
• The discharge in each segment should be less than 10% of
the total discharge.
• The difference of velocities in adjacent segments should
not be more than 20%.

Calculation of Discharge
Figure above shows the cross section of a river in which 𝑁 − 1
verticals are drawn. The velocity averaged over the vertical at
Measurement by Current Meter each section is known. Considering the total area to be divided
• In shallow streams of depth up to about 3.0 m, the velocity into 𝑁 − 1 segments, the total discharge is calculated by the
measured at 0.6 times the depth of flow below the water method of mid-sections as follows.
surface is taken as the average velocity 𝑣‾ in the vertical, 𝑁−1

𝑣‾ = 𝑣0.6 𝑄 = ∑ Δ𝑄𝑖
This procedure is known as the single-point observation 𝑖=1
method. Where

• In moderately deep streams the velocity is observed at two 𝑊𝑖 𝑊𝑖+1

Δ𝑄𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 × ( + ) × 𝑣𝑖 for 𝑖 = 2 to (𝑁 − 2)
points; (i) at 0.2 times the depth of flow below the free surface 2 2
(𝑣0.2 ) and (ii) at 0.8 times the depth of flow below the free
surface (𝑣0.8 ). The average velocity in the vertical 𝑣‾ is taken as For the first and last sections, the segments are taken to have
triangular areas and area calculated as
𝑣0.2 + 𝑣0.8 where
𝑣=
2 𝑊
(𝑊1 + 2 )
2

• In rivers having flood flows, only the surface velocity (𝑣𝑠 ) is ‾ 1 ⋅ 𝑦1

Δ𝐴1 = 𝑊 and ‾1 =
𝑊 2
2𝑊1
measured within a depth of about 0.5 m below the surface. 𝑊 2
The average velocity 𝑣‾ is obtained by using a reduction factor 𝑛𝑛 (𝑊𝑁 + 𝑁−1 )
‾ 𝑁−1 ⋅ 𝑦𝑁−1 and ‾ 𝑊𝑁−1 = 2
𝐾 as 𝑛Δ𝐴𝑁 = 𝑊 2𝑊𝑁
Δ𝑄1 = 𝑣‾1 ⋅ Δ𝐴1 and
𝑣 = 𝐾𝑣𝑠
Δ 𝑄𝑁−1 = 𝑣‾𝑁−1 ⋅ Δ𝐴𝑁−1

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Example: The data pertaining to a stream-gauging operation
at a gauging site are given below.
The rating equation of the current meter is 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝑵𝒔 +
𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 𝒎/𝒔 where 𝑵𝒔 = revolutions per second. Calculate the
discharge in the stream.

Distance from left 0 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11. 12.0
water edge (m) 0
Depth (m) 0 1.1 2.0 2.5 2.0 1.7 1.0 0
𝑛
Revolutions of a 0 39 58 11 90 45 30 0
current meter kept 2 Let Section 2 be sufficiently far away on the downstream of
at 0.6 depth Section 1 so that the tracer mixes thoroughly with the fluid due
Duration of 0 100 10 15 15 10 100 0 to the turbulent mixing process while passing through the reach.
observation (s) 0 0 0 0
Solution: The concentration will have a base value of 𝐶0 , increases from
The calculations are performed in a tabular form. time 𝑡1 to a peak value and gradually reaches the base value of
For the first and last sections, 𝐶0 at time 𝑡2 . The stream flow is assumed to be steady. By
2 2
‾ =
(1+ )
2 continuity of the tracer material
Average width, 𝑊 = 2.0 m
2×1
For the rest of the segments, 𝑀1 = mass of tracer added at Section 1 = 𝑉1 𝐶1
𝑡2 𝑡2
𝑉1
2 2 𝑛 = ∫ 𝑄(𝐶2 − 𝐶0 )𝑑𝑡 + ∫ (𝐶2 − 𝐶0 )𝑑𝑡
‾ = ( + ) = 2.0 m
𝑊 𝑡1 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1
2 2
Neglecting the second term on the right-had side as
Since the velocity is measured at 0.6 depth, the measured insignificantly small,
velocity is the average velocity at that vertical (𝑣‾). 𝑉1 𝐶1
𝑄 = 𝑡2
∫𝑡 (𝐶2 − 𝐶0 )𝑑𝑡
Distance W Depth Ns v Q 1

0 0 0 0.0000 Constant Rate Injection/Plateau Gauging:

1 2 1.10 0.390 0.2289 0.5036 Let the stream is flowing at discharge of Q with initial
3 2 2.00 0.580 0.3258 1.3032 concentration of tracer chemical (if any) C0
5 2 2.50 0.747 0.4110 2.0549
7 2 2.00 0.600 0.3360 1.3440
9 2 1.70 0.450 0.2595 0.8823
11 2 1.00 0.300 0.1830 0.3660
12 0 0.00 0.0000
Sum = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟑
Discharge in the stream = 6.454 m3 /s

2. Dilution Technique
The dilution method of flow measurement, also known as the At a Section a small discharge Qt of high concentration 𝐶1 of this
chemical method, depends upon the continuity principle applied tracer is added as shown in Figure.
to a tracer which is allowed to mix completely with the flow.
Let at another Section be sufficiently far away on the
There are two types of injections can be used downstream tracer mixes thoroughly with the fluid due to the
turbulent mixing process while passing through the reach. The
Sudden Injection/Gulp: concentration of tracer chemical after mixing is C2
Consider a tracer which does not react with the fluid or At the steady state, the continuity equation for the tracer is
boundary.
Let 𝐶0 be the small initial concentration of the tracer in the 𝑄𝑡 𝐶1 + 𝑄𝐶0 = (𝑄 + 𝑄𝑡 )𝐶2
streamflow.
𝑄𝑡 (𝐶1 −𝐶2 )
At Section 1 a small quantity (volume ∀1 )" of high concentration i.e., 𝑄 = (𝐶2 −𝐶0 )
𝐶1 of this tracer is added as shown in concentration- time curve.

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 Classroom Notes Engineering Hydrology
The tracers used are of three main types:
1. Chemicals (common salt and sodium dichromate are typical)
2. Fluorescent dyes (Rhodamine-WT and Sulpho-Rhodamine B
Extra are typical)
3. Radioactive materials (such as Bromine-82, Sodium-24 and
Iodine-132)
Length of Reach
Length for point injection of a tracer in a straight reach is
0.13𝐵2 𝐶(0.7𝐶 + 2√𝑔)
𝐿=
𝑔𝑑
where 𝐿 = mixing length (m),
𝐵 = average width of the stream (m),
𝑑 = average depth of the stream (m),
𝐶 = Chezy coefficient of roughness and
𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity.
The method involves sophisticated and expensive
The value of 𝐿 varies from about 1 km for a mountain stream
instrumentation. Present-day commercially available
carrying a discharge of about 1.0 m3 /s to about 100 km for river electromagnetic flowmeters can measure the discharge to an
in a plain with a discharge of about 300 m3 /s. accuracy of ±3%, the maximum channel width that can be
Example: A 𝟐𝟓 𝒈/𝒍 solution of a flourescent tracer was accommodated being 100 m. The minimum detectable velocity
discharged into a stream at a constant rate of 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟑 /𝒔. The is 0.005 m/s.
background concentration of the dye in the stream water was
found to be zero. At a downstream section sufficiently far 4. Ultrasonic Method
away, the dye was found to reach an equilibrium concentration This is an area-velocity method with the average velocity
of 5 parts per billion. Estimate the stream discharge. measured by using ultrasonic signals.
Solution
𝑄𝑡 (𝐶1 − 𝐶2 ) Consider a channel carrying a flow with two transducers 𝐴 and
𝑄=
𝐶2 − 𝐶0 𝐵 fixed at the same level ℎ above the bed and on either side of
𝑄𝑡 = 10 cm3 /s = 10 × 10−6 m3 /s the channel. These transducers can receive as well as send
𝐶1 = 0.025, 𝐶2 = 5 × 10−9 , 𝐶0 = 0 ultrasonic signals. Let 𝐴 send an ultrasonic signal to be received
10 × 10−6 at 𝐵 after an elapse time 𝑡1 Similarly, let 𝐵 send a signal to be
𝑄= (0.025 − 5 × 10−9 ) = 50 m3 /s received at 𝐴 after an elapse time 𝑡2 .
5 × 10−9

3. Electromagnetic Method
The electromagnetic method is based on the Faraday's principle
that an emf is induced in the conductor (water in the present
case) when it cuts a normal magnetic field. Large coils buried at
the bottom of the channel carry a current 𝐼 to produce a
controlled vertical magnetic field. Electrodes provided at the
sides of the channel section measure the small voltage produced
due to flow of water in the channel. It has been found that the
signal output 𝐸 will be of the order of millivolt and is related to
If 𝐶 = velocity of sound in water,
the discharge 𝑄 as
𝑡1 = 𝐿/(𝐶 + 𝑣𝑝 )
𝐸𝑑 𝑛 where 𝐿 = length of path from 𝐴 to 𝐵 and 𝑣𝑝 = component of
𝑄 = 𝐾1 ( + 𝐾2 ) the flow velocity in the sound path = 𝑣cos 𝜃. Similarly, from Fig.
𝐼
4.19 it is easy to see that
where 𝑑 = depth of flow, 𝐼 = current in the coil, and 𝑛, 𝐾1 and 𝐿
𝑡2 =
𝐾2 are system constants. (𝐶 − 𝑣𝑝 )
1 1 2𝑣𝑝 2𝑣cos 𝜃
− = =
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿 1 1
𝑣 = ( − )
2cos 𝜃 𝑡1 𝑡2
Currently available commercial systems are currently available
for rivers up to 500 m width.

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Classroom Notes Engineering Hydrology
5. Slope-Area Method The discharge is calculated by a trial-and-error procedure using
The resistance equation for uniform flow in an open channel, the following sequence of calculations:
e.g., Manning’s formula can be used to relate the depths at
either ends of a reach to the discharge. Example: During a flood flow, the depth of water in a 𝟏𝟎 𝒎
wide rectangular channel was found to be 𝟑. 𝟎 𝒎 and 𝟐. 𝟗 𝒎 at
two sections 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎 apart. The drop in the water-surface
elevation was found to be 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝒎. Assuming Manning's
coefficient to be 0.025, estimate the flood discharge through
the channel.
Solution:

Applying the energy equation to Sections 1 and 2,

𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑍1 + 𝑦1 + = 𝑍2 + 𝑦2 + + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔
where ℎ𝐿 = head loss in the reach.
The head loss ℎ𝐿 can be considered to be made up of two parts
(i) frictional loss ℎ𝑓 , and
(ii) eddy loss ℎ𝑒 .
Denoting 𝑧 + 𝑦 = ℎ = watersurface elevation above the datum,
or
𝑉12 𝑉22
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 + + ℎ𝑒 + ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉12 𝑉22
ℎ𝑓 = (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) + ( − ) − ℎ𝑒
2𝑔 2𝑔
If 𝐿 = length of the reach, by Manning's formula for uniform
flow,
ℎ𝑓 𝑄2
= 𝑆𝑓 = energy slope = 2
𝐿 𝐾
1
where 𝐾 = conveyance of the channel = 𝐴𝑅2/3
𝑛

𝑛 = Manning's roughness coefficient

The eddy loss ℎ𝑒 is estimated as

𝑉12 𝑉22
ℎ𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 | − |
2𝑔 2𝑔

where 𝐾𝑒 = eddy-loss coefficient having values as below.

Cross-section characteristic Value of 𝑲𝒆

of the reach Expansion Contraction
Uniform 0 0
Gradual transition 0.3 0.1
Abrupt transition 0.8 0.6

The continuity equation 𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 enable the discharge

𝑄 to be estimated for known values of ℎ, channel cross-sectional
properties and 𝑛.

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Classroom Notes Engineering Hydrology
IS : 11223—1985 : Guidelines for fixing spillway capacity
Flood
A flood is an unusually high stage in a river, normally the level at
which the river overflows its banks and inundates the adjoining
area.

In the design of practically all hydraulic structures the peak flow

that can be expected with an assigned frequency (say 1 in 100
years) is of primary importance to adequately proportion the Determination of Peak Flood
structure to accommodate its effect. Rational Formula:
This is the oldest and best-known formula that has been
Ordinary floods are the floods that are sure to be equaled in extensively used for design of storm-sewers.
magnitude once or more times in the estimated life of the project. The Rational formula assumes a direct relationship between the
rainfall rate and the runoff rate, while that is not so in actual
Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) The extreme flood that is practice.
physically possible in a region as a result of severe most
combinations, including rare combinations of meteorological and 1
hydrological factors. The PMF is used in situations where the 𝑄𝑝 = 𝐶𝑖𝐴
3.6
failure of the structure would result in loss of life and catastrophic where
damage and as such complete security from potential floods is 𝑄𝑝 = peak discharge (m3 /s)
sought. 𝐶 = coefficient of runoff
𝑖 = the mean intensity of precipitation (mm/h) for a duration
Standard project flood (SPF) is the flood that is likely to be equal to 𝑡𝑐 and an exceedance probability 𝑃
exceeded in magnitude only at rare occasions, and thus, 𝐴 = drainage area in km2
constitutes a standard for the design of structures, that would
provide enough flood protection. Although, the standard project Time of Concentration (𝒕𝒄 )
flood is of such a high magnitude, as is to be considered There are a number of empirical equations available for the
exceptionally infrequent, yet it is reasonably certain to occur on estimation of the time of concentration. Most adopted method is
the drainage basin concerned. Kirpich equation.

SPF is often used where the failure of a structure would cause less Kirpich Equation (1940):
severe damages. Typically, the SPF is about 40 to 60% of the PMF This is the popularly used formula relating the time of
for the same drainage basin. concentration of the length of travel and slope of the catchment
as
The criteria used for selecting the design flood for various 𝑡𝑐 = 0.01947𝐿0.77 𝑆 −0.385
hydraulic structures vary from one country to another. Table gives
a brief summary of the guidelines adopted by CWC India, to select where 𝑡𝑐 = time of concentration (minutes)
design floods. 𝐿 = maximum length of travel of water (m), and
Guidelines for Selecting Design Floods (CWC, New Delhi) 𝑆 = slope of the catchment = Δ𝐻/𝐿 in which
Δ𝐻 = difference in elevation between the most remote point on
the catchment and the outlet.
For easy use, is sometimes written as

𝑡𝑐 = 0.01947𝐾10.77
𝐿3
where 𝐾1 = √
Δ𝐻

Rainfall Intensity ( 𝒊 )
The rainfall intensity corresponding to a duration 𝑡𝑐 and the
desired probability of exceedance 𝑃, (i.e. return period 𝑇 = 1/𝑃 )
𝐾𝑇 𝑥
𝑖=
(𝑡𝑐 + 𝑎)𝑛
in which the coefficients 𝐾, 𝑎, 𝑥 and 𝑛 are specific to a given area.

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Classroom Notes Engineering Hydrology
Empirical Formulas for Peak Flood: Let’s Probability of Flood in a year is P and probability of no flood
1. Dickens Formula (1865) in that year is q,
Hence 𝑃 + 𝑞 = 1
𝑄𝑝 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴3/4 The recurrence interval, 𝑇 (also called the return period or
m3
where 𝑄𝑝 = maximum flood discharge ( ) frequency) is calculated as
s
𝐴 = catchment area (km2 ) 1
𝑇=
𝐶𝐷 = Dickens constant with value between 6 to 30 𝑃
Probability of a natural event:
The following are some guidelines in selecting the value of 𝐶𝐷 : The simplest empirical technique is to arrange the given annual
Region Value of 𝑪𝑫 peak flood data in the descending order, and to assign the ranking
North-Indian plains 6 number (𝑚) to each flood. The severest flood will, thus, be placed
at the top with its ranking as 1. The 2nd severest flood will be placed
North-Indian hilly regions 11 − 14
at number 2 position, and its ranking number will also be 2.
Central India 14 − 28
The lightest flood peak will be placed at the last place ( 𝑁 th place),
Coastal Andhra and Orissa 22 − 28
and its ranking will also be 𝑁.
Note: Dickens formula is used in the central and northern parts of
The probability of an event equalling or exceeding is then
the country.
computed by the empirical California formula as:
2. Ryves Formula (1884) 𝑚
𝑝=
𝑁
𝑄𝑝 = 𝐶𝑅 𝐴2/3 Some other formulas are:
𝑚
m3 (i) Weibull formula 𝑝=
where 𝑄𝑝 = maximum flood discharge ( ) 𝑁+1
s
𝐴 = catchment area (km2 ) and 𝐶𝑅 = Ryves coefficient 𝑚−0.5
This formula originally developed for the Tamil Nadu region, is in (ii) Hazen formula 𝑝=
𝑁
use in Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
𝑚−0.3
(iii) Chegodayev formula 𝑝=
The values of 𝐶𝑅 recommended by Ryves for use are 𝑁+0.4

𝐶𝑅 = 6.8 for areas within 80 km from the east coast 𝑚−0.44

= 8.5 for areas which are 80 − 160 km from the east (iv) Blom formula 𝑝=
𝑁+0.12
= 10.2 for limited areas near hills
Different Durations Probability:
3. Inglis Formula (1930)
Probability of occurrence of the event occurring 𝑟 number of
This formula is based on flood data of catchments in Western
times in 𝑛 successive years
Ghats in Maharashtra. The flood peak 𝑄𝑝 in m3 /s is expressed as
𝑛!
124𝐴 𝑃𝑟,𝑛 = 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 𝑃𝑟 𝑞 𝑛−𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟 𝑞 𝑛−𝑟
𝑄𝑝 = (𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟!
√𝐴 + 10.4 where 𝑞 = 1 − 𝑃
where 𝐴 is the catchment area in km2
The probability of the event not occurring at all in 𝑛 successive
4. Nawab Jung Bahadur formula years is
This formula has been derived for Hyderabad Deccan catchments, 𝑃0,𝑛 = 𝑛 𝐶0 𝑃0 𝑞 𝑛 = 𝑞 𝑛 = (1 − 𝑃)𝑛
and states that The probability of the event occurring at least once in 𝑛 successive
1
[0.93−(
14
)log 𝐴1 ] years is
𝑛 𝑄𝑝 = 𝐶 ⋅ 𝐴1 in cumec 𝑃1 = (1 − Probability of the event not occurring at all )
𝑛 where 𝐶 = a constant, having a value of about 49 for = 1 − 𝑞 𝑛 = 1 − (1 − 𝑃)𝑛
𝑛 south India, and 60 for North India.
𝑛 𝐴1 = Area in square miles
𝑛 = 0.39 A, where 𝐴 is the area in sq km. Risk and Reliability
This formula is widely used in Maharashtra for designs in small The probability of occurrence of flood at least once over period of
catchments. 𝑛 successive year is called the risk, 𝑹.
Thus, the risk is given by
𝑅 = 1 − (Probability of non-occurrence of the event in 𝑛 years)
𝑅 = 1 − (1 − 𝑃)𝑛
Flood Frequency Studies:
1 𝑛
Hydrologic processes such as floods are exceedingly complex 𝑛 = 1 − (1 − )
natural events. So, the theory of probability is used for Flood 𝑇
where
Frequency Studies. 1
𝑛𝑃 = probability , 𝑃 =
𝑇
𝑛𝑇 = return period

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Classroom Notes Engineering Hydrology
Reliability (𝑹𝒆 ) is the probability that there will no flood in 𝑛 𝑛 p(r = 2) = nCr × pr × qn−r
successive years. 1 2 49 10−2
The reliability 𝑅𝑒 , is defined as 𝑛 p(r = 2) = 10C2 ( ) ( )
50 50
1 𝑛 𝑛 p(r = 2) = 0.153 or 15.3%
𝑅𝑒 = 1 − R = (1 − )
𝑇 c) For At least once in 10 years:
Example 1: Probability of non-occurrence for 10 years = 𝑞 𝑛
A bridge has an expected life of 25 years and is designed for a flood Probability of occurrence at least once = 1 − 𝑞 𝑛
magnitude of return period 100 years. (a) What is the risk of this 49 10
hydrologic design? (b) If a 10% risk is acceptable, what return 𝑛 p=1−( )
50
period will have to be adopted? 𝑛 p = 0.183 or 18.3%
Solution
1 𝑛
(a) The risk 𝑅‾ = 1 − (1 − ) Gumbel's Method of frequency analysis
𝑇
Here 𝑛 = 25 years and 𝑇 = 100 years This extreme value distribution was introduced by Gumbel (1941)
1 25 and is commonly known as Gumbel's distribution.
𝑅‾ = 1 − (1 − ) = 0.222 Gumble's Equation
100
Hence the inbuilt risk in this design is 22.2% 𝑥𝑇 = 𝑥‾ + 𝐾𝜎𝑛−1
(b) 𝑥𝑇 is the value of the variate 𝑋 with a recurrence interval 𝑇 is used
1 25 as
𝑛 If 𝑅‾ = 10% = 0.10 0.10 = 1 − (1 − ) where
𝑇
𝜎𝑛−1 = standard deviation of the sample of size
1 25
𝑛(1 − ) = 0.90 𝐾 = frequency factor expressed as
𝑇 𝑦𝑇 − 𝑦‾𝑛
and 𝑇 = 238 years = say 240 years. 𝐾=
𝑆𝑛
Hence to get 10% acceptable risk, the bridge will have to be
in which 𝑦𝑇 = reduced variate, a function of 𝑇 and is given by
designed for a flood of return period 𝑇 = 240 years. 𝑇
𝑦𝑇 = − [ln ⋅ ln ]
𝑇−1
Example 2: 𝑦‾𝑛 = reduced mean
On the basis of rainfall map, the 50 year 24 hour maximum 𝑆𝑛 = reduced standard deviation,
rainfall at Delhi is found to be 16 cm . Find the probability of a 24
hour rainfall of magnitude equal to or greater than 16 cm Example: Flood-frequency computations for the river Chambal
occurring at Delhi at Gandhisagar dam, by using Gumbel's method, yielded the
(i) once in 10 successive years. following results.
(ii) two times in 10 successive years
(iii) atleast once in 10 successive years Return period 𝑻 (years) Peak flood (𝐦𝟑 𝐬)

Solution: 50 40,809
The following information is given
Return period (T) = 50 years 100 46,300
Probability of occurrence (p)
1 1 Estimate the flood magnitude in this river with a return period
p= ⇒p=
T 50 of 500 years.
Probability of non-occurrence (q) Solution
49 𝑥100 = 𝑥‾ + 𝐾100 𝜎𝑛−1 𝑥50 = 𝑥‾ + 𝐾50 𝜎𝑛−1
q= 1−p ⇒q =
50 (𝐾100 − 𝐾50 )𝜎𝑛−1 = 𝑥100 − 𝑥50 = 46300 − 40809 = 5491
𝑦𝑇 𝑦‾𝑛
a) For 𝒓 = 𝟏 (once in 10 successive years): But 𝐾𝑇 = − 𝑛
𝑠𝑛 𝑠𝑛
Number of trials (n) = 10
where 𝑆𝑛 and 𝑦‾𝑛 are constants for the given series.
Probability of occurrence exactly once 𝜎𝑛−1
𝑛 p(r = 1) = nCr × pr × qn−r ∴ (𝑦100 − 𝑦50 ) = = 5491
𝑆𝑛
1 1 49 10−1 By Eq.
𝑛 p(r = 1) = 10C1 ( ) ( )
50 50 𝑦100 = −[ln ⋅ ln (100/99)] = 4.60015
𝑛 p(r = 1) = 0.167 or 16.7% 𝑦50 = −[ln ⋅ ln 50/99)] = 3.90194
b) For 𝐫 = 𝟐 (Two times in 10 successive years): 𝜎𝑛−1 5491
Number of trials (n) = 10 = = 7864
𝑆𝑛 (4.60015 − 3.90194)
Probability of occurrence exactly twice For 𝑇 = 500 years,

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𝑛𝑦500 = −[ln ⋅ ln (500/499)]6.21361 Muskingum Method of Routing
𝜎𝑛−1 Used for Hydrologic Channel Routing
𝑛(𝑦500 − 𝑦100 ) = 𝑥500 − 𝑥100
𝑆𝑛
𝑛 (6.21361 − 4.60015) × 7864 = 𝑥500 − 46300 Muskingum Equation
𝑛𝑥500 = 58988, say 59,000 m3 /s Relationship for 𝑆 in terms of 𝐼 and 𝑄 as
𝑆 = 𝐾[𝑥𝐼 + (1 − 𝑥)𝑄]
Flood Routing and this relationship is known as the Muskingum equation. In this,
Flood routing is the technique of determining the flood the parameter 𝑥 is known as weighting factor and takes a value
hydrograph at a section of a river by utilizing the data of flood flow between 0 and 0.5
at one or more upstream sections.
Flood routing is of two types: The coefficient 𝐾 is known as storage-time constant and has the
dimensions of time. It is approximately equal to the time of travel
1. Reservoir routing of a flood wave through the channel reach.
In reservoir routing, the effect of a flood wave entering a reservoir For a given channel reach by selecting a routing interval Δ𝑡 and
is studied. Knowing the volume-elevation characteristic of the using the Muskingum equation, the change in storage is
reservoir and the outflow-elevation relationship for the spillways
and other outlet structures in the reservoir, the effect of a flood 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 𝐾[𝑥(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) + (1 − 𝑥)(𝑄2 − 𝑄1 )]
wave entering the reservoir is studied to predict the variations of where suffixes 1 and 2 refer to the conditions before and after the
reservoir elevation and outflow discharge with time. time interval Δ𝑡. The continuity equation for the reach is
𝐼2 + 𝐼1 𝑄2 + 𝑄1
2. Channel routing 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = ( ) Δ𝑡 − ( ) Δ𝑡
2 2
In channel routing, the change in the shape of a hydrograph as it 𝑄2 is evaluated as
travels down a channel is studied. By considering a channel reach 𝑄2 = 𝐶0 𝐼2 + 𝐶1 𝐼1 + 𝐶2 𝑄1
and an input hydrograph at the upstream end, this form of routing
aims to predict the flood hydrograph at various sections of the 𝐶0 , 𝐶1 , and 𝐶2 can be obtained as
reach. −𝐾𝑥 + 0.5Δ𝑡
𝐶0 =
Routing Methods are classified into two categories as: 𝐾 − 𝐾𝑥 + 0.5Δ𝑡
(i) Hydrologic Routing, Hydrologic routing methods employ 𝐾𝑥 + 0.5Δ𝑡
𝐶1 =
essentially the equation of continuity. 𝐾 − 𝐾𝑥 + 0.5Δ𝑡
𝐾 − 𝐾𝑥 − 0.5Δ𝑡
(ii) Hydraulic routing, on the other hand, employ the continuity 𝐶2 =
𝐾 − 𝐾𝑥 + 0.5Δ𝑡
equation together with the equation of motion of unsteady flow.
Note that 𝐶0 + 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 1.0, Eq. can be written in a general form
Basic Continuity Equation for the 𝑛th time step as
The passage of a flood hydrograph through a reservoir or a 𝑄𝑛 = 𝐶0 𝐼𝑛 + 𝐶1 𝐼𝑛−1 + 𝐶2 𝑄𝑛−1
channel reach is an unsteady-flow phenomenon. It is classified in
open-channel hydraulics as gradually varied unsteady flow. The Example: Route the following flood hydrograph through a river
equation of continuity used in all hydrologic routing as the primary reach for which 𝑲 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎𝒉 and 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎. At the start of the
equation states that the difference between the inflow and inflow flood, the outflow discharge is 𝟏𝟎 𝐦𝟑 /𝐬.
outflow rate is equal to the rate of change of storage, i.e. Time (h) 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54
𝑑𝑆 Inflow (m)/𝐬) 10 20 50 60 55 45 35 27 20 15
𝐼−𝑄 =
𝑑𝑡
where 𝐼 = inflow rate, 𝑄 = outflow rate and 𝑆 = storage. Solution
Alternatively, in a small-time interval Δ𝑡 the difference between Since 𝐾 = 12 h
the total inflow volume and total outflow volume in a reach is In the present case Δ𝑡 = 6 h
equal to the change in storage in that reach 𝐶0 , 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are calculated as
−12 × 0.20 + 0.5 × 6 0.6
𝐼‾Δ𝑡 − 𝑄‾Δ𝑡 = Δ𝑆 𝑛𝐶0 = = = 0.048
12 − 12 × 0.2 + 0.5 × 6 12.6
where 𝐼‾ = average inflow in time Δ𝑡, 𝑄‾ = average outflow in time 12 × 0.2 + 0.5 × 6
𝑛𝐶1 = = 0.429
Δ𝑡 and Δ𝑆 = change in storage. 12.6
12 − 12 × 0.2 − 0.5 × 6
By taking 𝐼‾ = (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )/2, 𝑄‾ = (𝑄1 + 𝑄2 )/2 and Δ𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 𝑛𝐶2 = = 0.523
12.6
with suffixes 1 and 2 to denote the beginning and end of time For the first time interval, 0 to 6 h ,
interval Δ𝑡, Eq. is written as 𝐼1 = 10.0 𝐶1 𝐼1 = 4.29
𝐼2 = 20.0 𝐶0 𝐼2 = 0.96
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 𝑄1 = 10.0 𝐶2 𝑄1 = 5.23
( ) Δ𝑡 − ( ) Δ𝑡 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1
2 2
𝑄2 = 𝐶0 𝐼2 + 𝐶1 𝐼1 + 𝐶2 𝑄1 = 10.48 m3 /s

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 Classroom Notes Engineering Hydrology
Drought 2. If the drought occurs in an area with a probability between 0.2
Drought is a climatic anomaly characterized by deficit supply of to 0.4, the area is classified as drought prone area, if the
moisture. This may result from subnormal rainfall over large probability of occurrence of drought at a place
regions causing below normal natural availability of water over is greater than 0.4 such an area is called as chronically drought-
long periods of time. prone area.
Many classifications of droughts are available in literature. The
following classification into three categories proposed by the Frequency of Rainfall
National Commission on Agriculture (1976) is widely adopted in
the country:
Let’s Probability of rainfall is P and probability of no rainfall is q,
1.Meteorological Drought: It is a situation where there is more than
Hence 𝑃 + 𝑞 = 1
25% decrease in precipitation from normal over an area.
The recurrence interval, 𝑇 (also called the return period or
Rainfall Deficiency Severity class
frequency) is calculated as
Less than 25% Normal 1
26 − 50% Moderate 𝑇=
𝑃
> 50% Severe
Probability of occurrence of the rainfall occurring 𝑟 number of
2.Hydrological Drought: Meteorological drought, if prolonged, times in 𝑛 successive years/days
results in hydrological drought with marked depletion of surface 𝑛!
water and groundwater. The consequences are the drying up of 𝑃𝑟,𝑛 = 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 𝑃𝑟 𝑞 𝑛−𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟 𝑞 𝑛−𝑟
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟!
reservoirs, streams and rivers, and fall in the groundwater level. where 𝑞 = 1 − 𝑃
3.Agricultural Drought: This occurs when the soil moisture and The probability of the rainfall not occurring at all in 𝑛 successive
rainfall inadequate during the growing season to support healthy years/days is
crop growth to maturity. There will be extreme crop stress and 𝑃0,𝑛 = 𝑛 𝐶0 𝑃0 𝑞 𝑛 = 𝑞 𝑛 = (1 − 𝑃)𝑛
wilt conditions. The probability of the rainfall occurring at least once in 𝑛
Deficiency of rainfall has been the principal criteria for defining successive years/days is
agricultural drought. An agricultural drought is when sufficient 𝑃1 = (1 − Probability of the event not occurring at all )
water is not available in the root zone for growth of crop. It is = 1 − 𝑞 𝑛 = 1 − (1 − 𝑃)𝑛
mathematically expressed by Aridity Index.
An aridity index (AI) is defined as Probability can be calculated by same California or other formulas.
Note: Station year method to determine the recurrence interval.
𝑃𝐸𝑇 − 𝐴𝐸𝑇 Station year method is used to determine recurrence intervals
𝐴𝐼 = × 100
𝑃𝐸𝑇 which are longer, and hence, cannot be computed from the
where 𝑷𝑬𝑻 = Potential evapotranspiration available records of a single station. This method is an extension
The amount of water that would evaporate from the surface and of the method 𝑁 = 𝑇. 𝑚, with the only difference that the records
be transpired by plants, when the supply of water unlimited. of various stations are combined together.

and 𝑨𝑬𝑻 = Actual evapotranspiration. Example : Analysis of data on maximum one -day rainfall depth
The depth of water actually evaporated from field soil and at Chennai indicated that a depth of 300 mm had a return period
transpirated from plants, considering actual availability of water of 50 years. Determine the probability of a one-day rainfall depth
for cultivation. equal to or greater than 300 mm at Chennai occurring (a) once in
20 successive years, (b) two times in 15 successive years, and (c)
AI is used as an indicator of possible moisture stress experienced at least once in 20 successive years.
by crops. Based on 𝐴𝐼 Value, the intensity of agricultural drought Solution
1
is classified as follows Here, 𝑃 = = 0.02, 𝑞 = (1 − 𝑃) = (1 − 0.02) = 0.98
50
AI Value Severity class By using Eq: 𝑃𝑟,𝑛 =
𝑛!
𝑃𝑟 𝑞 𝑛−𝑟
(𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟!
Zero or negative Non-arid 20! 20!
1 − 25 Mild arid (a) 𝑛 = 20, r = 1: 𝑃1,20 = (20−1)!1! 𝑃1 𝑞20−1 = 19!1! × 0.02 × (0.98)19
26 − 50 Moderate arid = 20 × 0.02 × 0.68123 = 0.272
> 50 Severe arid (b)
15! 15!
𝑛 = 15, 𝑟 = 2: 𝑃2,15 = 𝑃 2 𝑞15−2 = × (0.02)2 × (0.98)13
Note: (15 − 2)! 2! 13! 2!
15 × 14
1. A year is considered to be a drought year in case the area 𝑛 = × 0.0004 × 0.769 = 0.323
affected by moderate or severe drought either individually or 2
collectively is more than 20% of the total area of the country.

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Classroom Notes Engineering Hydrology
Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves (IDF curves) Example: 12 Annual rainfall values at station A in mm for the years 2001
Rainfall of a place can be completely defined if the intensities, to 2010 are given in the table below. If simple central 3 -year moving
mean of this rainfall record is calculated, the maximum and minimum
durations and frequencies of the various storms occurring at that
values in the moving mean list would be
place are known. The available data can be used to determine the Years 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
frequencies of the various rains, as described earlier (by using the Annual 586 621 618 639 689 610 591 604 621 650
equation 𝑁 = 𝑇. 𝑚 ). Rainfall(mm)

This frequency-data for storms of various durations, so obtained, (a) 689 mm and 602 mm (b) 649 mm and 602 mm
(c) 689 mm and 586 mm (d) 549 mm and 586 mm
can be represented by intensity-duration frequency curves. An
Solution
intensity duration frequency curve is a plot of average rainfall Correct Option (b) 649 mm and 602 mm
intensity in cm/h and the duration in minutes. A typical All rainfall data and their central 3 year moving means are listed in the
intensityduration curve of a particular frequency is shown in following table:
Figure.
Year Annual rainfall data (mm) Central 3 year moving mean (mm)
2001 586
2002 621 586 + 621 + 618
= 608.3
3
2003 618 621 + 618 + 639
= 626
3
2004 639 618 + 639 + 689
= 648.67 ≈ 649
3
2005 689 639 + 689 + 610
= 646
3
2006 610 689 + 610 + 591
= 630
3
2007 591 610 + 591 + 604
= 601.67 ≈ 602
3
2008 604 591 + 604 + 621
= 605.33
3
2009 621 604 + 621 + 650
= 625
3
Moving Average 2010 650
Moving average is a technique for smoothening out the high ∴ From the table it can be identified that, the maximum value in the
frequency fluctuations of a time series and to enable the trend, if moving mean is 649 mm and minimum value in the moving mean is 602
any, to be noticed. mm.
The rainfall records of various years can be graphically
represented by plotting the annual rainfall values on y-axis and Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)
the respective years on X-axis, as to get a bar graph, as shown in The Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) is defined as the
Figure. Such a bar graph, however, does not reflect any clear greatest or extreme rainfall for a given duration that is physically
trends or patterns in the rainfall due to abrupt variations in possible over a station or basin. From the operational point of
individual years. In order to suppress these and to bring out the view, PMP can be defined as that rainfall over a basin which would
general trend of the rainfall over say 3 years or 5 years, the produce a flood flow with virtually no risk of being exceeded.
averages Statistic studies indicate that 𝑃𝑀𝑃 can be estimated as
of the three (or five) consecutive years, are computed
progressively, and are then plotted, as shown in Figure. 𝑃𝑀𝑃 = 𝑃‾ + 𝐾𝜎

where 𝑃 = mean of annual maximum rainfall series,

𝜎 = standard deviation of the series and
𝐾 = a frequency factor which depends upon the statistical distribution of
the series, number of years of record and the return period. The value of
𝐾 is usually in the neighborhood of 15.

World's Greatest Observed Rainfall

Based upon the rainfall records available all over the world, a list
of world's greatest recorded rainfalls of various duration can be
assembled. When this data is plotted on a log-log paper, an
enveloping straight line drawn to the plotted points obeys the
equation.
𝑃𝑚 = 42.16𝐷0.475
where 𝑃𝑚 = extreme rainfall depth in cm and
𝐷 = duration in hours.

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