Part – A

1. What Do you mean by Alpha Go?

 AlphaGo is an artificial intelligence program developed by Google DeepMind that uses
deep learning neural networks to play the board game Go. AlphaGo made headlines in
2016 when it defeated the world champion Lee Sedol in a five-game match. The
achievement was seen as a significant milestone in the field of artificial intelligence, as Go
is an extremely complex game with more possible board configurations than there are
atoms in the universe, making it a much more challenging game for computers to play
than other board games like chess. The success of AlphaGo was due to its ability to learn
from its own experience and use a combination of neural networks and Monte Carlo tree
search to make decisions.
2. Explain the learning equation of a NN and draw a diagram of NN
to support all parts.
 The learning equation of a neural network is a mathematical expression that represents
how the network learns from the input data during the training process. In general, the
learning equation is used to adjust the weights and biases of the neurons in the network
to minimize the difference between the predicted output and the actual output.

The learning equation of a neural network can be expressed as:

W = W - α * ∇E

Where:

- W: the weight matrix of the neural network

- α: the learning rate, which determines how much the weights should be adjusted in each
iteration
- ∇E: the gradient of the error function with respect to the weight matrix

The gradient of the error function indicates the direction in which the weights should be
adjusted to minimize the error. By iteratively adjusting the weights according to this
direction, the neural network can gradually learn to make more accurate predictions.

Here is a diagram of a simple feedforward neural network to support the different parts
of the learning equation:
 In the diagram, the input layer receives the input values (x1, x2), which are multiplied by
the weights w1 and w2, respectively, to produce the outputs of the hidden layer (h1, h2,
h3). The outputs of the hidden layer are then multiplied by the weights w3, w4, and w5
to produce the output y1 of the neural network.

During the training process, the weights of the network are adjusted based on the
difference between the predicted output and the actual output. The learning rate
determines the size of the weight adjustments, and the gradient of the error function with
respect to the weight matrix indicates the direction of the weight adjustments. By
iteratively adjusting the weights according to this direction, the neural network can
gradually learn to make more accurate predictions.

3. Define Bias and Variance in the context of machine learning.

 In the context of machine learning, bias and variance are two important concepts that
describe the behavior of a model.

Bias refers to the tendency of a model to consistently make errors in its predictions,
regardless of the training data. A model with high bias is said to underfit the data, meaning
it is not complex enough to capture the underlying patterns in the data. In other words, it
has a strong prior belief about the data that is not justified by the training examples. An
underfit model may perform poorly on both the training and test data.

Variance, on the other hand, refers to the sensitivity of a model to changes in the training
data. A model with high variance is said to overfit the data, meaning it is too complex and
flexible, and captures noise in the training data as well as the underlying patterns. An
overfit model may perform well on the training data but generalize poorly to new, unseen
data.
 In summary, bias and variance are two sources of error that affect the ability of a model
to generalize to new data. A good machine learning model should have an appropriate
balance between bias and variance, known as the bias-variance tradeoff, to avoid
underfitting or overfitting the data.

4. Explain the basic topologies for

 Nonrecurrent Neural Networks
 Recurrent Neural Networks

And also illustrate their structure.

 Nonrecurrent Neural Networks:

Nonrecurrent neural networks are also known as feedforward neural networks. In

feedforward neural networks, the information flows in only one direction, from the input
layer through the hidden layers to the output layer. The input data is presented to the input
layer, and the information is processed by the hidden layers to produce an output. There are
several types of feedforward neural networks, including single-layer perceptron’s, multilayer
perceptron’s, and convolutional neural networks.

Recurrent Neural Networks:

Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) are a type of neural network where the output of each
neuron is fed back into the network as an input to the next time step. RNNs are useful for
processing sequential data, such as time series or natural language, where the order of the
input is important. The main difference between RNNs and feedforward neural networks is
that RNNs have loops in their architecture, allowing them to retain information over time.
5. Identify the characteristics of problems suitable for ANNs.
 Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) can be applied to a wide range of problems across
various domains, including classification, regression, prediction, and control. However,
some characteristics of problems make them particularly suitable for ANNs. Here are
some of these characteristics:

1. Non-linearity: ANNs can model non-linear relationships between inputs and outputs,
making them suitable for problems where the relationships are not linear or simple.

2. Large and complex data sets: ANNs can handle large and complex data sets, including
unstructured data such as images, audio, and text.

3. Robustness to noisy data: ANNs are robust to noisy data and can learn patterns even in
the presence of noise or missing data.

4. Generalization: ANNs can generalize patterns learned from the training data to new,
unseen data, making them suitable for tasks such as image recognition, speech
recognition, and natural language processing.

5. Parallel processing: ANNs can perform parallel processing, allowing them to process
multiple inputs simultaneously and therefore accelerate computation.

6. Adaptability: ANNs can adapt to changing environments or data, making them suitable
for tasks such as dynamic control or online learning.
Some examples of problems that ANNs are commonly applied to include:
- Image classification and recognition
- Speech recognition and synthesis
- Natural language processing
- Fraud detection
- Credit risk analysis
- Recommender systems
- Predictive maintenance
- Time-series forecasting
 - Robotics control
6. What is R2-Score and what it is used in the context of machine
learning?
 R2-Score, also known as the coefficient of determination, is a statistical measure used in
machine learning to evaluate the performance of regression models. It measures how well
a regression model fits the data by comparing the variability of the predicted values to the
variability of the actual values.

R2-Score is a value between 0 and 1, with 1 indicating a perfect fit between the model
and the data and 0 indicating that the model does not explain any of the variability in the
data. In other words, R2-Score measures the proportion of the variance in the dependent
variable that is explained by the independent variables in the model.

R2-Score is used to assess the quality of a regression model and compare the performance
of different models. It is often used in conjunction with other evaluation metrics, such as
Mean Squared Error (MSE), Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), and Mean Absolute Error
(MAE), to get a comprehensive understanding of the performance of the model.

R2-Score is calculated as follows:

R2 = 1 - (SS_res / SS_tot)

where SS_res is the sum of the squared residuals, which is the difference between the
actual and predicted values, and SS_tot is the total sum of squares, which is the difference
between the actual values and their mean.

A high R2-Score indicates that the model is able to explain a large proportion of the
variability in the data, while a low R2-Score indicates that the model is not able to explain
much of the variability. It is important to note that R2-Score should not be used as the
sole measure of a model's performance, and other evaluation metrics should also be
considered to ensure that the model is appropriate for the task at hand.

7. In an apple bucket one apple is red, next one is red, 3rd one is red
and 4th one is also red. So, one learning says all apples are red.
Name the type of learning.
 The type of learning in this scenario is supervised learning. Specifically, it is an example of
classification, where the task is to assign a label or class (in this case, "red") to each input
(in this case, the apples). The learning algorithm is provided with labeled examples (i.e.,
the color of each apple) and uses these examples to learn a mapping between inputs and
labels, which can be used to classify new, unseen inputs. In this case, the algorithm
learned that all apples in the bucket are red, based on the examples it was given.
8. Compare Machine Learning and Deep Learning.
 Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL) are both subfields of artificial intelligence
(AI) that involve training models to make predictions or decisions based on data. While
they share some similarities, there are several key differences between the two:

1. Complexity: One of the main differences between ML and DL is the complexity of the
models. ML algorithms are usually based on simpler models, such as decision trees or
linear regression, whereas DL algorithms use complex neural networks with multiple
layers of processing.

2. Feature Engineering: In traditional ML, feature engineering is a critical step in the

process, where the relevant features or attributes of the data are selected and extracted
before feeding into the model. In contrast, DL can automatically learn features from raw
data, eliminating the need for manual feature engineering.

3. Data Requirements: Deep Learning models typically require more data to be trained
effectively. This is because of the greater complexity of the models, which require more
examples to learn patterns and make accurate predictions.

4. Computation: Deep Learning models typically require more computation and

processing power than traditional ML algorithms. This is because of the complex neural
network architecture, which requires a lot of computations during training and inference.

5. Performance: Deep Learning models have shown superior performance over traditional
ML algorithms in certain tasks such as image and speech recognition, language
translation, and playing games like Go or Chess. However, traditional ML algorithms are
often more interpretable and easier to understand.

Overall, the choice between using Machine Learning or Deep Learning depends on the
specific problem being addressed, the amount and quality of available data, the required
accuracy of predictions, and the available computing resources.

9. Explain procedural knowledge.

 Procedural knowledge refers to the knowledge of how to perform a particular task or
procedure. It is a type of knowledge that is acquired through practice, repetition, and
experience, and is often difficult to verbalize or express in words. Procedural knowledge
is closely related to skills, abilities, and know-how, and is often contrasted with declarative
knowledge, which refers to factual knowledge or information that can be easily
verbalized.

Examples of procedural knowledge include skills such as driving a car, playing a musical
instrument, or performing surgery. Procedural knowledge is often acquired through trial
and error, feedback, and observation of others who are more skilled at the task. It is
typically acquired through hands-on experience rather than through reading or listening
to lectures.
 Procedural knowledge is important because it enables individuals to perform tasks
effectively and efficiently, and to adapt their performance to changing circumstances or
contexts. It is also important for experts in a particular domain, who often have extensive
procedural knowledge that enables them to solve complex problems and make decisions
quickly and accurately.

10. How the artificial neurons mimic the biological neurons.

 Artificial neurons are designed to mimic the behavior of biological neurons in the brain.
There are several ways in which artificial neurons are designed to replicate the function
of biological neurons:

1. Input processing: Biological neurons receive inputs from other neurons through
dendrites, and the inputs are integrated in the neuron's cell body. Similarly, artificial
neurons receive inputs from other neurons or input nodes, and the inputs are processed
in the neuron's computational unit.

2. Activation function: Biological neurons fire an action potential when the inputs they
receive reach a certain threshold. Similarly, artificial neurons have an activation function
that determines whether the neuron will fire or not, based on the weighted sum of inputs
received.

3. Output: Biological neurons transmit signals to other neurons through their axons.
Similarly, artificial neurons transmit signals to other neurons or output nodes through
their output connections.

4. Learning: Biological neurons are capable of modifying the strength of their connections
with other neurons based on experience, which is called synaptic plasticity. Similarly,
artificial neurons are designed to be modified through learning algorithms that adjust the
weights of the connections between neurons, based on the error signal or loss function.

Overall, artificial neurons are designed to replicate the essential functions of biological
neurons, while also incorporating additional features that make them suitable for use in
artificial neural networks.

11. What are the four components to define a problem? Define

them.
 To define a problem, there are four key components that need to be considered:

1. Objective: This is the desired outcome or goal of the problem-solving process. It should
be clearly defined and specific, so that progress can be measured and evaluated.

2. Constraints: These are the limitations or restrictions that need to be taken into account
when solving the problem. Constraints may include things like time, resources, or
technical limitations, and they can have a significant impact on the approach taken to
solve the problem.
 3. Variables: These are the factors that are involved in the problem, and may be influenced
or affected by the solution. Variables can be quantitative (measurable) or qualitative
(descriptive), and it is important to identify and understand their relationships in order to
develop an effective solution.

4. Context: This refers to the broader environment or circumstances surrounding the

problem, including social, economic, or cultural factors that may influence the problem or
its solution. Understanding the context is important for developing a solution that is
relevant and effective in the real world.

By considering these four components – objective, constraints, variables, and context –

problem-solvers can develop a clear and comprehensive understanding of the problem
they are trying to solve, and develop an effective solution that addresses all relevant
factors.

12. Explain the utility of an activation function in the context of an

ANN. What are the various types of Activation Functions?
 In an artificial neural network (ANN), activation functions are used to determine the
output of a neuron based on the weighted sum of its inputs. The activation function
introduces nonlinearity into the output of the neuron, which allows the network to model
more complex relationships between inputs and outputs.

The utility of an activation function in an ANN can be summarized as follows:

1. Introduce nonlinearity: Without an activation function, the output of a neuron would

be a linear function of its inputs. This would limit the expressive power of the network, as
it would only be able to model linear relationships between inputs and outputs.

2. Enable backpropagation: Activation functions need to be differentiable so that

gradients can be computed during the backpropagation algorithm. This allows the
network to adjust its weights and biases in response to the error signal or loss function,
which is crucial for learning.

3. Normalize output: Some activation functions have the property of normalizing their
output within a certain range, such as between 0 and 1 or -1 and 1. This can be useful for
ensuring that the output of the network is within a certain range, which may be important
for certain applications.

There are several types of activation functions that are commonly used in ANNs. Here are
some examples:

1. Sigmoid: The sigmoid function maps any input value to a value between 0 and 1. It is a
smooth, continuous function that is differentiable and has a simple derivative.
 2. ReLU (Rectified Linear Unit): The ReLU function returns 0 for any negative input, and
the input value itself for any non-negative input. It is a simple, computationally efficient
function that has become very popular in recent years.

3. Tanh (Hyperbolic tangent): The tanh function maps any input value to a value between
-1 and 1. It is similar to the sigmoid function, but has a steeper slope around 0.

4. Softmax: The softmax function is used in the output layer of a classification network,
and maps the network's outputs to a probability distribution over the possible classes. It
ensures that the sum of the probabilities is equal to 1.

There are many other activation functions that have been proposed and used in ANNs,
and the choice of activation function can have a significant impact on the performance of
the network.

13. Why is mini-batch gradient considering the best variant among

gradient descent techniques for deep neural networks?
 Mini-batch gradient descent is considered the best variant among gradient descent
techniques for deep neural networks for several reasons:

1. Improved convergence: Mini-batch gradient descent converges faster than the

traditional gradient descent algorithm, as it updates the parameters of the network more
frequently. By computing the gradient on a mini-batch of training examples rather than
the entire dataset, mini-batch gradient descent takes smaller and more frequent steps
towards the optimal solution, which leads to faster convergence.

2. Better generalization: Mini-batch gradient descent has been shown to generalize better
than other gradient descent variants, such as batch gradient descent or stochastic
gradient descent. By randomly sampling a mini-batch of training examples, mini-batch
gradient descent adds some randomness to the optimization process, which can help the
network avoid local minima and improve its ability to generalize to new data.

3. More efficient use of memory: Mini-batch gradient descent allows the use of vectorized
operations to compute the gradients on multiple training examples in parallel. This can
significantly reduce the memory requirements of the optimization process, as well as
improve the computational efficiency of the training algorithm.

4. Better parallelization: Mini-batch gradient descent can be easily parallelized across

multiple processors or GPUs, as each mini-batch can be computed independently. This
makes it possible to train very large and complex neural networks efficiently.

Overall, mini-batch gradient descent strikes a good balance between convergence speed,
generalization performance, memory efficiency, and parallelization capabilities, which
makes it the preferred optimization algorithm for deep neural networks.
14. Express the ways to formulate a problem?
 There are several ways to formulate a problem, but some common methods include:

1. Description: This involves describing the problem in natural language, outlining the key
features and requirements of the problem. This can be a useful starting point to gain an
initial understanding of the problem.

2. Formal specification: This involves using mathematical notation or a programming

language to formally specify the problem. This can help to clarify the requirements of the
problem and make it easier to reason about.

3. Example-based: This involves providing a set of input/output examples that represent

the problem. This can be useful for problems that are difficult to formalize or describe in
natural language.

4. Goal-based: This involves defining the desired outcome or goal of the problem, without
specifying the exact process or steps needed to achieve that goal. This can be useful for
problems that are complex or uncertain, as it allows for more flexibility in the approach.

5. Constraint-based: This involves defining a set of constraints or rules that must be

satisfied in order to solve the problem. This can be useful for problems that have specific
requirements or limitations.

Overall, the choice of formulation method will depend on the specific problem and the
goals of the problem solver. It is often useful to try multiple approaches and compare their
effectiveness in order to find the most suitable formulation.

15. What do you understand by the F1 score?

 The F1 score is a commonly used metric in machine learning for evaluating the
performance of a binary classification model. It is a weighted average of the precision and
recall of the model, where precision is the ratio of true positive predictions to the total
number of positive predictions, and recall is the ratio of true positive predictions to the
total number of actual positive examples.

The F1 score is a measure of the balance between precision and recall. It ranges from 0 to
1, with a higher score indicating better performance. A score of 1 indicates perfect
precision and recall, while a score of 0 indicates poor performance.

The formula for calculating the F1 score is:

F1 = 2 * (precision * recall) / (precision + recall)

Where precision and recall are calculated as:

precision = true positives / (true positives + false positives)

 recall = true positives / (true positives + false negatives)

The F1 score is often used in combination with other metrics, such as accuracy, to provide
a more complete evaluation of the performance of a classification model. It is particularly
useful in situations where there is a class imbalance, where one class is much more
common than the other, as it considers both false positives and false negatives.

16. What problem do you expect when the number of features in

an input dataset is very larger?
 When the number of features in an input dataset is very large, several problems can arise.
Some of these problems are:

1. Curse of Dimensionality: As the number of features increases, the volume of the data
space increases exponentially, making it difficult to find patterns or relationships within
the data. This is often referred to as the "curse of dimensionality."

2. Overfitting: When there are too many features in the dataset, the model may become
too complex and may fit the training data too closely, leading to poor generalization
performance on new, unseen data. This is known as overfitting.

3. Computational Complexity: Large numbers of features can increase the computational

complexity of the learning algorithm, making it slower and more resource-intensive to
train the model.

4. Irrelevant Features: Many of the features may be irrelevant or redundant, which can
make it harder to find meaningful patterns in the data and may lead to poor performance.

To address these problems, various techniques such as feature selection, dimensionality

reduction, and regularization can be used to reduce the number of features in the dataset
and improve the performance of the model.

17. “The number of nodes in fully connected layer is equals to the

number of classes” – True or False. Justify your answer.
 False. The number of nodes in a fully connected layer is not necessarily equal to the
number of classes. The number of nodes in the output layer of a neural network should
match the number of classes in the problem, but this may not always be the last fully
connected layer in the network.

In fact, the number of nodes in each layer of a neural network is determined by the specific
architecture and requirements of the problem being solved. For example, in a
convolutional neural network (CNN), the output of the convolutional layers is typically fed
into a fully connected layer with a much smaller number of nodes before the output layer.

In general, the number of nodes in each layer is determined by a combination of the

complexity of the problem, the amount of available data, and the computational
 resources available. Therefore, the statement that "the number of nodes in a fully
connected layer is equal to the number of classes" is not true in general and should not
be taken as a rule.

18. Why naïve Bayes is called “Naïve”?

 Naive Bayes is called "naive" because of its assumption of independence between the
features in the input data. This assumption is often unrealistic in real-world problems, but
it simplifies the calculations involved in the algorithm.

Specifically, naive Bayes assumes that the presence or absence of one feature in a class is
independent of the presence or absence of any other feature in that class. This means
that the probability of a certain class given a set of features can be calculated as the
product of the probabilities of each feature given that class, without considering any
dependencies between the features.

This assumption is "naive" because in many real-world problems, features are often
correlated or dependent on each other, and the assumption of independence may not
hold. However, despite its simplicity and unrealistic assumption, naive Bayes often
performs surprisingly well in practice, especially for text classification and spam filtering
applications.

19. What is dropout in Deep Neural Network, and what effect does
it have?
 Dropout is a regularization technique used in deep neural networks to prevent overfitting
of the model to the training data. In dropout, some randomly selected neurons in the
network are temporarily "dropped out" or ignored during each training iteration, along
with their corresponding connections. This means that the network is forced to learn
redundant representations of the input data, making it less likely to rely too heavily on
any one feature.

During training, each neuron in the network has a probability p of being "dropped out" or
ignored for a particular input sample. The dropout rate, or the proportion of neurons that
are dropped out, is typically set to a value between 0.2 and 0.5. The dropout rate is also
sometimes adjusted during training to prevent overfitting.

The effect of dropout is to improve the generalization performance of the model, by

reducing the likelihood of overfitting to the training data. By forcing the network to learn
redundant representations of the input data, dropout also tends to make the model more
robust to variations in the input data.

Overall, dropout is a simple and effective way to regularize deep neural networks, and it
is widely used in many applications, especially in computer vision and natural language
processing tasks.
20. What do you understand by association?
 In the context of machine learning and data mining, association refers to the discovery of
interesting relationships or patterns between different variables or items in a dataset.
Specifically, association analysis is a data mining technique that involves finding co-
occurring patterns or frequent item sets in transactional data or other datasets.

In association analysis, the goal is to identify which items or variables tend to occur
together, and to what extent. This information can be useful for various applications, such
as market basket analysis, where the goal is to identify which products tend to be
purchased together, or for recommender systems, where the goal is to suggest items that
are likely to be of interest to a user based on their past preferences.

One common algorithm used for association analysis is the Apriori algorithm, which
searches for frequent item sets by incrementally pruning sets of items that do not meet a
minimum support threshold. Other algorithms, such as FP-growth and Eclat, can also be
used for association analysis, depending on the specific requirements of the problem.

Part – B
1. Discover the type of applicable ML technique, while defining a
Class and a Custer.
 When defining a class and a cluster, there are different machine learning techniques that
can be applied depending on the specific problem and the type of data available.
If the goal is to define a class or set of classes based on a set of features or attributes,
supervised learning techniques such as classification algorithms can be used. Classification
is a type of supervised learning where the goal is to predict the class label or category of
a new instance based on its features. Some examples of classification algorithms include
decision trees, logistic regression, support vector machines (SVM), and neural networks.
On the other hand, if the goal is to discover natural groupings or clusters in the data,
unsupervised learning techniques such as clustering can be used. Clustering is a type of
unsupervised learning where the goal is to partition the data into groups or clusters based
on the similarity of instances. Some examples of clustering algorithms include k-means,
hierarchical clustering, and density-based clustering.
It's also important to note that sometimes both classification and clustering techniques
can be used in conjunction with each other to achieve a better understanding of the data.
For instance, clustering can be used to group similar instances together, and then
classification can be applied to assign class labels to each cluster based on the known
labels of a subset of the data.
2. What do you understand by Environment in AI?
 In the context of AI, an environment refers to the external context or situation in which
an agent operates. An agent is a system that is designed to perceive its environment,
reason about it, and take actions to achieve some objective or goal.
The environment can be physical, such as a robot operating in the real world, or virtual,
such as a video game environment. The environment defines the set of possible states
and actions that an agent can take, as well as the rules that govern how the environment
responds to those actions.
The environment can be fully observable, where the agent has complete access to all
relevant information about the current state, or partially observable, where the agent has
only partial information about the state. The environment can also be deterministic,
where the outcome of an action is always predictable, or stochastic, where there is some
degree of randomness or uncertainty in the outcome.
In AI, agents are often designed and trained to operate in specific environments, using
techniques such as reinforcement learning to learn effective strategies for achieving their
objectives. By understanding the environment in which an agent operates, developers can
design more effective AI systems that can operate more intelligently and adaptively in a
range of different scenarios.

3. Elucidate the application of different types of neural network.

 Neural networks have a wide range of applications across various fields. Here are some
examples of the different types of neural networks and their applications:
1. Feedforward Neural Networks: These are the most common type of neural networks,
where data flows from input to output through a series of hidden layers. Feedforward
neural networks are used for a variety of applications, including image and speech
recognition, natural language processing, and financial forecasting.
2. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs): These networks are specifically designed for
image and video processing. They use convolutional layers to identify features in the input
data and learn spatial relationships between different parts of an image. CNNs are used
in applications such as object recognition, facial recognition, and self-driving cars.
3. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs): These networks are designed for processing
sequential data, such as time series or language data. RNNs use feedback loops to allow
information to persist over time, which makes them particularly useful for applications
such as speech recognition, machine translation, and sentiment analysis.
4. Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) Networks: These are a type of RNN that are
particularly good at handling long-term dependencies in sequential data. LSTMs are used
in applications such as speech recognition, machine translation, and natural language
processing.
5. Autoencoders: These are neural networks that are designed for unsupervised learning,
where the goal is to learn a compressed representation of the input data. Autoencoders
 are used for applications such as image and video compression, anomaly detection, and
feature extraction.
6. Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs): These are neural networks that are designed
to generate new data that is similar to the training data. GANs are used for applications
such as image and video synthesis, text generation, and music generation.
Overall, neural networks are a powerful tool for a wide range of applications, and the
choice of network architecture depends on the specific task and the nature of the input
data.

4. Differentiate between Lazy and Eagar Learning.

 Lazy learning and Eager learning are two approaches to machine learning algorithms
based on how they learn and make predictions from data.
Lazy Learning:
Lazy learning algorithms are also known as instance-based learning. These algorithms do
not have a specific training phase. Instead, they store all available training data and use it
to make predictions when required. They do not generalize the training data to build a
model for future predictions. Instead, they use the training data directly to make
predictions. Examples of lazy learning algorithms include k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN) and
Case-Based Reasoning (CBR).
Eager Learning:
Eager learning algorithms are also known as model-based learning. These algorithms build
a model using the training data during the training phase. They use this model to make
predictions on new data during the testing phase. These algorithms generalize the training
data to create a model that can make predictions on future data. Examples of eager
learning algorithms include decision trees, support vector machines, and neural networks.
The main differences between lazy and eager learning are as follows:
1. Approach:
Lazy learning algorithms take an instance-based approach to learning, where the model is
not created explicitly. Eager learning algorithms, on the other hand, take a model-based
approach to learning, where the model is created explicitly during training.
2. Training:
Lazy learning algorithms do not have a specific training phase since they do not create a
model. Eager learning algorithms create a model during the training phase.
3. Prediction:
Lazy learning algorithms use the training data directly to make predictions. Eager learning
algorithms use the model created during the training phase to make predictions.
4. Generalization:
Lazy learning algorithms do not generalize the training data to build a model for future
predictions. Eager learning algorithms generalize the training data to build a model that
can make predictions on future data.
5. Computation:
Lazy learning algorithms have a low computational cost during training since they do not
create a model. Eager learning algorithms have a high computational cost during training
since they create a model.
6. Data Size:
Lazy learning algorithms are suitable for small datasets since they store all available
training data. Eager learning algorithms are suitable for large datasets since they
generalize the training data to build a model.

5. How to choose optimal K in KNN?

 K-nearest neighbors (KNN) is a type of supervised machine learning algorithm used for
classification and regression analysis. The value of K is one of the most important
parameters to determine the accuracy and performance of the KNN algorithm. Here are
some ways to choose the optimal K value for KNN:
1. Cross-validation: Cross-validation is a commonly used technique to choose the optimal
K value in KNN. It involves dividing the data into K equal subsets or folds. The algorithm is
trained on K-1 folds and tested on the remaining fold. This process is repeated for all K
folds, and the average accuracy is calculated. The value of K that gives the highest accuracy
is chosen as the optimal K value.
2. Elbow method: In the elbow method, the value of K is plotted against the accuracy, and
the point where the curve starts to flatten out is chosen as the optimal K value.
3. Grid search: Grid search is a brute-force approach to find the optimal K value. It involves
testing the KNN algorithm with different values of K and selecting the value that gives the
best accuracy.
4. Domain knowledge: Sometimes, the optimal value of K can be determined based on
domain knowledge. For example, if the data is highly correlated and has low noise, a
smaller value of K may be appropriate. On the other hand, if the data is highly variable
and has high noise, a larger value of K may be more suitable.
 Choosing the optimal K value is important in KNN as an inappropriate K value can lead to
underfitting or overfitting of the data, resulting in poor performance and accuracy of the
algorithm.
6. Derive a gradient descent training rule for single unit neuron with
output o. definite as:
O = w0 +(x1 + x12) + …. + wn(xn + xn2)
Where x1, x2, …., xn are the input w1, w2, …., wn are the
corresponding weights, and w0 is the bias weight.
 To derive the gradient descent training rule for a single unit neuron with output o, we
need to compute the partial derivative of the error function with respect to each weight
w. The error function can be defined as:
E = 1/2 * (t - o)^2
where t is the target output and o is the actual output of the neuron. The partial derivative
of E with respect to w can be calculated using the chain rule:
dE/dw = (dE/do) * (do/dw)
Let's first calculate the partial derivative of E with respect to o:
dE/do = 2 * (o - t)
Now, we need to calculate the partial derivative of o with respect to w:

do/dw = d/dw [w0 +(x1 + x12) + …. + wn(xn + xn2)]

= d/dw [w0 + w1*x1 + w1*x1^2 + w2*x2 + w2*x2^2 + ... + wn*xn + wn*xn^2]
= xi + xi^2
Therefore, the gradient descent training rule for a single unit neuron with output o is:
w(t+1) = w(t) - α * dE/dw
where α is the learning rate. Substituting the values of dE/do and do/dw, we get:
w(t+1) = w(t) - α * (o - t) * (xi + xi^2)
This is the update rule for each weight w in the neuron. We can apply this rule to update
the weights after each iteration of the training process, until the error function reaches a
minimum or the desired accuracy is achieved.
7. Explain K-means algorithm foe two decimal data set.
 K-means algorithm is a clustering technique used to partition a given dataset into k
clusters, where each data point belongs to the cluster with the closest mean value. Here's
how the K-means algorithm works for a two-dimensional dataset:

1. Choose the number of clusters, k, to be formed and randomly initialize k points

(centroids) in the dataset.

2. Assign each data point to the nearest centroid, forming k clusters.

3. Compute the mean of each cluster and set the centroid of that cluster to the computed
mean.

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until the centroids stop moving or a maximum number of
iterations is reached.

For example, suppose we have the following two-dimensional dataset:

(1.2, 3.5), (1.6, 3.8), (2.0, 3.9), (2.4, 4.0), (3.0, 4.1), (3.2, 4.3), (3.5, 4.5), (4.0, 4.6), (4.1, 4.9),
(4.5, 5.0)

Let's say we want to form three clusters. We randomly initialize three points in the dataset
as our initial centroids. For example, we might choose:

(1.2, 3.5), (3.0, 4.1), (4.5, 5.0)

We then assign each data point to the nearest centroid, forming three clusters:

Cluster 1: (1.2, 3.5), (1.6, 3.8), (2.0, 3.9)

Cluster 2: (2.4, 4.0), (3.0, 4.1), (3.2, 4.3), (3.5, 4.5), (4.0, 4.6), (4.1, 4.9)
Cluster 3: (4.5, 5.0)

We then compute the mean of each cluster and set the centroid of that cluster to the
computed mean:

Cluster 1: mean = (1.6, 3.73), centroid = (1.6, 3.73)

Cluster 2: mean = (3.17, 4.28), centroid = (3.17, 4.28)
Cluster 3: mean = (4.5, 5.0), centroid = (4.5, 5.0)

We repeat this process of assigning data points to clusters and updating the centroids
until the centroids stop moving or a maximum number of iterations is reached. The
resulting clusters and centroids depend on the initial random initialization and the
number of iterations.
8. Explain the difference between vanishing gradient and exploding
gradient problem.
The vanishing and exploding gradient problems are two common issues that can occur
during the training of deep neural networks.
Vanishing gradient problem:

The vanishing gradient problem occurs when the gradients in the earlier layers of the
neural network become very small during backpropagation. This happens because the
gradients are multiplied by the weight matrix of each layer during backpropagation, and
if the weights are small, the gradients will also be small. As a result, the network may not
learn well or take longer to converge to a good solution.
Exploding gradient problem:
The exploding gradient problem occurs when the gradients in the earlier layers of the
neural network become very large during backpropagation. This happens because the
gradients are multiplied by the weight matrix of each layer during backpropagation, and
if the weights are large, the gradients will also be large. As a result, the network may not
converge at all, or it may converge to a poor solution.
Both of these problems can occur due to the nature of the activation function used in the
network, the depth of the network, and the initialization of the weights. To mitigate these
problems, various techniques have been developed, such as using activation functions
that do not saturate (e.g., ReLU), weight initialization techniques (e.g., Xavier
initialization), and gradient clipping techniques (e.g., clipping the gradients to a maximum
value).

Part – C
1. State the concept of Classification. Justify supervised learning
leads to classification.
 Classification is a process of categorizing input data into predefined classes based on its
features or attributes. It is a type of supervised learning where the machine learning
algorithm is trained on labeled data to make predictions or decisions about the new,
unseen data.
Supervised learning, in general, deals with labeled data, where the algorithm is trained on
input-output pairs. In the case of classification, the input data is labeled with class or
category information, which the algorithm uses to learn patterns or relationships between
input and output. During training, the algorithm tries to minimize the difference between
the predicted output and actual output to make accurate predictions on unseen data.
Therefore, supervised learning is suitable for classification tasks as it involves learning
from labeled data to predict the class of new, unseen data.
2. Describe the following statements in terms of predicate logic
 “ALL Romans were either loyal to Caesar or hated him.”
 “Everyone is loyal to someone,”
 "ALL Romans were either loyal to Caesar or hated him."
Let R(x) denote "x is a Roman" and L(x) denote "x is loyal to Caesar". The statement can
be represented in predicate logic as:
∀x [R(x) → (L(x) ∨ ¬L(x))]
This can be read as "For all x, if x is a Roman, then x is either loyal to Caesar or not loyal to
Caesar."
"Everyone is loyal to someone."
Let P(x) denote "x is a person" and L(x,y) denote "x is loyal to y". The statement can be
represented in predicate logic as:
∀x∃y [P(x) → L(x,y)]
This can be read as "For all x, there exists a y such that if x is a person, then x is loyal to y."

3. Suppose you are designing an AI agent that plays a two-player

game using the minimax algorithm. How would you explain the
concept of alpha-beta pruning and how it optimizes the algorithm
by reducing the number of nodes explored in a game tree?
Additionally, how can you implement alpha-beta pruning in your
agent, and what are some potential limitations of this technique?
 Alpha-beta pruning is a technique used to optimize the minimax algorithm, which is a
decision-making algorithm used in two-player games. The minimax algorithm works by
exploring all possible moves and outcomes in a game tree, assigning scores to each node
that represents a terminal state in the game. The algorithm then backtracks up the tree,
choosing the move that leads to the best outcome for the player whose turn it is.
Alpha-beta pruning works by eliminating branches of the game tree that are guaranteed
to lead to worse outcomes than other branches that have already been explored. This is
done by keeping track of two values, alpha and beta, that represent the best outcomes
that have been found so far for the maximizer and minimizer, respectively. When a node
is being explored, if the current alpha value is greater than or equal to the current beta
value, then the algorithm can safely prune the rest of the subtree under that node, since
it will not affect the final outcome.
To implement alpha-beta pruning in an AI agent, you would need to modify the minimax
algorithm to include the alpha and beta values and update them as the tree is explored.
Specifically, when the algorithm visits a maximizing node, it would update the alpha value
 if it finds a better score, and when it visits a minimizing node, it would update the beta
value if it finds a worse score. Then, whenever alpha is greater than or equal to beta, the
algorithm can stop exploring the rest of the subtree and return the current alpha or beta
value, depending on whether it is a maximizing or minimizing node.
One potential limitation of alpha-beta pruning is that it assumes that the order in which
the nodes are explored does not affect the outcome of the game. However, in some
games, the order of moves can have a significant impact on the final outcome, which can
lead to suboptimal results. Additionally, alpha-beta pruning can be less effective when the
branching factor of the game tree is very high, since there may still be a large number of
nodes that need to be explored even after pruning.

4.
Customer Age Income No. Credit Class
Card
Ram 37 35 3 N
Padma 22 50 4 Y
Subodh 63 160 1 N
Madhu 59 210 1 N
Rani 25 45 4 Y
Arun 37 50 2

Find the class of Arun using KNN.

Also state the Strengths and weakness of KNN.
 To find the class of Arun using KNN, we first need to define the value of K, which
represents the number of nearest neighbors to consider. Let's assume K=3.

To calculate the distance between Arun and each of the other customers, we can use the
Euclidean distance formula:

distance = sqrt((Arun_Age - Customer_Age)^2 + (Arun_Income - Customer_Income)^2 +

(Arun_No._Credit_Card - Customer_No._Credit_Card)^2)

Using this formula, we can calculate the distances between Arun and the other customers:

- Distance between Arun and Ram: sqrt((37-37)^2 + (50-35)^2 + (2-3)^2) = sqrt(225) = 15

- Distance between Arun and Padma: sqrt((37-22)^2 + (50-50)^2 + (2-4)^2) = sqrt(345) =

18.57

- Distance between Arun and Subodh: sqrt((37-63)^2 + (50-160)^2 + (2-1)^2) = sqrt(14809)

= 121.74
 - Distance between Arun and Madhu: sqrt((37-59)^2 + (50-210)^2 + (2-1)^2) = sqrt(43070)
= 207.53

- Distance between Arun and Rani: sqrt((37-25)^2 + (50-45)^2 + (2-4)^2) = sqrt(173) =

13.15

The three nearest neighbors to Arun are Ram, Rani, and Padma. Among these, two belong
to class Y and one belongs to class N. Therefore, based on the majority class of the nearest
neighbors, we can predict that Arun belongs to class Y.

Strengths of KNN:

- KNN is easy to understand and implement.

- KNN is a non-parametric algorithm, meaning it makes no assumptions about the underlying

distribution of the data.

- KNN can work with both numerical and categorical data.

Weaknesses of KNN:

- KNN can be computationally expensive, especially when dealing with large datasets.

- KNN is sensitive to the choice of K and the distance metric used.

- KNN can be sensitive to the presence of irrelevant features or noisy data.