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Precalculus 10th
Full chapter download at:
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Chapter 2
Functions and Their Graphs
12. True

13. False; if the domain is not specified, we assume

it is the largest set of real numbers for which the
Section 2.1 value of f is a real number.

1. ( −1, 3)
1 1
2. 3 ( −2 ) − 5 ( −2 ) + = 3 ( 4 ) − 5 ( −2 ) −
2
( −2 ) 2 x2 − 4
14. False; the domain of f ( x ) = is { x | x ≠ 0} .
1 x
= 12 +10 −
2
15. a
43
= or 21 1 or 21.5
2
2 16. c
3. We must not allow the denominator to be 0. 17. d
x + 4 ≠ 0  x ≠ −4 ; Domain: { x x ≠ −4} .
18. a
4. 3 − 2x > 5 19. Function
−2x > 2 Domain: {Elvis, Colleen, Kaleigh, Marissa}
x < −1 Range: {Jan. 8, Mar. 15, Sept. 17}
Solution set: { x | x < −1} or ( −∞, −1) 20. Not a function

−1 0 21. Not a function

5. 5+2 22. Function

Domain: {Less than 9th grade, 9th-12th grade,
6. radicals High School Graduate, Some College, College
Graduate}
7. independent; dependent Range: {$18,120, $23,251, $36,055, $45,810,
$67,165}
8. [0, 5]
23. Not a function
We need the intersection of the intervals [ 0, 7 ]
24. Function
and [ −2, 5] . That is, domain of f ∩ domain of g .
Domain: {–2, –1, 3, 4}
Range: {3, 5, 7, 12}
−2 0 5 7
g 25. Function
−2 0 5 7 Domain: {1, 2, 3, 4}
f +g Range: {3}
−2 0 5 7
26. Function
9. ≠ ; f; g Domain: {0, 1, 2, 3}
Range: {–2, 3, 7}
10. ( g − f )( x ) or g ( x ) − f ( x ) 27. Not a function
11. False; every function is a relation, but not every 28. Not a function
relation is a function. For example, the relation
x 2 + y 2 = 1 is not a function.

60
Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

29. Function 37. x = y 2

Domain: {–2, –1, 0, 1}
Range: {0, 1, 4} Solve for y : y = ± x

For x = 1, y = ±1 . Thus, (1, 1) and (1, –1) are on

30. Function
the graph. This is not a function, since a distinct
Domain: {–2, –1, 0, 1}
x-value corresponds to two different y-values.
Range: {3, 4, 16}

38. x + y = 1
2
31. Graph y = 2x 2 − 3x + 4 . The graph passes the

vertical line test. Thus, the equation represents a Solve for y : y = ± 1 − x

function. For x = 0, y = ±1 . Thus, (0, 1) and (0, –1) are on

the graph. This is not a function, since a distinct x-
value corresponds to two different y-values.

39. Graph y = x 2 . The graph passes the vertical line

test. Thus, the equation represents a function.

32. Graph y = x3 . The graph passes the vertical line

test. Thus, the equation represents a function.

3x − 1
40. Graph y = . The graph passes the vertical
x+2

1 line test. Thus, the equation represents a

33. Graph y = . The graph passes the vertical line function.
x

test. Thus, the equation represents a function.

41. 2x 2 + 3y 2 = 1
34. Graph y = x . The graph passes the vertical line Solve for y: 2x 2 + 3y 2 = 1
test. Thus, the equation represents a function. 3y 2 = 1 − 2x 2
1 − 2x2
y2 =
3
1 − 2x 2
y=±
3
35. y = 4 − x
2 2
1  1
For x = 0, y = ± . Thus,  0,  and
3  3
Solve for y : y = ± 4 − x 2

61 61
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2016 Pearson
Pearson Education,
Education, Inc.
Inc.
Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

For x = 0, y = ±2 . Thus, (0, 2) and (0, –2) are on  1 

0, − are on the graph. This is not a
 3 
the graph. This is not a function, since a distinct x- 
value corresponds to two different y-values. function, since a distinct x-value corresponds to
two different y-values.
36. y = ± 1− 2x
For x = 0, y = ±1 . Thus, (0, 1) and (0, –1) are on
the graph. This is not a function, since a distinct x-
value corresponds to two different y-values.

62 62
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2016 Pearson
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Education, Inc.
Inc.
Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

42. x 2 − 4 y 2 = 1 e. (
− f ( x ) = − −2x 2 + x −1 = 2x 2 − x +1 )
Solve for y: x − 4 y = 1
2 2
f ( x +1) = − 2 ( x +1) + ( x +1) −1
2
f.
4 y = x −1
2 2

x −1
2 (
= − 2 x 2 + 2x +1 + x +1 −1 )
y2 =
4 = − 2x − 4x − 2 + x
2

± x 2 −1 = − 2x 2 − 3x − 2
y=
2
f ( 2x ) = − 2 ( 2x ) + ( 2x ) −1 = −8x 2 + 2x −1
2
g.
1  1
For x = 2, y = ± . Thus, 2, and
 
2  2 h. f ( x + h ) = − 2(x + h) 2 + ( x + h ) −1

 1
 2, − are on the graph. This is not a
2
(
= − 2 x 2 + 2xh + h 2 + x + h −1 )
 
function, since a distinct x-value corresponds to = − 2x 2 − 4xh − 2h 2 + x + h −1
two different y-values.
x
43. f ( x ) = 3x 2 + 2x − 4 45. f ( x) =
x 2 +1

f ( 0) = 3( 0) + 2 ( 0) − 4 = − 4
2 0 0
a. a. f ( 0) = = =0
0 +1 1
2

f (1) = 3 (1) + 2 (1) − 4 = 3 + 2 − 4 = 1

2
b. 1 1
b. f (1) = =
f ( −1) = 3 ( −1) + 2 ( −1) − 4 = 3 − 2 − 4 = −3
2
c. 1 +1 2
2

−1 −1 1
d. f ( −x ) = 3 ( −x ) + 2 ( −x ) − 4 = 3x 2 − 2x − 4
2
c. f ( −1) = = =−

( −1)2 +1 1 +1 2
e. (
− f ( x ) = − 3x + 2x − 4 = −3x − 2x + 4
2
) 2
−x −x

d. f ( −x ) = =
f. f ( x +1) = 3 ( x +1) + 2 ( x +1) − 4
2 ( −x )2 +1 x 2 +1

(
= 3 x 2 + 2x +1 + 2x + 2 − 4 )  x 
− f ( x) = −  2
 −x
e. =
 x +1  x 2 +1
= 3x 2 + 6x + 3 + 2x + 2 − 4

x + 21
= 3x 2 + 8x +1 f. f ( x +1) =

g. f ( 2x ) = 3 ( 2x ) + 2 ( 2x ) − 4 = 12x 2 + 4x − 4
2 ( x +1) +1

63 63
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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions
x +1
=
f ( x + h) = 3( x + h) + 2 ( x + h) − 4 x + 2x +1 +1
2 2
h.
x +1
( )
= 3 x 2 + 2xh + h 2 + 2x + 2h − 4 = 2
x + 2x + 2
= 3x 2 + 6xh + 3h 2 + 2x + 2h − 4
2x 2x
g. f ( 2x ) = =
44. f ( x ) = − 2x + x −1
2 ( 2x ) 2
+1 4x 2 +1

f ( 0 ) = − 2 ( 0 ) + 0 −1 = −1
2 x+h x+h
a. h. f ( x + h) = =
( x + h )2 +1 x 2 + 2xh + h 2 +1
f (1) = − 2 (1) +1−1 = − 2
2
b.

f ( −1) = − 2 ( −1) + ( −1) −1 = − 4

2
c.

f ( −x ) = − 2 ( −x ) + ( −x ) −1 = − 2x − x −1
2 2
d.

64 64
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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

46. f ( x) =
x2 − 1 48. f ( x ) = x2 + x
x+4
a. f ( 0 ) = 02 + 0 = 0 = 0
0 2 −1 −1 1
a. f ( 0) = = =−
0+4 4 4 b. f (1) = 12 +1 = 2
12 −1 0
b. f (1) = = =0 c. f ( −1) = ( −1)
2
+ ( −1) = 1−1 = 0 = 0
1+ 4 5

f ( −x ) = ( −x ) + ( −x ) = x 2 − x
2
( −1)
2 d.
−1 0
c. f ( −1) = = =0
−1+ 4 3

2
e. − f ( x) = − ( )
x 2 + x = − x2 + x
−x −1 2
−
( ) x 1
d. f ( −x ) = =
−x + 4 −x + 4 f. f ( x +1) = ( x +1)2 + ( x +1)
 x 2 −1  −x 2 +1 = x 2 + 2x +1 + x +1

e. − f ( x) = −  =
 x + 4  x + 4 = x 2 + 3x + 2
( x + 1) − 1
2
f. f ( x +1) = g. f ( 2x ) = ( 2x )2 + 2x = 4x 2 + 2x
( x +1) + 4
x 2 + 2x +1 −1 x 2 + 2x h. f ( x + h) = ( x + h )2 + ( x + h )
= =
x+5 x+5 = x 2 + 2xh + h 2 + x + h

f ( 2x ) =
( 2x )2 −1 = 4x 2 −1
g. 2x + 1
2x + 4 2x + 4 49. f ( x) =
3x − 5

( x + h )2 −1 x2 + 2xh + h2 − 1 2 (0) + 1 0+ 1
h. f ( x + h) = = a. f ( 0) = = =−
1

( x + h) + 4 x+h+4 3( 0) − 5 0−5 5

f ( x) = x + 4 2(1)+ 1 2+ 1 3 3
47. b. f (1) = = = =−

3 (1) − 5 3−5 −2 2
a. f ( 0) = 0 + 4 = 0 + 4 = 4

2 ( −1) + 1 − 2+ 1 −1 1
f −1 = = = =
f (1) = 1 + 4 = 1 + 4 = 5 c. ( )
b. 3 ( −1) − 5 −3 − 5 −8 8

c. f ( −1) = −1 + 4 = 1+ 4 = 5 2 −x +1
( ) − 2x + 1 2x − 1
d. f ( −x ) = = =

65 65  
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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

3 ( −x ) − 5 −3x − 5 3x + 5
d. f ( −x ) = − x + 4 = x + 4

 2x + 1  − 2x − 1
e. − f ( x) = − ( x + 4) = − x − 4 e. − f ( x) = − =
 3x − 5  3x − 5
f. f ( x +1) = x +1 + 4
2 ( x + 1) + 1 2x + 2+ 1 2x + 3
f. f ( x +1) = = =
3 ( x +1) − 5 3x + 3 − 5 3x − 2
g. f ( 2x ) = 2x + 4 = 2 x + 4

2 ( 2x ) + 1 4x + 1
h. f ( x + h) = x + h + 4 g. f ( 2x ) = =
3 ( 2x ) − 5 6x − 5

2 ( x + h ) + 1 2x + 2h + 1
h. f ( x + h) = =
3 ( x + h ) − 5 3x + 3h − 5

66 66
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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

1 2x
50. f ( x) = 1− 56. h(x) =
( x + 2)
2
x2 − 4
x −4 ≠ 0
2
1 1 3
a. f ( 0) = 1 − =1− = x 2 ≠ 4  x ≠ ±2
(0 + 2)
2
4 4
Domain: {x x ≠ − 2, x ≠ 2}
1 1 8
b. f (1) = 1− = 1− =
(1+ 2 ) x−2
2
9 9
57. F (x) =
x3 + x
1 1
c. f ( −1) = 1− = 1− = 0 x3 + x ≠ 0
( −1+ 2 )
2
1
x(x 2 +1) ≠ 0
1
d. f ( −x ) = 1 − x ≠ 0, x 2 ≠ −1
( −x + 2) 2

Domain: {x x ≠ 0}
 1  1
e. − f ( x ) = − 1 − = −1 x+4
 
( x + 2 )2  ( x + 2 ) 2 58. G(x) =
  x3 − 4x
1 1 x 3 − 4x ≠ 0
f. f ( x +1) = 1 − = 1−

( x +1+ 2 )2 ( x + 3)2 x(x 2 − 4) ≠ 0

x ≠ 0, x2 ≠ 4
1 1
g. f ( 2x ) = 1 − = 1− x ≠ 0, x ≠ ±2
( 2x + 2 ) 2
4 ( x +1)
2

Domain: {x x ≠ − 2, x ≠ 0, x ≠ 2}
1
h. f ( x + h ) = 1−
( x + h + 2 )2
59. h(x) = 3x −12

3x −12 ≥ 0
51. f (x) = −5x + 4
3x ≥ 12
Domain: { x x is any real number} x≥4
Domain: {x x ≥ 4}
52. f (x) = x 2 + 2

Domain: { x x is any real number} 60. G(x) = 1 − x

1− x ≥ 0
x
53. f
54. x 2 +1
(x
Domain: { x x is any real number}
)
=

67 67
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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

x −
2
x
f (x)
= ≥
x2 −
+ 1
1
x
61.
≤

1
Do
ma
in:
{x
x≤
1}

p
(x
)
=
2

=
2
x −1 x −1
Domain: { x x is any real number} x −1 > 0
x >1
x
55. g(x) =
x −16
2 Domain: {x x > 1}

x 2 −16 ≠ 0
x 2 ≠ 16  x ≠ ±4
Domain: { x x ≠ − 4, x ≠ 4}

68 68
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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

4 b. ( f − g)(x) = (3x + 4) − (2x − 3)

62. f (x) =
x −9 = 3x + 4 − 2x + 3
x −9 > 0 = x+7
x>9 Domain: { x x is any real number} .

Domain: {x x > 9}
c. ( f ⋅ g)(x) = (3x + 4)(2x − 3)
x = 6x 2 − 9x + 8x −12
63. f (x) = 2

x−4 = 6x − x −12

x−4 > 0 Domain: {x x is any real number} .

x>4
 f 3x + 4
Domain: {x x > 4} d. (x) =
 
 g  2x − 3
−x 3
64. q(x) = − x− 2
2x − 3 ≠ 0  2x ≠ 3  x ≠
2

−x − 2 > 0
 3
−x > 2 Domain:  x x ≠ .
 2
x < −2
e. ( f + g)(3) = 5(3) +1 = 15 +1 = 16
Domain: {x x < − 2}
f. ( f − g)(4) = 4 + 7 = 11

t −4 g. ( f ⋅ g)(2) = 6(2) 2 − 2 −12 = 24 − 2 −12 = 10

65. P(t) =
3t − 21
 f  3(1)+ 4 3+ 4 7
h.  g  (1) = = = = −7
t −4 ≥ 0   2(1) − 3 2 − 3 −1
t≥4
68. f (x) = 2x +1 g(x) = 3x − 2
Also 3t − 21 ≠ 0
a. ( f + g)(x) = 2x +1+ 3x − 2 = 5x −1
3t − 21 ≠ 0 Domain: {x x is any real number} .
3t ≠ 21
b. ( f − g)(x) = (2x +1) − (3x − 2)
t≠7
= 2x +1− 3x + 2
Domain: {t t ≥ 4,t ≠ 7} = −x + 3
Domain: { x x is any real number} .
z +3 Also z − 2 ≠ 0
66. h(z) =
z −2 z≠2
z +3≥ 0
z ≥ −3

69 69
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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

+1)(3x − 2) − 4x + 3x − 2
c.
(f ⋅ = = 6x 2 − x − 2
g)(x 6 Domain: { x x is any real number} .
)= x
2
(2x  f 2x + 1
d.  (x) =
 g  3x − 2
Domain: {z z ≥ −3, z ≠ 2} 3x − 2 ≠ 0

2
3x ≠ 2  x ≠
67. f (x) = 3x + 4 g(x) = 2x − 3 3

a. ( f + g)(x) = 3x + 4 + 2x − 3 = 5x +1  2
Domain:  x x ≠  .

Domain: {x x is any real number} .  3

70 70
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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

e. ( f + g)(3) = 5(3) −1 = 15 −1 = 14 70. f (x) = 2x 2 + 3 g(x) = 4x3 +1

f. ( f − g)(4) = −4 + 3 = −1 a. ( f + g)(x) = 2x 2 + 3 + 4x3 +1

g. ( f ⋅ g)(2) = 6(2) 2 − 2 − 2 = 4x 3 + 2x 2 + 4
= 6(4) − 2 − 2 Domain: {x x is any real number} .
= 24 − 2 − 2 = 20
 f 2(1)+ 1 2+ 1 3
b. (
( f − g)(x) = 2x 2 + 3 − 4x3 +1 ) ( )
h. (1) = = = =3 2 3
  = 2x + 3 − 4x −1
 g  3(1) − 2 3−2 1

= − 4x 3 + 2x 2 + 2
f (x) = x −1 g(x) = 2x {x x is any real number} .
2
69. Domain:

( f + g)(x) = x −1 + 2x 2 = 2x 2 + x −1
a.
c. (
( f ⋅ g)(x) = 2x 2 + 3 4x 3 +1 )( )
Domain: {x x is any real number} . 5 3 2

= 8x +12x + 2x + 3

b. ( f − g)(x) = (x −1) − (2x 2 ) Domain: {x x is any real number} .

= x −1 − 2x 2

 f  2x 2 + 3
= − 2x + x −1
2 d.   (x) = 3
g 4x +1
Domain: {x x is any real number} . 4x +1 ≠ 0
3

c. ( f ⋅ g)(x) = (x −1)(2x 2 ) = 2x3 − 2x 2 4x3 ≠ −1

Domain: {x x is any real number} . 1 1

x3 ≠ −  x ≠ 3 − = −
3
2

4 4 2
 f x −1
  (x) =
d. 3
2
 g  2x 2 Domain:
 
x x ≠ − .
2
Domain: {x x ≠ 0} . = −32 + 4 −1 = −29

g. ( f ⋅ g)(2) = 2(2)3 − 2(2) 2

e. ( f + g)(3) = 2(3) 2 + 3 −1
= 2(8) − 2(4)
= 2(9) + 3 −1
= 16 − 8 = 8
= 18 + 3 −1 = 20

f. ( f − g)(4) = − 2(4) 2 + 4 −1
= −2(16) + 4 −1

71 71
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 Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions
  = −4(64) + 2(16) + 2
= −256 + 32 + 2 = −222
e. ( f + g)(3) = 4(3)3 + 2(3) 2 + 4
= 4(27) + 2(9) + 4 g. ( f ⋅ g)(2) = 8(2)5 +12(2)3 + 2(2) 2 + 3
= 108 +18 + 4 = 130 = 8(32) +12(8) + 2(4) + 3
= 256 + 96 + 8 + 3 = 363
f. ( f − g)(4) = − 4(4)3 + 2(4) 2 + 2
 f  2(1) 2 + 3 2(1) + 3 2 + 3 5
 f 1− 1 0 0 h.   (1) = = = = =1
h. (1) = = = =0 g 4(1)3 +1 4(1) +1 4 +1 5
   
 g  2(1) 2 2(1) 2

72 72
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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

71. f (x) = x g(x) = 3x − 5 e. ( f + g)(3) = 3 + 3 = 3 + 3 = 6

a. ( f + g)(x) = x + 3x − 5 f. ( f − g)(4) = 4 − 4 = 4 − 4 = 0

Domain: {x x ≥ 0} . g. ( f ⋅ g)(2) = 2 2 = 2 ⋅ 2 = 4

b. ( f − g)(x) = x − (3x − 5) = x − 3x + 5  f  1 1
h.   (1) = = =1
Domain: {x x ≥ 0} . g 1 1

c. ( f ⋅ g)(x) = x (3x − 5) = 3x x − 5 x 1 1
73. f (x) = 1+ g(x) =

Domain: {x x ≥ 0} . x x
1 1 2
f x a. ( f + g)(x) = 1+ + = 1+
d.   (x) = x x x
 g  3x − 5
Domain: { x x ≠ 0} .
x ≥ 0 and 3x − 5 ≠ 0
5 1 1
3x ≠ 5  x ≠ b. ( f − g)(x) = 1+ − =1
3 x x

Domain:

x x ≥ 0 and x ≠
5
. Domain: {x x ≠ 0} .
 
 3 
 11 1 1
c. ( f ⋅ g)(x) = 1 +  = + 2
e. ( f + g)(3) = 3 + 3(3) − 5  xx x x

= 3 +9−5 = 3 + 4 Domain: {x x ≠ 0} .

1 x +1
1+
f. ( f − g)(4) = 4 − 3(4) + 5  f x = x x +1 x
x = = ⋅ = x+
= 2 −12 + 5 = −5
d.  ( ) 1 1
1
 g x 1
x x
g. ( f ⋅ g)(2) = 3(2) 2 − 5 2 Domain: { x x ≠ 0} .
= 6 2 −5 2 = 2
2 5
e. ( f + g)(3) = 1+ =
 f 1 1 1 1 3 3
h.   (1) = = = =−
 g  3(1) − 5 3 − 5 −2 2 f. ( f − g)(4) = 1
1 1 1 1 3
72. f (x) = x g(x) = x g. ( f ⋅ g)(2) = + 2
= + =
2 (2) 2 4 4
a. ( f + g)(x) = x + x
 f 
Domain: {x x is any real number} . h.   (1) = 1+ 1 = 2
g

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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

b. ( f − g)(x) = x − x
74. f (x) = x −1 g(x) = 4 − x

Domain: {x x is any real number} .

a. ( f + g)(x) = x −1 + 4 − x

c. ( f ⋅ g)(x) = x ⋅ x = x x x −1 ≥ 0 and 4 − x ≥ 0
Domain: {x x is any real number} . x ≥ 1 and − x ≥ −4

 f  x x≤4
d.  g  (x) = x Domain: {x 1 ≤ x ≤ 4} .
 

Domain: {x x ≠ 0} .

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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

b. ( f − g)(x) = x −1 − 4 − x 2x + 3 4x
b. ( f − g)(x) = −

x −1 ≥ 0 and 4 − x ≥ 0 3x − 2 3x − 2

x ≥ 1 and − x ≥ −4 2x + 3− 4x − 2x + 3
= =
3x − 2 3x − 2
x≤4
3x − 2 ≠ 0
Domain: { x 1 ≤ x ≤ 4} .
2
3x ≠ 2  x ≠
c. ( f ⋅ g)(x) = ( x −1 )( 4− x ) 3
 2
= −x 2 + 5x − 4 Domain:  x x ≠  .
 3 
x −1 ≥ 0 and 4 − x ≥ 0 2

x ≥ 1 and − x ≥ −4  2x + 3  4x  8x + 12x
c. ( f ⋅ g)(x) = =
 3x − 2  3x − 2 
x≤4    (3x − 2) 2
3x − 2 ≠ 0
Domain: { x 1 ≤ x ≤ 4} .
2
3x ≠ 2  x ≠
 f x −1 x −1 3
d. (x) = =
 
g 4− x 4− x  2 
Domain:  x x ≠  .
x −1 ≥ 0 and 4 − x > 0  3

x ≥ 1 and − x > −4 2x + 3
x<4  f  3x − 2 = 2x + 3 ⋅ 3x − 2 = 2x + 3
d.   (x) =
4x
Domain: {x 1 ≤ x < 4} . g  3x − 2 4x 4x
3x − 2
e. ( f + g)(3) = 3 −1 + 4 − 3 3x − 2 ≠ 0 and x ≠ 0

= 2 + 1 = 2 +1 3x ≠ 2

f. ( f − g)(4) = 4 −1 − 4 − 4 2
x≠
3
= 3 − 0 = 3 −0 = 3
 2 
Domain: x x ≠ and x ≠ 0 .
 
g. ( f ⋅ g)(2) = −(2)2 + 5(2) − 4 3
 
= −4 +10 − 4 = 2 6(3) + 3 18 + 3 21
e. ( f + g)(3) = = = =3
 f 3(3) − 2 9 − 2 7
1 −1 0
h. (1) = = = 0 =0
75.g   2x + 3
  f (x) =

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 Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

4 −1
3 f. (f −
−
g)(4) =
g(x) 2(4)+ 3 = − 8
= +3 −5
4x = =−
1
3
(
4
)
−
2
1
2
−
2
1
0
2

3x − 2
2
3x − 2 8(2) + 12(2)
g. ( f ⋅ g)(2) =
2x + 3 4x ( 3(2) − 2 )2
a. ( f + g)(x) = + 8(4)+ 24 32+ 24 56 7
3x − 2 3x − 2 = = = =
2 2

2x + 3+ 4x 6x + 3 ( 6 − 2) (4) 16 2
= =
3x − 2 3x − 2
3x − 2 ≠ 0  f 2(1)+ 3 2+ 3 5
h.  (1) = = =

3x ≠ 2  x ≠ 2  g  4(1) 4 4
3
{
Domain: x x ≠ 2 .
3 }

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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

2 1  f x +1
76. f (x) = x +1 g(x) = 78. f (x) = (x) =
 
x x  g  x2 − x
2 1
a. ( f + g)(x) = x +1 +
x +1 x
x =
2

x +1 ≥ 0 and x≠0 x −x g(x)

x ≥ −1 1
2

1 x −x
Domain: {x x ≥ −1, and x ≠ 0} . g(x) = x = ⋅
x +1 x x +1
2

2 x −x
b. ( f − g)(x) = x +1 −

x 1 x(x− 1) x − 1
= ⋅ =
x +1 ≥ 0 and x≠0 x x +1 x +1
x ≥ −1
79. f (x) = 4x + 3
Domain: {x x ≥ −1, and x ≠ 0} .
f (x + h)− f (x) 4(x + h)+ 3− (4x + 3)
=
2 2 x +1 h h
c. ( f ⋅ g)(x) = x +1 ⋅ = 4x + 4h + 3− 4x − 3
x x =
x +1 ≥ 0 and x≠0 h
x ≥ −1 4h
= =4

Domain: {x x ≥ −1, and x ≠ 0} . h

80. f (x) = −3x +1

 f x +1 x x +1
d. (x) = =
  f (x + h)− f (x) −3(x + h)+ 1− (−3x + 1)
 g  2 2 =
x h h
x +1 ≥ 0 and x≠0 −3x − 3h + 1 + 3x − 1
=
x ≥ −1 h

−3h
Domain: {x x ≥ −1, and x ≠ 0} . =
h
= −3

2 2 2 8
e. ( f + g)(3) = 3 +1 + = 4+ = 2+ = 2

3 3 3 3 81. f (x) = x − 4

f (x + h) − f (x)
2 1
f. ( f − g)(4) = 4 +1 − = 5− h
4 2
(x + h) 2 − 4 − (x 2 − 4)

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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

2 2+ 1 2 3 =
g. ( f ⋅ g)(2) = = = 3 h
2 2 x + 2xh + h 2 − 4 − x 2 + 4
2
=
 f 1 1+ 1 2 h
h. (1) = =
 
 
g 2 2 2xh + h 2
=
h
77. f (x) = 3x +1 ( f + g)(x) = 6 −
1
x = 2x + h
2

1
6− x = 3x +1 + g(x)
2
7
5 − x = g(x)
2
7
g(x) = 5 − x
2

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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

82. f (x) = 3x 2 + 2 85. f ( x) =

1
f (x + h) − f (x) x2
1 1
h 2 − 2

3(x + h) + 2− (3x + 2)
2 2 f (x + h)− f (x) ( x + h ) x
= =
h h h
x2 − ( x + h )
2
3x 2 + 6xh + 3h 2 + 2 − 3x 2 − 2
=
x 2( x + h )
2
h

=
6xh + 3h 2 h
=
h (
x − x 2 + 2xh + h 2 )
= 6x + 3h
x 2( x + h )
2
=
83. f (x) = x 2 − x + 4 h
f (x + h)− f (x)  1  −2xh − h 2

=  2
h  h  x ( x + h )2
(x + h) 2 − (x + h) + 4 − (x 2 − x + 4)
=  1  h ( −2x − h )
h =  
 h  x 2 ( x + h )2
x + 2xh + h − x − h + 4− x 2 + x − 4
2 2

= − ( 2x + h )
h −2x − h
= =
2xh + h 2 − h x 2
( x + h) 2
x2 ( x + h )
2
=
h

= 2x + h −1 1
86. f (x) =
x+3
84. f ( x ) = 3x 2 − 2x + 6 1 1
−
f (x + h)− f (x) x + h + 3 x + 3
f ( x + h) − f ( x) =
h h
h x + 3− ( x + 3+ h )
3 x + h 2 − 2 x + h + 6  − 3x 2 − 2x + 6 
( ) ( ) ( x + h + 3) ( x + 3)
    =
= h
h

=
( 2
)
3 x + 2xh + h − 2x − 2h + 6− 3x + 2x − 6
2 2
=
 x + 3− x − 3− h   1 
 ( x + h + 3 )( x + 3 )   h 
h   

6xh + 3h 2 − 2h  −h   1 
3x 2 + 6xh + 3h 2 − 2h − 3x 2 =
= =   
h h  ( x + h + 3 )( x + 3 )   h 
= 6x + 3h − 2 −1
=
( x + h + 3)( x + 3)

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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

87. f (x) =
2x 89. f ( x) = x−2

x+3
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
2(x + h) 2x
− h
f (x + h)− f (x) x + h + 3 x + 3
=
h h x + h − 2− x − 2
=
2(x + h)(x + 3)− 2x ( x + 3+ h ) h
( x + h + 3) ( x + 3) x + h − 2− x − 2 x + h − 2+ x − 2
= ⋅
=
h h x+h−2 + x−2
2
2x + 6x + 2hx + 6h − 2x − 6x − 2xh
2
x + h − 2− x + 2
=

=
( x + h + 3) ( x + 3) h ( x+h−2 + x−2 )
h = h

=
6h
( x + h + 3)( x + 3)
1
h
h ( x+h−2 + x−2 )
1
=
6 =

( x + h + 3)( x + 3) x+h−2 + x−2

90. f (x) = x +1

88. f (x) =
5x f ( x + h) − f ( x)
x−4 h
5(x + h) 5x
− x + h + 1− x + 1
f (x + h)− f (x) =
= x+h−4 x−4
h
h
h
5(x + h)(x − 4)− 5x ( x − 4+ h ) x + h + 1− x + 1 x + h + 1+ x + 1
= ⋅

( x + h − 4) ( x − 4) h x + h +1 + x +1
= x + h +1 − (x +1) h
h = =

5x − 20 x + 5hx − 20h − 5x + 20 x − 5xh

2 2 h ( x + h +1 + x +1 ) h( x + h +1 + x +1 )
( x + h − 4 ) ( x − 4)
= 1
=
h x + h +1 + x +1
−20h 1
=
( x + h − 4)( x − 4) h
2

20 91. 11 = x − 2x + 3
=− 2

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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

( x + h − 4)( x − 4) 0 = x − 2x − 8

0 = (x − 4)(x + 2)
x − 4 = 0 or x + 2 = 0

x=4 or x = −2

The solution set is: { −2, 4}

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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions

7 5 3 97. Let x represent the length of the rectangle.

92. − = x−
16 6 4 x
Then, represents the width of the rectangle
7 3 5 2
− + = x
16 4 6 since the length is twice the width. The function
2

5 7 12 x x 1
x=− + for the area is: A(x) = x ⋅ = = x2
6 16 16 2 2 2

5 5
x= 98. Let x represent the length of one of the two equal
6 16
sides. The function for the area is:
5 6 3
x= ⋅ = 1 1
16 5 8 A(x) = ⋅ x ⋅ x = x 2
2 2

3 99. Let x represent the number of hours worked.

The solution set is:
8 The function for the gross salary is:
G(x) = 14x
93. f (x) = 2x3 + Ax 2 + 4x − 5 and f (2) = 5
100. Let x represent the number of items sold.
f (2) = 2(2)3 + A(2) 2 + 4(2) − 5 The function for the gross salary is:
5 = 16 + 4 A + 8 − 5 G(x) = 10x +100
5 = 4 A +19
101. a. P is the dependent variable; a is the
−14 = 4 A
independent variable
−14 7
A= =− 2

4 2 b. P(20) = 0.014(20) − 5.073(20) + 327.287

= 5.6 −101.46 + 327.287

94. f (x) = 3x 2 − Bx + 4 and f (−1) = 12 : = 231.427

f (−1) = 3(−1) 2 − B(−1) + 4 In 2012 there are 231.427 million people

who are 20 years of age or older.
12 = 3 + B + 4
B=5 c. P(0) = 0.014(0) 2 − 5.073(0) + 327.287
= 327.287
3x + 8 In 2012 there are 327.237 million people.
95. f (x) = and f (0) = 2
2x − A
3(0)+ 8 102. a. N is the dependent variable; r is the
f (0) = independent variable
2(0) − A
2
8 b. N (3) = −1.35(3) +15.45(3) − 20.71
2=
−A = −12.15 + 46.35 − 20.71
−2A = 8 = 13.49
A = −4 In 2012, there are 13.49 million housing
units with 3 rooms.
2x − B 1
96. f (x) = and f (2) =

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Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs Section 2.1: Functions
3x + 4 2
2(2)− B
f (2) =
3(2) + 4
1 4− B
=
2 10
5 = 4−B
B = −1

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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 CHAPTER VII
SUCCESSION OF IDEAS

The next step is but a very short one in advance of the second,
and yet one of exceeding importance. It deals with the succession of
ideas. Every long sentence is made up of small phrases more or less
intimately connected. The inflection denotes this connection. If
several phrases point forward to a thought further on, the end of
each of these will be marked by a rising inflection; if any one of the
phrases be of sufficient importance to demand particular emphasis,
its end will be marked by the falling inflection.
As was said in Chapter II, the reading of a long sentence presents
great difficulties for the child. He loses himself in the maze of words,
and his mental condition is clearly shown in his melody, which drifts
about here and there, like a rudderless ship. It is the purpose of this
step to train him in the development of his powers of continuous
thinking; to enable him to keep in mind the main idea, no matter
how numerous the details. This step and that dealing with
subordinate ideas have much the same object in view.
The following excerpt from the Introduction to The Song of
Hiawatha is a good illustration of a sentence in which the sense is
suspended through many lines:
 Ye, who sometimes, in your rambles
Through the green lanes of the country,
Where the tangled barberry-bushes
Hang their tufts of crimson berries
Over stone walls gray with mosses,
Pause by some neglected graveyard,
For a while to muse, and ponder
On a half-effaced inscription,
Written with little skill of song-craft,
Homely phrases, but each letter
Full of hope and yet of heart-break,
Full of all the tender pathos
Of the Here and the Hereafter;—
Stay and read this rude inscription,
Read this Song of Hiawatha!
It is in sentences like the following that the pupil is likely to fail.
Speaking of rain, the poet says:
How it clatters along the roofs,
Like the tramp of hoofs!
How it gushes and struggles out
From the throat of the overflowing spout!
There may be some justification for the falling inflection on
“roofs”; there can be no doubt that the same inflection would be
incorrect on “out.” And yet, the very structure of the verse would be
likely to cause the careless reader to read it with that very inflection.
This is a typical case, and, if this point has been made clear, one that
should be very helpful to the teacher. The following passage, from
the same poem, affords another exercise in succession of ideas:
In the country, on every side,
Where far and wide,
Like a leopard’s tawny and spotted hide,
Stretches the plain,
To the dry grass and the drier grain
How welcome is the rain!
Let us observe that the plain does not stretch to the dry grass.
There will be a falling inflection on “plain,” and a rising on “grain.”
 The pause has nothing to do with succession of ideas. It would
make little difference how long the pause after “plain” if it were read
with a rising inflection. This principle must never be lost sight of.
Pupils who should know better frequently make mistakes of the
kind we have been discussing, in reading the following passage:
In the furrowed land
The toilsome and patient oxen stand;
Lifting the yoke-encumbered head,
With their dilated nostrils spread,
They silently inhale
The clover-scented gale,
And the vapors that arise
From the well-watered and smoking soil.
For this rest in the furrow after toil
Their large and lustrous eyes
Seem to thank the Lord,
More than man’s spoken word.

Near at hand,
From under the sheltering trees,
The farmer sees
His pastures, and his fields of grain.
As they bend their tops
To the numberless beating drops
Of the incessant rain.
The following extracts from Gulliver’s Travels are within the
comprehension of fairly young children, and will afford good
practice:
1. The empire of Blefuscu is an island situated to the northeast of Lilliput,
from which it is parted only by a channel eight hundred yards wide.
2. I had not yet seen it, and, upon this notice of a intended invasion, I
avoided appearing on that side of the coast, for fear of being discovered by
some of the enemy’s ships, who had received no intelligence of me; all
intercourse between the two empires having been strictly forbidden during the
war, upon pain of death, and an embargo laid by our emperor upon all vessels
whatsoever.
3. I walked toward the northeast coast, over against Blefuscu, where, lying
down behind a hillock, I took out my small perspective glass and viewed the
enemy’s fleet at anchor, consisting of about fifty men-of-war and a great
number of transports. I then came back to my house, and gave orders (for
which I had a warrant) for a great quantity of the strongest cable and bars of
iron. The cable was about as thick as pack-thread, and the bars of the length
and size of a knitting-needle.
4. I trebled the cable to make it stronger, and for the same reason I twisted
three of the iron bars together, bending the extremities into a hook. Having
thus fixed fifty hooks to as many cables, I went back to the northeast coast,
and putting off my coat, shoes and stockings, walked into the sea in my
leathern jerkin, about half an hour before high water. I waded with what haste
I could, and swam in the middle about thirty yards, till I felt ground.
5. When I had got out of danger, I stopped awhile to pick out the arrows
that stuck in my hands and face, and rubbed on some of the same ointment
that was given me at my first arrival, as I have formerly mentioned. I then
took off my spectacles, and, waiting about an hour, till the tide was a little
fallen, I waded through the middle with my cargo, and arrived safe at the royal
port of Lilliput.
6. The emperor and his whole court stood on the shore, expecting the issue
of this great adventure. They saw the ships move forward in a large half-moon,
but could not discern me, who was up to my breast in water. When I advanced
to the middle of the channel, they were yet more in pain, because I was under
water to my neck. The emperor concluded me to be drowned, and that the
enemy’s fleet was approaching in a hostile manner.
7. But he was soon eased of his fears; for, the channel growing shallower
every step I made, I came in a short time within hearing, and, holding up the
end of the cable by which the fleet was fastened, I cried in a loud voice, “Long
live the most puissant King of Lilliput!” This great prince received me at my
landing with all possible encomiums, and created me a nardac upon the spot,
which is the highest title of honor among them.
It need hardly be noted that there are many examples of
momentary completeness in the preceding passages; as, for
instance:
“Lilliput,” in paragraph one.
“Ships,” in paragraph two.
“Anchor,” in paragraph three.
“Arrival,” in paragraph five.
 “Me,” “pain,” in paragraph six.
“Spot,” in paragraph seven.
It will be seen that the purpose of this step is to draw the pupil’s
attention to two possibilities in every sentence: Does the phrase
point forward, or is it momentarily complete? Great care must be
observed not to confuse him with statements regarding inflections.
Momentary completeness has been so fully discussed in a
preceding chapter that it need not be dwelt upon further.
The following lesson-talk may be helpful for the teacher:
Read to yourself this little sentence: “Robert has a slate.” Is that a complete
picture? You see that it is. Now read this sentence: “Robert has a slate and a
pencil.” Here you note that Robert has two things, so the sentence is not
complete when we come to the word “slate.” Although we have a clear picture,
yet we have not the whole picture. How do we know this? In the first sentence
there was a period after “slate,” but in the second sentence there was none,
and because there wasn’t, we kept on reading and found there was another
group of words giving us the picture of something else Robert had. Now this
teaches us that if we want to read just as we speak, we must be careful to get
not only one picture or two, but all the pictures in the sentence.
Let me show you how we often make mistakes in our reading because we
don’t pay attention to what I have just shown you. Suppose we have this
sentence: “I saw a cat, and a mouse, and a rat.” Now, some pupils are careless
and they read, “I saw a cat,” just as if that were the whole sentence. Then
they look a little further and see the next group, “and a mouse,” and they read
that. Then they see the rest of the sentence, “and a rat,” and they read that.
But we know that is not the way to read. We must first read the whole
sentence silently until we get the picture in each group, and then we shall be
sure to read the sentence just as one of us would speak it if he really saw the
cat, the rat, and the mouse, at the same time.
Here is a very good example for you to study. Read it through slowly and
carefully, and do not try to read it aloud until you see clearly the picture in
each group. If you do as I ask, you will get a complete picture of the way in
which the young soldier prepares to go out to battle:

But when the gray dawn stole into his tent,

He rose, and clad himself, and girt his sword,
And took his horseman’s cloak, and left his tent.
 Can you not see the young warrior rising from his couch, dressing himself,
girding on his sword, and so forth? If you can, then I am sure you will be able
to make others see it as a complete picture, without breaking it up into many
little pieces, just as we used to do in the first book. You see, he did not rise
and stop; and then dress himself and stop; and gird his sword and stop; but
one action followed the other, just as each car in a long, moving train, follows
another. Each car is like a group of words, and the whole train is like the
complete sentence.
 CHAPTER VIII
THE CENTRAL IDEA

A little reflection must make it manifest that every sentence, or

even phrase, has a central idea. When this idea is brought out in
vocal expression it is by means of some form of emphasis, such as
inflection or force or time, and so forth. The exact form of the
manifestation need not concern us here.
Now that the pupils have been trained to look for the thought, the
average sentence will take care of itself as far as the leading idea is
concerned; but it must be admitted that in the sentence of more
than average difficulty we find much obscure and more faulty
reading, due, no doubt, to ignorance of the central idea. It is
perhaps not wise in all cases to teach this step, as a step, to pupils
under eleven years; but when it is taught, great care must be
exercised to keep the class from forming the habit of pounding out
every important word. Be this as it may, the attention of teachers
should be directed to the great importance of such studies as are
included in the present chapter. Furthermore, there can be no doubt
that the step may be undertaken in the higher grades and in high
schools to great advantage.
Perhaps there is no more severe test of the student’s
apprehension of the meaning than his emphasis—using that term in
its broadest sense. Determining the central idea is essentially a
logical process; the student weighs and determines the value of
every word, and by a process of elimination finally fixes upon the
exact thought to be conveyed.
 Rules for emphasis so commonly given are, comparatively, of little
value. If the student has the thought, his emphasis may be trusted
to take care of itself; where he has not, the rules are confusing and
misleading. Mr. Alfred Ayres says facetiously, but truly, “There is only
one rule for emphasis—Gumption.”
It is understood that emphasis has a much wider meaning than
that of merely making a word stand out distinctly by means of force;
it includes any manner of making a thought prominent. What we are
here studying is simply that form of emphasis which is manifested by
inflection or force, or both. The central idea in colloquial utterance is
generally made significant through force; but by far the most
suggestive method, when occasion requires, is through inflection. Of
course, these two are very often combined in various proportions.
In the following illustrations, two classes of examples will be
noticed. In the first, the central ideas are indicated by means of
italics and capitals. It is not claimed that some other interpretation
might not be possible; but that suggested is at least justifiable. The
teacher will study these examples carefully with the object of
determining the reason for the marking. In the second list of
illustrations, the teacher himself will determine the central idea, and
manifest it through his rendition.
By following this plan, the teacher’s own reading will show much
improvement, and he will probably learn better how to work out the
problem with his classes.
It is to be regretted that we have no recognized symbols for
showing shades and degrees of emphasis. The teacher will, no
doubt, be able to determine for himself whether the element of force
or that of inflection predominates.
[10]
There on the dais sat another king
Wearing HIS ROBES, his CROWN, his SIGNET-RING.
—King Robert of Sicily. Longfellow.
Note that “his” and “robes” are of about equal importance, the
former perhaps weighing a little heavier than the latter. In the next
phrase the inflection on “his” is much narrower than on the first
“his,” while the “crown” becomes more important. Finally, the last
“his” has no emphasis, while the climax of thought and emotion is
reached on “signet-ring.”
And do you NOW put on your best attire!
And do you NOW cull out a HOLIDAY?
And do you now STREW FLOWERS in HIS way
That comes in triumph over Pompey’s blood?
—Julius Caesar, Act i., Sc. 1.
Note the climax: “best attire” is weaker than “holiday,” and it than
the strewing of flowers. Conversely, the emphasis on “now”
diminishes at each repetition. The context should be carefully
digested.
I rather tell thee what is to be fear’d
Than what I fear.
—Julius Caesar, Act i., Sc. 2.
An actor (?) was once heard to read the above passage, putting
his emphasis on “thee” and the second “I.” How illuminating!
If ’twere done when ’tis done, then ’twere well
It were done quickly.
—Macbeth, Act i., Sc. 7.
The above is a fine illustration of the claim that the study of the
“Central Idea” is essentially a logical process. Any other emphasis is
puerile, and yet every other emphasis is heard except this. Let us
look a little closer. The passage beginning with this line resolves
itself into this: I am hampered with doubts and fears; I can find no
rest by day or night until I kill the king or resolve to abandon the
attempt. But if I can be assured that there shall be no after
consequences here, I’ll risk the life to come. Hence, the following
paraphrase is the equivalent of the first line: If it [the murder] were
out of people’s minds, if it were blotted out of recollection,
consigned to oblivion, when it is committed [when I do the murder],
then the sooner it is done the better for my peace of mind. In a
word, if it is all over when it is committed, “then ’twere well it were
done quickly.” Many purposely avoid repeating the emphasis on
“done” because they believe the two “done’s” are identical in
meaning. Nothing could be farther from the truth, as shown above.
The truth is, this line is one of those grim plays upon words in which
Shakespeare is so prolific. It need hardly be added that when
properly read the sense will be made clear by keeping in mind the
paraphrase just given. The result will be that the first “done” will be
read with a very decided falling inflection, and the second with a
rising circumflex inflection (the mind looking forward at the end to
the conclusion of the sentence). Perhaps to the sensitive student of
literature there is another argument. Shakespeare’s vocabulary
would indeed have been very limited had he found it necessary to
use three “done’s” in the opening line of a most important soliloquy.
To one who is alive to æsthetic effects, the very fact that
Shakespeare does use them suggests a more careful analysis, and
one soon discovers the cause. The play on the words makes the
salient idea more striking.
And flood upon flood hurries on never ending; and it
never will rest nor from travail be free.
—The Diver. Schiller-Lytton.

Macbeth. I dare do all that may become a man;

Who dares do more is none.
Lady Macbeth. What beast was’t then
That made you break this enterprise to me?
When you durst do it, then you were a man,
And, to be more than what you were, you would
Be so much more the man. Nor time nor place
Did then adhere, and yet you would make both,
They have made themselves, and that their fitness now
Does unmake you.
—Macbeth, Act i., Sc. 7.

... it becomes
The thronèd MONARCH better than his CROWN.
—The Merchant of Venice, Act iv., Sc. 1.
Why is “better” not the most significant word?
 Lives of great men all remind us
We can make our lives sublime.
—Psalm of Life. Longfellow.
Why not emphasize “we”?
... perchance to dream; ay, there’s the rub!
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come.
—Hamlet, Act iii., Sc. 1.
“What” is equivalent to what horrible or awful.
Cassius. I may do that I shall be sorry for.
Brutus. You have done that you should be sorry for.
—Julius Caesar, Act iv., Sc. 3.

It is the bright day that brings forth the adder,

And that craves wary walking.
—Julius Caesar, Act ii., Sc. 1.

And since the quarrel

Will bear no color for the thing he is,
Fashion it thus; that what he is, AUGMENTED,
Would run to these and these extremities.
—Ibid.

This reading brings out most clearly the rationale of Brutus’s

attitude. The soliloquy should be studied in its entirety.
Give me that man
That is not passion’s slave, and I will wear him
In my heart’s core, ay, in my HEART of heart,
As I do thee.
—Hamlet, Act iii., Sc. 2.
This example is used in Fulton and Trueblood’s Practical Elocution.
The authors state:
It has been a question with the actors which word of the phrase heart of
heart should receive the chief emphasis, some claiming the reading should be
“heart of heart,” others “heart of heart,” still others “heart of heart.” The first
seems to us the preferable reading, for if the lines read, “I will wear him in my
heart’s core, ay, in the center of it,” the case would be clear. Here “center”
stands in the place of the first “heart.”
 She looked down to blush and she looked up to sigh,
With a smile on her lip and a tear in her eye.
—Lochinvar. Scott.

There are those who argue that “lip” and “eye” should not be
emphasized. This is a serious error. The phrases “on her lip” and “in
her eye” are elaborative, and hence the emphasis is distributed over
the entire phrase. If this is wrong, we must blame the writer for
tautology. But literature has many similar examples. Here is another:
Bring forth the best robe, and put it on him: and put a ring on his hand, and
shoes on his feet.—Luke xv. 22.
There is a rule telling us to emphasize words in antithesis. In
many cases we do so; but these cases would emphasize themselves,
so to speak. There are, however, many cases of rhetorical antithesis
where it interferes with the sense to emphasize both members of
the antithesis, and here the rule steps in to lead astray the pupil. To
illustrate: “I am going to town to-morrow, but you need not go until
the day after.”
Mr. A. Melville Bell has put this very clearly. In his Essays and
Postscripts on Elocution, he says:
The emphasis of contrast falls necessarily on the second of a contrasted pair
of words, but not necessarily on the first. The first word is emphatic or
otherwise, according as it is new, or implied in preceding thoughts; but it is not
emphatic in virtue of subsequent contrast. A purposed anticipation may give
emphasis to the first word, but such anticipatory emphasis should not be made
habitual.

If the bright blood that fills my veins, transmitted free from godlike ancestry,
were like the slimy ooze which stagnates in your arteries, I had remained at
home.
Is it not clear that the anticipatory emphasis on “my” is not only
unnecessary, but would, if given, weaken the force of the succeeding
phrase?
I have nothing more to say, but the honorable gentleman will no doubt
speak for hours.
 What could I do less; what could he do more?

Messala. It is but change, Titinius; for Octavius

Is overthrown by noble Brutus’ power,
As Cassius’ legions are by Antony.
Titinius. These tidings will well comfort Cassius.
Messala. Is not that he that lies upon the ground?
Titinius. He lies not like the living. Oh my heart!
Messala. Is not that he?
Titinius. No, this was he, Messala,
But Cassius is no more,—O setting sun!
As in thy red rays thou dost sink to-night,
So in his red blood Cassius’ day is set;
The sun of Rome is set! Our day is gone;
Clouds, dews, and dangers come; our deeds are done!
Mistrust of my success hath done this deed.
—Julius Caesar, Act v., Sc. 3.
It is evident that the speakers have been conversing about the
two parts of the battle, and Titinius has told his friend that Cassius
has been overthrown. To this Messala replies, comfortingly, Affairs
are balanced, then, etc. The entire extract needs and will amply
repay most critical study. It would be hard to find one containing
more difficulties.
Bassanio. This is no answer, thou unfeeling man,
To excuse the current of thy cruelty.
Shylock. I am not bound to please thee with my answer.
Bassanio. Do all men kill the things they do not love?
Shylock. Hates any man the thing he would not kill?
Bassanio. Every offense is not a hate at first.
Shylock. What! wouldst thou have a serpent sting thee twice?
—Merchant of Venice, Act iv., Sc. 1.

Duncan. Go, pronounce his present[11] death,

And with his former title greet Macbeth.
Ross. I’ll see it done.
Duncan. What he hath lost, noble Macbeth hath won.
—Macbeth, Act i., Sc. 2.

Thou shalt get kings, though thou be none.

—Macbeth, Act i., Sc. 3.
 Macbeth. The thane of Cawdor lives: why do you dress me
In borrow’d robes?
Angus. Who was the thane, lives yet.
—Ibid.

Ligarius. What’s to do?

Brutus. A piece of work that will make sick men whole.
Ligarius. But are not some whole that we must make sick?
—Julius Caesar, Act ii., Sc. 1.

When beggars die, there are no comets seen;

The heavens themselves blaze forth the death of princes.
—Julius Caesar, Act ii., Sc. 2.

Brutus. He hath the falling sickness.

Cassius. No, Caesar hath it not; but you and I,
And honest Casca, we have the falling sickness.
—Julius Caesar, Act i., Sc. 2.

Romans now
Have thews and limbs like to their ancestors,
But, woe the while! our fathers’ minds are dead,
And we are govern’d with our mothers’ spirits.
—Julius Caesar, Act i., Sc. 3.

That you do love me, I am nothing jealous;

What you would work me to, I have some aim;
How I have thought of this, and of these times,
I shall recount hereafter; for this present,
I would not, so with love I might entreat you,
Be any further mov’d. What you have said,
I will consider; what you have to say,
I will with patience hear, and find a time
Both meet to hear, and answer such high things.
—Julius Caesar, Act i., Sc. 2.

Cowards die many times before their deaths;

The valiant never taste of death but once.
—Julius Caesar, Act ii., Sc 2.

Flavius. Thou art a cobbler, art thou?

Citizen. Truly, sir, all that I live by is with the awl.
—Julius Caesar, Act i., Sc. 1.
 Sir Peter. Very well, ma’am, very well! So a husband is to have no influence
—no authority!
Lady Teazle. Authority? No, to be sure! If you wanted authority over me, you
should have adopted me, and not married me; I am sure you were old enough!
—The School for Scandal. Sheridan.

We live in deeds, not years; in thought, not breath;

In feelings, not in figures on a dial;
We should count time by heart-throbs. He most lives,
Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best.
—Festus. Bailey.

I must be cruel, only to be kind;

Thus bad begins, and worse remains behind.

Our new heraldry is—hands, not hearts.

He jests at scars that never felt a wound.

Friendship was in their looks, but in their hearts there was hatred.

Oh! the blood more stirs

To rouse a lion than to start a hare.

You will find it less easy to uproot faults than choke them by gaining virtues.

A maiden’s wrath has two eyes—one blind, the other keener than a falcon’s.

The storm that rends the oak uproots the flower.

But break, my heart, for I must hold my tongue.

Suggestions for a class lesson follow:
Let us look at the following sentence: “I heard William say it.” Can you read
that sentence now? I should say you could not, and my reason is, that you are
not quite sure of its meaning. Let us see what that meaning is.
One person might mean that he had heard William say it, but that you had
not. How would you read the sentence then? Another person might mean, “I
am sure William said it, for I was there to hear him.” How would you express
that? Again, a third person might mean that he was sure George or John had
not said it, but William. How would you read that?
 We learn from this another reason why we must use great care in preparing
our reading lesson. You see, if we do not, we shall not stop to consider just
what the sentence means, and then in reading we shall not express the
author’s meaning. Let us try a few more examples. In each make up your mind
just what you want to say, and then say it as if you meant it.
Example 1.—“I like geography better than I do history.” Now, if you have been
talking to a friend about the studies you like best, and he has just said, “I like
geography as well as I do history,” how would you read the above example? Of
course, you see that the main idea in your mind would be to tell him that you
liked geography not only as well as, but better than, history. Well then, now
you may read the example.
Example 2.—“I should rather be a lawyer than a doctor.” Suppose in this case
a friend has said, “My father wants me to be a doctor.” How would you then
read the sentence?
Example 3.—“Queen Victoria has reigned longer than any other monarch who
ever sat upon the English throne.” Suppose you are telling this to your
classmates, and that you have not been talking about Queen Victoria before,
but you want only to give them a piece of information.
Let us remember, then, that every sentence has a principal, or, as we
sometimes say, a central idea. We need be extremely careful to get that central
idea, and if we have been, we notice that certain words will stand out very
prominently in our reading. This is true because reading is just like speaking. If
some one asks you where you are going, and you are going to school, what do
you think of? You don’t think of each word of your answer; you think only one
idea—school. So you say, “I am going to school,” and you make the word
“school” very prominent, or important. “School” is the central idea.
Until our next step I want you to study every sentence of every reading
lesson, bearing in mind this very important fact regarding the central idea.
Every sentence has such a central idea, and until you have found it you cannot
read the sentence.
Very few directions are necessary except to warn the teacher
against speaking about the various kinds of emphasis. No matter
what the kind, the thought will find its natural channel if the
conditions be right. It is true, that sometimes a word is made
prominent by inflection (rising, falling, circumflex), sometimes by
slower time, sometimes by force alone. But let us remember, these
various forms are the results of various forms of thinking. If those
are right, correct reading will follow.
 It is further worth noting that the best authorities use “emphasis”
as signifying any means of making the thought stand out. Hence,
the teacher is urged not to use the term “emphasis” at all. If a pupil
err, tell him he has not given you the central, or leading, idea.
 CHAPTER IX
SUBORDINATION

The analysis for determining the central idea must have led the
student to discern subordinate ideas. As a rule, the expression of
these will not be difficult, but there are certain phases of
subordination that require special study. We have noted that in our
desire to impress the leading thought upon another we have used
significant inflection, or force or time. It must follow then that the
relatively unimportant words will be read in a manner less striking.
In the following speech of Portia, observe how naturally we slight
the relatively unimportant ideas:
If to do were as easy as to know what were good to do, chapels had been
churches, and poor men’s cottages princes’ palaces. It is a good
divine that follows his own instructions: I can easier teach twenty what
were good to be done, than to be one of the twenty to follow mine own
teaching.
There will be degrees of subordination, of course: the above
marking is meant only to draw attention to the purely instinctive
process as a result of which the vocal modulations manifest the
relative degrees of thought value.
It is something of an art to touch lightly upon the unimportant and
yet not to slur it. We are not advocating that the teacher should at
any length dwell upon this, though it is well for him to recognize this
feature of expression. There are two reasons for this: first, in the
earlier stages of reading there is a tendency to overemphasize;
second, in the later stages, the unimportant words are hurried, with
the result that the reading becomes indistinct.
 As there are slighted words in every phrase, so there are slighted
phrases and clauses in many sentences. We are all acquainted with
the time-honored advice concerning the manner in which one should
read words in parentheses: “Lower the voice and read faster.” It is
not to be denied that the average parenthetical thought is expressed
in that way, but there are many examples in which the injunction will
not apply. Whether the key will be raised or lowered, and whether
the time will be accelerated or retarded, will depend entirely upon
the mental attitude of the reader. To illustrate: “The battle of
Waterloo,—the most important battle of the nineteenth century,—
ended the career of Napoleon.” If one has been speaking of the
great importance of this battle, and takes for granted that his
audience recognizes this importance, he will probably lower the key
in the subordinate sentence, and read it faster; but otherwise he
would read it more slowly (as a result of the importance of the
thought), even if he did not raise the key. This leads us to the
conclusion that a phrase or clause may be grammatically subordinate
and yet of the greatest importance. The degree of importance
determines how it shall be read, and not arbitrary rules. The main
result to be obtained in this step is the training of the student’s mind
in apprehending thought-modulation; to enable him to weigh the
thought in order that he may perceive more clearly the relative
values of the various phrases. This perception leads in expression to
that most desirable phase of utterance—variety.
A few simple illustrations are added as examples of what may be
used for class drill. The more difficult illustrations may be used for
advanced classes, and for practice by the teacher himself:

And children, coming home from school,

Look in at the open door;

And, with his hard, rough hand, he wipes

A tear out of his eyes.

However, as the sun baked these two very dry and hard, I lifted them very
gently, and set them down again in two great wicker baskets, which I had
made on purpose for them, that they might not break; and, as between the
pot and the basket there was a little room to spare, I stuffed it full of the rice
and barley straw; and these two pots, being to stand always dry, I thought
would hold my dry corn, and perhaps the meal, when the corn was bruised.
Though I succeeded so poorly in my design for large pots, yet I made
several smaller things with better success, such as little round pots, flat dishes,
pitchers, and pipkins, and anything my hand turned to; and the heat of the sun
baked them very hard.

Art is long, and Time is fleeting,

And our hearts, though stout and brave,
Still, like muffled drums, are beating
Funeral marches to the grave.

Then it was that Jo, living in the darkened room, with that suffering little
sister always before her eyes, and that pathetic voice sounding in her ears,
learned to see the beauty and sweetness of Beth’s nature, to feel how deep
and tender a place she filled in all hearts, and to acknowledge the worth of
Beth’s unselfish ambition to live for others, and make home happy by the
exercise of those simple virtues which all may possess, and which all should
love and value more than talent, wealth, or beauty.[12]

It was past two o’clock when Jo, who stood at the window thinking how
dreary the world looked in its winding-sheet of snow, heard a movement by
the bed, and, turning quickly, saw Meg kneeling before their mother’s easy-
chair, with her face hidden.

In what school did the worthies of our land—the Washingtons, Henrys,

Franklins, Rutledges—learn those principles of civil liberty?

Next to the worship of the Father of us all—the deepest and grandest of

human emotions—is the love of the land that gave us birth.

I am not—I need scarcely say it—the panegyrist of England.

I have returned,—not, as the right honorable member has said, to raise a

storm,—I have returned to discharge an honorable debt of gratitude to my
country.

May that God (I do not take his name in vain), may that God forbid it.

One day—shall I forget it ever?—ye were present—I had fought long and
well.
 I was about to slay him, when a few hurried words—rather a welcome to
death than a plea for life—told me he was a Thracian.

One raw morning in spring—it will be eighty years the 19th of this month—
Hancock and Adams were both at Lexington.

And are we to speak and act like men who have sustained no wrong? We!
Six millions of—what shall I say?—citizens?

Among the exploits of marvelous and almost legendary valor performed by

that great English chieftain—who has been laid aside uncoroneted, and almost
unhonored because he would promote and distinguish the men of work in
preference to the men of idleness—among his achievements not the least
wondrous was the subjugation of the robber tribes of the Cutchee Hills in the
north of Scinde.

But if there is one man here—I am speaking not of shapes and forms, but of
feelings—if there is one here that feels as men were wont to feel, he will draw
the sword.

And you—you, who are eight millions strong—you, who boast at every
meeting that this island is the finest which the sun looks down upon—you, who
have no threatening sea to stem, no avalanche to dread—you, who say that
you could shield along your coast a thousand sail, and be the princes of a
mighty commerce—you, who by the magic of an honest hand, beneath each
summer sky, might cull a plenteous harvest from your soil, and with the sickle
strike away the scythe of death—you, who have no vulgar history to read—you,
who can trace, from field to field, the evidences of civilization older than the
Conquest—the relics of a religion far more ancient than the Gospel—you, who
have thus been blessed, thus been gifted, thus been prompted to what is wise
and generous and great—you will make no effort—you will perish by the
thousand, and the finest island that the sun looks down upon, amid the jeers
and hooting of the world, will blacken into a plague spot, a wilderness, a
sepulcher.

In his early manhood, at the bidding of conscience, against the advice of his
dearest friends, in opposition to stern paternal commands, against every
dictate of worldly wisdom and human prudence, in spite of all the dazzling
temptations of ambition so alluring to the heart of a young man, he turned
away from the broad fair highway to wealth, position, and distinction, that the
hands of a king opened before him, and, casting his lot with the sect weakest
and most unpopular in England, through paths that were tangled with trouble,
and lined with pitiless thorns of persecution, he walked into honor and fame,
and the reverence of the world, such as royalty could not promise and could
not give him.

No one venerates the Peerage more than I do; but, my Lords, I must say
that the Peerage solicited me,—not I the Peerage. Nay, more,—I can say, and
will say, that, as a Peer of Parliament, as Speaker of this right honorable
House, as keeper of the great seal, as guardian of his Majesty’s conscience, as
Lord High Chancellor of England,—nay, even in that character alone in which
the noble Duke would think it an affront to be considered, but which character
none can deny me, as a MAN,—I am at this moment as respectable—I beg
leave to add—I am as much respected,—as the proudest Peer I now look down
upon.
 Fresh as the flower, whose modest worth
He sang, his genius “glinted” forth,
Rose like a star that touching earth,
For so it seems,
Doth glorify its humble birth
With matchless beams.

The piercing eye, the thoughtful brow,

The struggling heart, where be they now?
Full soon the aspirant of the plow,
The prompt, the brave,
Slept, with the obscurest, in the low
And silent grave.

True friends though diversely inclined;

But heart with heart and mind with mind,
Where the main fibers are entwined,
Through Nature’s skill,
May even by contraries be joined
More closely still.

Sighing I turned away; but ere

Night fell, I heard, or seemed to hear,
Music that sorrow comes not near,
A ritual hymn,
Chanted in love that casts out fear
By Seraphim.

Too frail to keep the lofty vow

That must have followed when his brow
Was wreathed—“The Vision” tells us how—
With holly spray,
He faltered, drifted to and fro,
And passed away.

The five preceding stanzas are from Wordsworth’s poem, At the

Grave of Burns.
In the illustrations that follow, the student will note three distinct
degrees of importance of thought; in other words, there is the main
idea, its modifier, and the modifier of the modifier. The vocal
expression of these illustrations will be affected just to the extent
that the student appreciates the value of the different phrases.
At Atri in Abruzzo, a small town
Of ancient Roman date, but scant renown,
One of those little places that have run
Half up the hill, beneath a blazing sun,
And then sat down to rest, as if to say,
“I climb no farther upward, come what may,”
The Re Giovanni, now unknown to fame,
So many monarchs since have borne the name,
Had a great bell hung in the market-place.

It is my purpose, therefore, believing that there are certain points of

superiority in modern artists, and especially in one or two of their number,
which have not yet been fully understood, except by those who are scarcely in
a position admitting the declaration of their conviction, to institute a close
comparison between the great works of ancient and modern landscape art.
Many students who find no difficulty in silently reading such
extracts as the above, will often fail in their vocal expression
because of the fact that the latter is more deliberate; and
consequently they may lose the trend of the main thought in
rendering the explanatory and parenthetical portions. To overcome
this difficulty, they are advised to read the sentence, with the
omission of all but the most essential idea; then let them add one
idea after another to the main idea, until the sentence is read
correctly in its entirety. In the last example quoted, the main idea is,
“It is my purpose ... to institute a close comparison between the
great works of ancient and modern landscape art.” Read this three
or four times, until the idea is clearly apprehended. Now read the
sentence, omitting “and especially in one or two of their number,”
until this larger thought is grasped; after which let the sentence be
read as a whole.
Following the usual plan, a class lesson is added:
“When I was in Paris (which is in France), I saw a great many pretty things.”

Read this sentence carefully and you will find something we have not had
before: a group of words in parenthesis.
 You notice, we should have very good sense without this group. Read it:
“When I was in Paris I saw a great many pretty things.”
So you see, the words “which is in France” are not so important as the rest
of the sentence. You might say they were thrown in after you had thought of
the other idea.
Now, I want you to read the sentence aloud, leaving out the group, “which is
in France.” After you have done this five or six times, then read the whole
sentence, keeping in mind that the words in parenthesis are not very
important, but just thrown in to let people know that you mean Paris in France,
and not some other Paris.
The groups that are thrown in are not always put in parenthesis. But that
does not make any difference in the reading. Here are a few examples. I want
you to practice on them just as you did on the first example in this lesson.
1. “The king of England, who was a very brave man, won several victories
over the French.”
2. “The largest school in our city, which is Chicago, has more than five
hundred children in it.”
3. “During the Christmas vacation, which lasts ten days, I went to see my
grandmother.”
4. “Frank did all his mother asked him to do; but William, because he was
careless and disobedient, gave his mother and teacher a great deal of trouble.”
This last example makes very clear what we have been studying in this
lesson. You see plainly that the words, “because he was careless and
disobedient,” are put in simply to explain why William gave a great deal of
trouble.
You must be very careful about this kind of sentence, because there are a
great many of them on every page, and you will be sure to miss them if you
are careless.
The teacher should ask the pupils to bring in other examples, and
have them read in the class. He should also select examples from
the reading book.
 CHAPTER X
VALUES

This feature of expression is one of the most vital. It has to do

with the value of each phrase of the sentence and each phase of the
whole selection. With every change of thought and emotion comes
another form of expression, and these different forms we may call
Values. We apply the term Transition to the act of passing from one
shade of thought or feeling to another. All transitions are not
necessarily emotional, and yet those most significant are certainly of
this character. Let us first consider a few examples not strongly
marked with emotion:
“Three quarters round your partners swing!”
“Across the set!” The rafters ring,
The girls and boys have taken wing,
And have brought their roses out!
’Tis “Forward six!” with rustic grace,
Ah, rarer far than—“Swing to place!”
Than golden clouds of old point lace,
They bring the dance about.
In the foregoing we have a picture of the country dance. We hear
the figures called out by the old fiddler, and see the ever-varying
changes of The Money Musk. Study the lines so as to be able to
bring out the calls clearly, noting the two distinct calls at the
opening, and the abrupt break in the sixth line.
The next extract presents a wife confiding to a friend the story of
her courtship. Her husband is a true knight, and would perhaps
resent it to have even his bravery form the subject of conversation.
The story has reached its conclusion when the speaker says:
 Our elder boy has got the clear
Great brow; tho’ when his brother’s black
Full eyes show scorn, it—
and she is probably about to add some such statement as, “It
behooves one to look out,” when suddenly the husband appears on
the scene. With a woman’s ready wit, she breaks off the sentence
abruptly, saying:
Gismond here?
And have you brought my tercel back?
I was just telling Adela
How many birds it struck since May.
We might put into words what passes through her mind. She is
about to add something further concerning the eyes of her boy,
when she hears the sound of feet along the walk. Expecting her
husband, the concluding words of her sentence pass from her mind
as she turns to see the visitor. It is Gismond. He must not know that
she has been speaking of him. The tercel in his hand gives her the
opportunity of opening the conversation, which she is quick to do,
adroitly pretending that it was of that very tercel she and her friend
had been conversing before his arrival.
One more illustration of this kind will suffice. A tender, loving
woman is talking to her husband. He is a learned poet, and perhaps
just a trifle of a pedant. He is most minute and exact in all he does,
ever losing sight of the spirit in the letter. The wife is the true poet,
caring nothing for the archæology and philology and the geography,
but quick to perceive the inner meaning of the poetic. He has told
her a story in the past, and she is going now to tell it back to him
with a new moral.
Here is the first stanza:
What a pretty tale you told me
Once upon a time
—Said you found me somewhere (scold me!)
Was it prose or was it rhyme,
Greek or Latin?
 When the woman comes to “somewhere,” she finds she has
forgotten the source of the original story. That means so much to
him! It is so important! With a quizzical look, she pretends to rack
her brains for the missing information, knowing all the time she will
not find it, and knowing equally well that it makes no difference in
the story. Then, with a coy expression and a look of mock humility
on her face, she lets fall her eyes, meekly acknowledging her awful
guilt, and stands prepared to accept her just punishment, saying,
Scold me! I deserve it. I have sinned; my punishment is just.
Many students find it no easy task to make these transitions
naturally. Some do not make them at all, but run the two phases of
thought or emotion together. Others anticipate the coming idea, and
hurry the last two or three words before the break. The proper
training is to write or think out the incomplete sentence, then let it
more or less quickly vanish from the mind as the new conception
grows clearer, without betraying the fact that one is conscious of a
coming interruption. For instance, in the second example, one must
read up to and through “it” without the slightest suggestion of the
coming of Gismond, and even think the conclusion of the sentence.
Then hear or suddenly see Gismond just as the word “it” falls from
the lips, and dismissing from the mind the former idea, conclude
with the joyous, wifely welcome and question.
It might be proper to remark here that the same principle applies
to the reading of dialogue. Except in rare cases the reader should
not in any way anticipate the speech of one character while
rendering the words of another.
For those who do not intend to become readers, but who would
be preachers or lawyers, the practice here recommended will prove
of great value. Too many speakers, in their excitement on the one
hand and in their spiritlessness on the other, glide along line after
line in one monotonous drift. A study of these exercises will teach
the necessity of transitions, and train in the control of the mental
action in this regard,—a control antecedent to that most important
requisite, variety. After almost every paragraph or stanza there is
more or less of change in the thought, and the apprehension of this
change will be sufficient to modulate the vocal expression.
Even where there is no abrupt change in the flow of ideas, there is
often a gradual transition from one emotion to another, and these
transitions may occur several times within one paragraph. Take the
following excerpt from Webster’s reply to Hayne. It is one
paragraph; but it is divided into four smaller paragraphs, each of
which is a marked “phase” of the thinking. Practice in the analysis of
selections to determine these phases is the best and only rational
training in transitions. But its value does not stop here; for the
student not only makes transitions, but is led, through careful
analysis, to discern shades of meaning and emotion he might
otherwise overlook:
Sir, the gentleman inquires why he was made the object of a reply. Why was
he singled out? If an attack has been made on the East he, he assures us, did
not begin it; it was made by the gentleman from Missouri.
Sir, I answered the gentleman’s speech because I happened to hear it, and
because I chose to answer that speech which, if unanswered, I thought most
likely to produce injurious impressions.

I did not stop to inquire who was the original drawer of the bill. I found a
responsible endorser before me, and it was my purpose to hold him liable, and
to bring him to his just responsibility without delay.
But, sir, this interrogatory of the honorable member was only introductory to
another. He proceeds to ask whether I had turned upon him in this debate
from the consciousness that I should find an overmatch if I ventured on a
contest with his friend from Missouri.
Transitions in emotion do not differ in principle from those we
have been considering. The student must pursue the same method
with these as with the others, expressing the first emotion until he
comes to the break, making then an elliptical paraphrase, and then
presenting the new emotion. An excellent model is the following
speech of King Lear.
The aged monarch has, in a fit of rage, cast adrift his youngest
child, and his eldest has turned him from her home. He turns in
despair to his remaining daughter, assured that he will here receive a
filial welcome. To his surprise, she refuses to meet him; says she is
sick and travel-weary; and his amazed feeling finds vent in an
uncontrolled explosion of passion:
Lear. Vengeance! plague! death! confusion!—
Fiery? what quality? Why, Gloucester, Gloucester,
I’d speak with the Duke of Cornwall and his wife.
Gloucester. Well, my good lord, I have inform’d them so.
Lear. Inform’d them! Dost thou understand me, man?
Gloucester. Ay, my good lord.
Lear. The King would speak with Cornwall; the dear father
Would with his daughter speak; commands her service:
Are they inform’d of this?—My breath and blood!
Fiery? the fiery Duke? Tell the hot Duke that—
No, but not yet: may be he is not well:—
—King Lear, Act ii., Sc. 4.
and he then proceeds to find excuses for her action, and that of her
husband, the Duke of Cornwall. There is hardly a more pathetic
incident in a most pathetic play than this, in which the old man, past
his eightieth year, after holding undisputed sway through his long
reign, is at last compelled to temporize. He is about to send a
message to the Duke, the character of which is easily judged from
his previous language. If that message is sent, Lear will be alone in
the world. But suddenly his fearful position flashes upon him. The
threat dies upon his lips, gradually blending into apology and
conciliation.

EXAMPLES OF EMOTIONAL TRANSITIONS.

If you have tears, prepare to shed them now.

You all do know this mantle: I remember
The first time ever Caesar put it on;
’Twas on a summer’s evening, in his tent,
That day he overcame the Nervii:
Look, in this place ran Cassius’ dagger through.
—Julius Caesar, Act iii., Sc 2.
 He spoke; but Rustum gazed, and gazed, and stood
Speechless; and then he utter’d one sharp cry:
“O boy—thy father!”—and his voice choked there.
And then a dark cloud pass’d before his eyes,
And his head swam, and he sank down to earth.
—Sohrab and Rustum. M. Arnold.

“Ferood, and ye, Persians and Tartars, hear!

Let there be truce between the hosts to-day.
But choose a champion from the Persian lords
To fight our champion Sohrab, man to man.”
As in the country, on a morn in June,
When the dew glistens on the pearlèd ears,
A shiver runs through the deep corn for joy—
So, when they heard what Peran-Wisa said,
A thrill through all the Tartar squadrons ran
Of pride and hope for Sohrab, whom they loved.
But as a troop of peddlers from Cabool,
Cross underneath the Indian Caucasus,
The vast sky-neighboring mountain of milk snow;
Crossing so high, that, as they mount, they pass
Long flocks of traveling birds dead on the snow,
Choked by the air, and scarce can they themselves
Slake their parch’d throats with sugar’d mulberries—
In single file they move and stop their breath,
For fear they should dislodge the o’erhanging snows—
So the pale Persians held their breath with fear.
—Sohrab and Rustum. M. Arnold.
Note how, after the words, “whom they loved,” the atmosphere
changes from that of joy to that of dread and scorn—scorn at the
cowardice of the Persians, and the dread that the speaker would
sympathetically feel as he recounted the deed.
 This too thou know’st, that while I still bear on
The conquering Tartar ensigns through the world,
And beat the Persians back on every field,
I seek one man, one man, and one alone—
Rustum, my father; who I hoped should greet,
Should one day greet, upon some well-fought field,
His not unworthy, not inglorious son.
So I long hoped, but him I never find.
Come then, hear now, and grant me what I ask.
Let the two armies rest to-day; but I
Will challenge forth the bravest Persian lords
To meet me man to man; if I prevail,
Rustum will surely hear it; if I fall—
Old man, the dead need no one, claim no kin.
Dim is the rumor of a common fight,
Where host meets host, and many names are sunk;
But of a single combat fame speaks clear.
—Sohrab and Rustum. M. Arnold.

STUDIES IN “PHASES.”
This extract from Tennyson’s Charge of the Heavy Brigade
contains five distinct phases, or strata, ending respectively with the
words, “fight,” “close,” “then,” “thousands,” and “Brigade.”
The trumpet, the gallop, the charge, and the might of the fight!
Thousands of horsemen had gather’d there on the height,
With a wing push’d out to the left and a wing to the right,
And who shall escape if they close? but he dash’d up alone
Thro’ the great gray slope of men,
Sway’d his saber, and held his own
Like an Englishman, there and then;
All in a moment follow’d with force
Three that were next in their fiery course,
Wedged themselves in between horse and horse,
Fought for their lives in the narrow gap they had made—
Four amid thousands! and up the hill, up the hill,
Gallopt the gallant three hundred, the Heavy Brigade.
 As when a boar
Or lion mid the hounds and huntsmen stands,
Fearfully strong, and fierce of eye, and they
In square array assault him, and their hands
Fling many a javelin;—yet his noble heart
Fears not, nor does he fly, although at last
His courage cause his death; and oft he turns,
And tries their ranks; and where he makes a rush
The rank gives way;—so Hector moved and turned
Among the crowd, and bade his followers cross
The trench.
—The Iliad.

Hector, thou almost ever chidest me

In council, even when I judge aright.
I know it ill becomes the citizen
To speak against the way that pleases thee,
In war or council,—he should rather seek
To strengthen thy authority; yet now
I will declare what seems to me the best:
Let us not combat with the Greeks, to take
Their fleet; for this, I think, will be the end,—
If now the omen we have seen be meant
For us of Troy who seek to cross the trench;—
This eagle, flying high upon the left,
Between the hosts, that in his talons bore
A monstrous serpent, bleeding, yet alive,
Hath dropped it mid our host before he came
To his dear nest, nor brought it to his brood;—
So we, although by force we break the gates
And rampart, and although the Greeks fall back,
Shall not as happily retrace our way;
For many a Trojan shall we leave behind,
Slain by the weapons of the Greeks, who stand
And fight to save their fleet. Thus will the seer,
Skilled in the lore of prodigies, explain
The portent, and the people will obey.
—The Iliad.
And thus King Priam supplicating spake:—
“Think of thy father, an old man like me,
Godlike Achilles! On the dreary verge
Of closing life he stands, and even now
Haply is fiercely pressed by those who dwell
Around him, and has none to shield his age
From war and its disasters. Yet his heart
Rejoices when he hears that thou dost live,
And every day he hopes that his dear son
Will come again from Troy. My lot is hard,
For I was father of the bravest sons
In all wide Troy, and none are left me now.
Fifty were with me when the men of Greece
Arrived upon our coast; nineteen of these
Owned the same mother, and the rest were born
Within my palaces. Remorseless Mars
Already had laid lifeless most of these,
And Hector, whom I cherished most, whose arm
Defended both our city and ourselves,
Him didst thou lately slay while combating
For his dear country. For his sake I come
To the Greek fleet, and to redeem his corse
I bring uncounted ransom. O revere
The gods, Achilles, and be merciful,
Calling to mind thy father! happier he
Than I; for I have borne what no man else
That dwells on earth could bear,—have laid my lips
Upon the hand of him who slew my son.”
He spake: Achilles sorrowfully thought
Of his own father. By the hand he took
The suppliant, and with gentle force removed
The old man from him. Both in memory
Of those they loved were weeping. The old king,
With many tears, and rolling in the dust
Before Achilles, mourned his gallant son.
Achilles sorrowed for his father’s sake,
And then bewailed Patroclus, and the sound
Of lamentation filled the tent. At last
Achilles, when he felt his heart relieved
By tears, and that strong grief had spent its force,
Sprang from his seat; then lifting by the hand
The aged man, and pitying his white head
And his white chin, he spake these wingèd words: