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Aviation Practical Class 1.2

The document discusses the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and its application in aerodynamics, particularly in generating lift and drag for aircraft. It outlines the mean sea level values for temperature, pressure, and density as defined by the ICAO, and explains the principles of flight, including the forces of weight, lift, thrust, and drag. Additionally, it interprets the lift curve of an aerofoil, detailing the relationship between lift coefficient and angle of attack, and poses several questions for further exploration of these concepts.

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17 views4 pages

Aviation Practical Class 1.2

The document discusses the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and its application in aerodynamics, particularly in generating lift and drag for aircraft. It outlines the mean sea level values for temperature, pressure, and density as defined by the ICAO, and explains the principles of flight, including the forces of weight, lift, thrust, and drag. Additionally, it interprets the lift curve of an aerofoil, detailing the relationship between lift coefficient and angle of attack, and poses several questions for further exploration of these concepts.

Uploaded by

Cementar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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PRACTICAL CLASS 1.

Theme: International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), application to


aerodynamics. Generation of lift and drag.

1.2.1. International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)


The values of temperature, pressure and density are never constant in any given layer of
the atmosphere. To enable accurate comparison of aircraft performance and the calibration of
pressure instruments, a 'standard' atmosphere has been adopted. The standard atmosphere
represents the mean or average properties of the atmosphere.
Europe uses the standard atmosphere defined by the International Civil Aviation
Organisation (ICAO).
The ICAO standard atmosphere assumes the following mean sea level values:
Temperature 15°C
Pressure 1013,25 hPa
Density 1,225 kg/m3
The temperature lapse rate is assumed to be uniform at a rate of 2 °C per 1,000 ft (1,98
°C) from mean sea level up to a height of 36,090 ft (11,000 m) above which the lapse rate
becomes zero and the temperature remains constant at -56-5 °C.
ICAO Standard Atmosphere
Pressure (hPa) Density (kg/m3) Relative Density
Altitude (ft) Temperature (°C)
(P) (ρ) (σ)
0 15 1013,25 1,225 1,0
5,000 5,1 843,1 1,056 0,86
10,000 -4,8 696,8 0,905 0,74
15,000 - 14,7 571,8 0,771 0,63
20,000 -24,6 465,6 0,653 0,53
25,000 -34,5 376,0 0,549 0,45
30,000 - 44,4 300,9 0,458 0,37
35,000 - 54,3 238,4 0,386 0,31
40,000 -56,5 187,6 0,302 0,25
45,000 -56,5 147,5 0,237 0,19
50,000 -56,5 116,0 0,186 0,15

CONVERSIONS:
1 hPa=1 mBs=0,02953 inches of mercury(Hg)=0,7501 mm of mercury;
1 mps=196,85 fpm=1,9485 knots;
1 (°K) = 1(°C) + 273,16; 1(°F) = 9/5 (°C) + 32; 1(°C) = 5/9(°F-32);
1 kgs = 2,2046 Lbs;
1 km = 0,53996 Nm;
1 Ft = 0.3048 m; 1 inches = 25,4 mm;

1
1.2.2. Overview of Principles of Flight
An aeroplane, like all bodies, has mass. With the aircraft stationary on the ground it has
only the force due to the acceleration of gravity acting upon it. This force, its WEIGHT, acts
vertically downward at all times.

Fig. 1
Before an aeroplane can leave the ground and fly the force of weight must be balanced by
a force which acts upwards. This force is called LIFT. The lift force must be increased until it is
the same as the aeroplane's weight.

Fig. 2
To generate a lift force the aeroplane must be propelled forward through the air by a force
called THRUST, provided by the engine(s).

Fig. 3
From the very moment the aeroplane begins to move, air resists its forward motion with a
force called DRAG.

Fig. 4
When an aeroplane is moving there are four main forces acting upon it:
WEIGHT, LIFT, THRUST and DRAG.
These are all closely interrelated, i.e.:
The greater the weight - the greater the lift requirement.
The greater the lift - the greater the drag.
The greater the drag - the greater the thrust required, and so on...

2
1.2.3. Interpretation of The Lift Curve
Fig. 5 shows the lift curve of an aerofoil section, with lift coefficient (CL) plotted against
angle of attack. It is evident that the section is symmetrical because no lift is produced at zero
angle of attack.

Figure 5.
The lift curve is a convenient way to illustrate the properties of various configurations
and will be used extensively throughout these notes.
Lift coefficient increases with angle of attack up to a maximum (CLMAX), which
corresponds to the 'Critical' angle of attack. Continuing to increase the angle of attack beyond
this point makes it impossible for the airflow to maintain its previous smooth flow over the
contour of the upper surface, and lift will reduce. This phenomena, stall, will be discussed in
detail later.
Interpretation of the lift curve:
a) To generate a constant lift force, any adjustment in dynamic pressure must be
accompanied by a change in angle of attack. (At CL less than CLMAX).
b) For a constant lift force, each dynamic pressure requires a specific angle of attack.
c) Minimum dynamic pressure is determined by the maximum lift coefficient (CL MAX),
which occurs at a specific angle of attack (approximately 16°).
d) The angle of attack for CLMAX is constant. (This is true for a given configuration).
e) If more lift is required due to greater operating weight, a greater dynamic pressure is
required to maintain a given angle of attack.
f) The greater the operating weight, the higher the minimum dynamic pressure.

To use the lift formula with specific values, it is necessary to convert each item to SI
units.
The mass of the aircraft is 60,000 kg, to convert to a weight the mass must be multiplied
by the acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s2). The wing area is 105 m2. Density is the ICAO
Standard Atmosphere sea level value of 1,225 kg/m3.
The speed resulting from the calculation will be in m/s. There are 6080 ft in one nautical
mile and 3,28 ft in one metre.
The lift formula:

when transposed to calculate speed becomes:

3
Please answer the following questions (Fig. 5):
a) How many Newtons of lift are required for straight and level flight?
b) Calculate the airspeed in knots for each highlighted coefficient of lift.
c) What is the lowest speed at which the aircraft can be flown in level flight?
d) What coefficient of lift must be used to fly as slowly as possible in level flight?
e) Does each angle of attack require a particular speed?
f) As speed is increased what must be done to the angle of attack to maintain level flight?
g) At higher altitude air density will be lower, what must be done to maintain the required
lift force if the angle of attack is kept constant?
h) At a constant altitude, if speed is halved, what must be done to the angle of attack to
maintain level flight?

Fig. 6

Using the above graph, please answer the following questions:


a) Why does the cambered aerofoil section have a significantly higher CLMAX?
b) For the same angle of attack, why do the symmetrical aerofoil sections generate less
lift than the cambered aerofoil section?
c) Why does the cambered aerofoil section of 12% thickness generate a small amount of
lift at slightly negative angles of attack?
d) For a given angle of attack, the symmetrical aerofoil section of 6% thickness generates
the smallest amount of lift. In what way can this be a favourable characteristic?
e) What are the disadvantages of the symmetrical aerofoil section of 6% thickness?

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