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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Computer Science CIE 

3. Hardware

CONTENTS
3.1 Computer Architecture
The CPU & Microprocessor
Von Neumann Architecture
CPU Performance
Instruction Sets
Embedded Systems
3.2 Input and Output Devices
Input Devices
Output Devices
Sensors
3.3 Data Storage
Primary Storage
Secondary Storage
Virtual Memory
Cloud Storage
3.4 Network Hardware
NIC
MAC address
IP Address
Router

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3.1 Computer Architecture YOUR NOTES


The CPU & Microprocessor

The CPU & Microprocessor

What is the role of the central processing unit (CPU)
in a computer?
A computer system consists of hardware and software
The main hardware components of a computer system are input devices, the central
processing unit, primary memory, secondary storage and output devices
Examples of input devices - keyboard, mouse, game controller, sensors, microphone and
webcam
Examples of output devices - monitor, phone screen, speakers, printer, and motors
Data and commands are inputted by the user using an input device, the central processing
unit (CPU) processes data by executing instructions and the results are outputted to an
output device

A diagram showing the input, process, output sequence followed by computer

systems

Below is an example of data being inputted, processed and the results being outputted

Step Example

Input A keyboard is used to input a number

Process If the instruction being executed is ADD, the

inputted value is added to an existing value

Output The result of the calculation is outputted to the

user via the monitor

What is a microprocessor?
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A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip YOUR NOTES

An integrated circuit is a small electronic circuit made up of transistors, capacitors, 
resistors and other electronic components
The integrated circuit contains a central processor designed to perform arithmetic and
logic operations, which include adding, subtracting, transferring numbers from one
memory location to another, and comparing two numbers
The single chip also contains input/output interfaces, and memory
Microprocessors are a compact way of processing data and can be used in a wide range of
electronic devices, including general-purpose computer system and Embedded system

 Worked Example
What is the purpose of a microprocessor?
A It is the brain of the computer
B It processes data
C It executes instructions
D It is where data is stored permanently

B or C [1]
The microprocessor is sometimes described as the brain of the computer
system but this is not an acceptable exam answer. The purpose of a
microprocessor is to process data and execute instructions

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Von Neumann Architecture YOUR NOTES


Von Neumann Architecture
The components in a CPU, in a computer that has a Von
Neumann architecture
John Von Neumann developed the concept of the stored program computer in the 1940s
The Von Neumann computer architecture which most modern day computers use, is based
upon this concept
The key feature of the stored program concept, and Von Neumann architecture, is
data and instructions are stored in the same memory ( RAM ) as binary
Another feature of Von Neumann architecture is a central processing unit (CPU)
fetches instructions from memory and executes them one at a time (serially)
The CPU then stores the results back into memory

Components of the Central Processing Unit

A diagram showing the main components of the CPU

The main purpose of the CPU is to execute instructions and process data

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The CPU has two main components - the Control Unit (CU) and the Arithmetic Logic Unit YOUR NOTES
ALU) 
The Control Unit controls the flow of data around the CPU
The Control Unit also sends control signals to the different components instructing
them what to do e.g. read, write, add, subtract
The Control Unit decodes instructions (into an opcode and operand )
The Control Unit controls the timings of operations (the clock speed)
The Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU) performs the calculations required to execute the
instructions, these include ADD and SUBTRACT
The ALU also carries out logical operations such as COMPARE
The ALU has a built-in register where it stores interim results of calculations
After calculations, the ALU sends data to the MDR
The CPU also contains a number of registers which are small memory locations within the
CPU, which temporarily store data needed to execute an instruction
Special purpose registers have specific roles to play in the execution of an instruction

Special purpose register Definition

Program Counter (PC) stores the address of the next instruction to be

fetched from memory
Memory Address stores the address of the instruction or data to
Registers (MAR) be fetched from or written to memory
Memory Data Register stores the data that has been fetched from
(MDR) memory or being written to memory
Data from MDR is sent to ALU to be executed
Current Instruction stores the instruction the CPU is currently
Register (CIR) decoding or executing
Accumulator Temporarily stores the results of the calculations
performed by the arithmetic and logic unit

 Exam Tip
If asked to describe the purpose of the PC, the MAR or the MDR make sure you
explain how the data is being fetched or written to memory.

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

What are the characteristics of Von Neumann architecture?
[2]
Any 2 from:
Both data and instructions are stored in the same memory unit [1]
Single Arithmetic and Logic Unit [1]
Single Control Unit [1]
Uses the FDE cycle to execute instructions serially [1]

Buses
Components within the CPU and wider computer system are connected by buses. These
are wires down which electronic signals and data travel. The different buses are collectively
called the system bus
The system bus is made up of three different buses - the data bus, the control bus and
the address bus
The data bus transmits data from the CPU to memory or input/output controllers. It is
bidirectional which means data can travel in both directions
The address bus transfers addresses from the CPU to memory. It is unidirectional
which mean addresses only go from the CPU to memory
The control bus transfers control signals from the control unit to other components in
the computer system such as memory or input/output controllers. The control bus is
bidirectional

A diagram showing how the different buses connect the components in a computer system

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Which bus is unidirectional?
[1]
A Address bus
B Data bus
C Control bus
D System bus

A [1]

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The Fetch, Decode, Execute cycle YOUR NOTES

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) executes instructions by performing the Fetch Decode 
Execute cycle
The CPU fetches an instruction from memory
The instruction is then decoded ( by the Control Unit) into an opcode and an operand
The instruction is executed and the whole cycle is repeated with the next instruction in
the process

A diagram depicting the Fetch Decode Execute cycle

Step Detailed Explanation

Fetch The memory address of the instruction to be fetched is stored in

the Memory Address Register and is sent down the address
bus.
The data/instruction at the memory address is transferred back
to the CPU, via the data bus, where it is stored in the Memory
Data Register
The instruction is copied into the Current Instruction Register
and the Program Counter increments

The instruction in the Current Instruction Register is decoded, by

Decode
the Control unit , into an opcode and an operand

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Execute
YOUR NOTES
The instruction is executed by the Arithmetic Logic Unit and the 
opcode is performed upon the operand.
The result is stored in the accumulator or written to a memory
location within memory

 Worked Example
Explain how an instruction is fetched using Von Neumann architecture
[6]
The Program Counter (PC) holds address/location of the next instruction to be
fetched [1]
The address held in PC is sent to Memory Address Register (MAR) [1]
The memory address is sent using address bus [1]
The Program Counter is incremented [1]
The instruction is sent from the address in memory to the Memory Data
Register (MDR) [1]
The instruction is transferred using the data bus [1]
The instruction is sent to Current Instruction register (CIR) [1]

 Exam Tip
Make sure you read the question carefully and look at the numbers of marks
allocated to judge the level of detail required. Often questions on the fetch-
decode-execute cycle only require you to describe the steps rather than
explain how the registers and buses are used during each step (as shown in the
table above)

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CPU Performance YOUR NOTES


CPU Performance
Central Processing Units can have multiple cores
A dual-core processor has two cores
A quad-core processor has four cores
Each core runs separate fetch, decode, execute cycles, independently from one
another and at the same time (simultaneously) meaning parallel processing can take
place
Multiple cores enables multitasking (running more than one program at the same
time)
Some programs cannot be split between cores
The more cores a computer has the more instructions that can be executed per
second resulting in better performance
Each core has a clock speed
The clock speed is how many instructions the core can execute each second
The clock speed is measured in Hertz
Modern cores can execute billions of instructions per second
A gigahertz (GHz) is a billion instructions per second
A megahertz (MHz) is a million instructions per second
A CPU core with a clock speed of 3.4GHz can execute 3.4 billion instructions per
second
Cache is a small amount of memory situated within or close to the CPU with very fast
read/write speeds
It is used for storing frequently used instructions/data, recently used instructions,
and instructions that are to be fetched and executed next in a process.
The impact of increasing the amount of cache is that more data can be stored there
and accessed faster than if it was in RAM …which improves the performance of the
CPU.
Double the number of cores does not necessarily mean double the number of instructions
executed a second. The cores might have different clock speeds and cache sizes

 Worked Example
One computer has a single core processor and the other has a dual core processor.
Explain why having a dual core processor might improve the performance of the
computer
[2]
Any 2 from:
The computer with the dual core processor has two cores/double the amount
of cores [1]
Parallel processing can take place [1]
Each core can execute a separate instruction at the same time [1]
Each core can process instructions independently of each other [1]

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 There are three key factors that affect CPU performance - the number of cores

in your CPU, the cache size and clock speed. You need to able to identify these
factors and explain how they affect the computer’s performance.

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Instruction Sets YOUR NOTES


Instruction Sets
An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed by a CPU
Each command has a unique binary code
The table below shows an example instruction set. Each instruction has a mnemonic that
indicates what the instruction does alongside a corresponding binary code

Instruction Set

ADD 10100001
SUB (subtract) 00100010
LDA (load) 10111111
STR (store) 01100000
BRA (branch) 01011010

After an instruction is decoded into an opcode and an operand, the CPU finds the opcode
in the processor’s instruction set. It then knows what operation to perform when executing
the instruction

 Worked Example
Using the instruction set in the table above what would be the operation if the
instruction was 00100010 00000010?
[1]
Either of:
The operation would be SUB [1]
If the operand was raw data the complete instruction would be to subtract 2
from the value in the accumulator [1]

Instruction lists are machine-specific

This means a program created using one computer’s instruction set would not run on a
computer containing a processor made by a different manufacturer
For example, a computer program created using Intel’s instruction set would not run
on a device containing an ARM processor

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Embedded Systems YOUR NOTES


Embedded Systems
An embedded system is a computer systems with a either one function or limited specific
functions built within a larger mechanical device
Its purpose is to control the device and allow a user to interact with it
It runs on firmware and does not have additional peripherals
An embedded system is different to a general purpose computer system like a laptop or
desktop computer which can be used to perform many different tasks
The vast majority of microprocessors manufactured are for use as embedded systems
Some embedded systems are microcontrollers meaning they are part of an integrated
circuit with built in memory

Type of embedded system Description

Integrated circuit containing a CPU and memory (RAM or

Microcontrollers
ROM) built in to the same chip
Integrated circuit containing only a CPU on the chip
Microprocessor
RAM , ROM , peripherals need to be added

The microprocessor used in an embedded system is often custom designed

Embedded systems often have firmware which is software built into the system which
cannot be reprogrammed by the user. The software may be able to be updated e.g. GPS
software in a car navigation system
Embedded systems usually have some form of analog or digital input

Diagram of an embedded system

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YOUR NOTES
Embedded system Possible input devices Possible Output 

Buttons to set the Screen showing the time

Digital clock
time/mode/alarm Alarm
Pedestrian button
Traffic Lights Timer Lights
Movement sensor
Lighting system Movement sensor Lights
Keypad to enter alarm code
Security system Camera Alarm
Movement sensor
Actuator controlling
Vending machine Keypad to make choice
movement of choice

Central Heating Keypad to set temperature

Heat
system Temperature sensor

There are many advantages of embedded systems

low power consumption
small physical size
low cost to manufacturer
they can be controlled remotely
can operate in real time and respond to inputs very quickly

 Worked Example
Describe how an embedded system controls a washing machine
[3]
The user selects the wash cycle they require using a keypad [1]
The microprocessor will process the inputs and begin to heat the water and
move the drum to begin the wash. The actuator controlling the drum and the
heating mechanism are the output devices [1]
Sensors will monitor the water level and temperature [1]

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3.2 Input and Output Devices YOUR NOTES


Input Devices

Input Devices
Every computer system receives commands and data, from the real world, via input
devices
Input devices converts inputs into digital data which can be processed
For conventional computer systems, such as desktop computers and laptops, the most
common input devices are the mouse and the keyboard
There are a wide range of input devices used in more specialist computer systems such as
scanners and sensors

 Exam Tip
The exam board has limited the number of devices you may be asked about to
eight - keyboard, optical mouse, microphone, barcode scanner, digital camera,
QR code scanner, touch screen (resistive, capacitive and infra-red), 2D and 3D
scanners
If you're asked to list some input devices, check you're not listing one included
in the question as you won't get a mark for this
You won’t be asked how they technically work but may be asked what each
device does, why it does it and when it may be used

Barcode Scanner

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https://vectorportal.com/vector/scanning-a-barcode./21323 YOUR NOTES

Diagram of a barcode being scanned by a handheld barcode scanner 

Barcodes are a series of black and white bars which represent a code
A barcode reader shines a red laser at the barcode to read the data it represents
The light from the white lines is reflected back
Black lines absorb the light so less is reflected
The different levels of reflection are converted into a binary value which can be processed
by a microprocessor
A barcode reader can be handheld or built into a larger machine such as a self-service
checkout at a supermarket
Barcodes can be used in many ways such as identifying a product being sold or tracking a
package through the delivery process
Benefits include faster checkouts, automated stock control, less chance of error due to
manual entry of data, and more detailed tracking information

 Worked Example
How are barcodes used in supermarkets to manage stock control?
When a customer purchases an item, its barcode is scanned in at the checkout [1]
The barcode reader sends the digital code for the product to the stock database
where it is removed from the stock inventory [1]
This means the number of items of stock is always accurate and up to date [1]
and the supermarket staff can reorder items quickly when stock is low [1]

Digital Camera
A digital camera works by capturing light and converting it into a digital image
Light enters the camera through the lens, it reaches an image sensor where it is split into
millions of pixels (small squares). Each pixel measures light intensity which is converted
into binary and represents a colour.
Digital cameras are integrated into smartphones , used in security systems and by
professional photographers to create high quality digital images
An advantage of digital cameras is they show a preview of the image
They also instantly create an image which can then be easily duplicated and transmitted
via bluetooth or WiFi
Software can be used to edit digital photos, for example applying a filter or retouching a
photo

Keyboard
A keyboard is the most common device used for text-based data input
They are connected either by a USB cable or wirelessly to the computer system
They are built into laptops.
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Smartphones and tablets have virtual keyboards YOUR NOTES

Each key on a keyboard has a peg underneath it which makes contact with a conducting 
membrane. This is then converted into an electrical signal to transmit a unique character
code

Microphone
A computer microphone works by converting sound waves into electrical signals that can
be processed by the computer.
They can capture any real world sound and convert it into digital data which can be
stored, duplicated or modified
The microphone has a diaphragm that vibrates in response to sound waves. These
vibrations are then converted into electrical signals by a coil of wire attached to the back of
the diaphragm. Changes in the signal are recorded by a microprocessor using a analogue
to digital converter
Microphones are used to record music, telephone calls, communicate online and
dictation

Optical Mouse
A mouse use a laser to detect and track movement, this is then processed by a
microprocessor which interprets the movement and replicates it when moving a virtual
cursor on-screen
Items can be selected or moved using the left mouse button, whilst the right button usually
displays additional menus
They can be wired or wireless
They are used to control the cursor in a Graphical User Interface (GUIs)
They are simple to use and provide the user with an intuitive way to navigate the computer
They are reliable due to no moving parts

QR code scanner

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https://pixabay.com/vectors/qr-code-scanner-bar-code-156717/ YOUR NOTES

Diagram of a QR code being scanned by a mobile device 

A QR code is a visual representation of data using black and white squares

QR codes can represent over 7000 digits whereas a barcode represents up to 30 digits
QR codes are scanned by a camera (often on a mobile device)
A piece of software convert the squares into binary data
QR codes often link to a website where more information can be found
They can also be used to advertise products, share contact details, provide promotional
codes, train tickets, and event tickets

 Worked Example
Describe how festival organisers could make use of QR codes and QR code
scanners
[4]
Any 4 of:
Festival e-tickets could be in the form of a QR code [1]
QR scanners could scan them on entry to the festival [1]
QR codes could be used to advertise the festival [1]
QR codes could be used to link to the festival website [1]
QR codes could be used to provide information during the festival [1]

Touchscreen
A touchscreen can be classed as both an input device and an output device
Types of touch screen

Type How it works Benefits/Drawbacks Uses

Resistive Resistive screens consist + Cheap to produce.

screen of two conductive layers.
+ Resistant to surface
The top layer is flexible. Used in cash machines,
contaminants
When the screen is information kiosks,
touched the two layer + Can be activated with medical equipment
connect, completing a nearly every object (stylus,
circuit finger, gloved hand)

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YOUR NOTES
Infra-red LEDs shine infrared light + Excellent image quality,
screens across a screen forming a 
+ high precision
matrix. When the screen is
touched the beams are + durable
interrupted Tablets, laptops,
+ allows for multiple smartphones
touches at the same time
- Requires a bare finger or
stylus for activation

Capacitive Made up of a protective +Excellent image quality

screens layer, a transparent Large scale
conductive layer and a +Unlimited touch-life commercial displays
glass substrate. Touching +Scale well Information kiosks
the screen changes the
electrostatic field of the - Sensitive to interference Medical equipment
conductive layer from light, water, snow

2D and 3D scanners
A two-dimensional (or flat-bed) scanner shines a strip of light over a document. Reflected
light is measured for each pixel. This data is converted into binary data so the document
can be digitally recreated
A three- dimensional laser scanner shines a light over an object. The geometry and
dimensions are recorded so the object can be recreated digitally
The digital 3D model can be modified using specialist software
A 3D printer could then print out the model
2D scanners can be used for creating digital versions of documents or photographs
Reading passports at airports
3D scanners can be used to create 3D models for use with computer-aided design (CAD)
software
Creating replicas with 3D printers
Typical uses of 3D scanners and printers are dentistry, product development, medical
A cheap and quick way of creating a digital representation of both 2D and 3D objects so
they can be manipulated, stored, transmitted or copied
Summary of input device uses and benefits

Device Example Uses Benefits

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YOUR NOTES
Barcode scanner Faster checkout, less errors,
Checkouts, parcel delivery detailed stock/tracking 
information

QR code scanner Can hold more information than a

Advertising products, linking to barcode
websites, e-tickets Can be scanned using a camera
on a mobile device (smartphone)

2D and 3D scanners Converts 2D and 3D objects into

Scan documents, photos and digital data which is easier and
objects quicker to transmit/duplicate or
manipulate

Digital camera Smartphones, professional

Instant preview and image
photography, security systems

Keyboard Entering text Universal, easy to use

Mouse Navigating a GUI

Making selections and entering Intuitive
commands

Microphone Recording real-world sound

Musical recordings
Telephone calls
Dictation

Touchscreen Entering text and commands on

mobile devices (tablet,
smartphone) Can be durable

Cash machines Good image quality

Interactive advertisements Intuitive/easy to use

Information screens

 Exam Tip
The exam board will refer to a touchscreen as an input device.

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Output Devices YOUR NOTES


Output Devices
An output device shows the results of the processing in a way humans can understand
In a general purpose computer system, the main output device is the monitor/screen
Other output devices include projectors, printers, speakers and actuators

 Exam Tip
If you're asked to list some output devices, check you're not listing one
included in the question as you won't get a mark for this

Actuators
Actuators are used in conjunction with a motor to translate energy (electrical, air, hydraulic)
into real-world movement of a physical object.
They come in a variety of sizes and have been made specifically for a particular function.
Examples of use include turning a wheel, opening or closing a door, controlling a
conveyer belt, operating machinery, moving robotic arms, vibrating a machine,
starting or stopping a pump, opening or closing a valve
They are often used with sensors. The input of the sensor is checked against stored values.
If the input is within a certain range an actuator is used to provide movement of a physical
object

 Worked Example
A theme park has a game where a player has to run from the start to the finish
without getting wet. The system for the game uses sensors and a microprocessor
to spray water at a player as they run past each sensor
Describe how the sensors and the microprocessor are used in this system
[6]
Motion sensors are used to detect the player’s movement [1]
The sensor sends data to microprocessor [1]
Data is compared with stored data [1]
if value is within range water is sprayed [1]
signal sent to actuator to spray water [1]
if value is outside of range no action is taken [1]

Light projectors
Used to project computer outputs onto a large screen
Used to give presentations in both business and education settings
There are two types - Digital light processing (DLP) projectors and Liquid crystal display
(LCD) projectors.
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DLP systems use millions of micro-mirrors arranged in a grid on a microprocessor within the YOUR NOTES
projector. Light is shone through colour filters and the mirrors. The position of the mirrors 
can be altered to change the intensity of the light
LCD projectors use three mirror filters to separate an image into red, green and blue
wavelengths. The three images are then combined to produce the full colour image which is
passed through the lens on to the wall/screen

Device Advantages Disadvantages

Digital light Higher contrast ratios. Image tends to suffer from

projector (DLP) “shadows” when showing a
Smooth video moving image
DLP do not have grey
Higher reliability
components in the image
The colour definition is not as
Smaller and lighter
good as LCD projectors
Better suited to dusty atmospheres
than LCD projectors
LCD projector Give a sharper image than DLP Contrast ratios are not as good
projectors as DLPs
Better colour saturation and intensity
Have a limited life
than DLP projectors
Use less power and generate less heat LCD panels degrade over time.
Quieter running that DLP

Laser and Inkjet printers

Both printers create hard copies of a digital document
Hard copies are needed when you do not have access to an electronic device
Inkjet printers:
Have a print head which moves across the page
Spray liquid ink droplets from ink cartridges through very fine nozzles onto the paper
(these are in the print head)
The droplets can be piezoelectric or thermal bubble technology
Inkjet printers produce high quality hard copies of digital images or documents
Laser printers:
Are very fast when making multiple copies of a document

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Are useful for high volume print jobs for example producing leaflets YOUR NOTES
Have a low running cost per page. 
Are often used in business and education setting
Have large toner (dry ink) cartridges and large paper trays
Use positive and negative charges to make the toner particles stick to piece of paper, heat
is then used to bond the particles to the paper

 Worked Example
Match the characteristic to the correct type of printer

Characteristic Inkjet Laser

Uses ink cartridges

Uses toner (powdered ink)
Great for bright colours and images
Great for clear, sharp images and text
Widely used in homes and home offices
with lower print volumes
Widely used in office with higher print
volumes
[1 mark per row]

Characteristic Inkjet Laser

Uses ink cartridges x

Uses toner (powdered ink) x
Great for bright colours and images x
Great for clear, sharp images and text x
Widely used in homes and home offices
x
with lower print volumes
Widely used in office with higher print
x
volumes

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3D printers YOUR NOTES

3D printers create 3D models of a digital model by depositing layers of material, such as 
plastic or resin, on top of one another to slowly build up a 3D object
They allow for precision and can be used in medicine to create prosthetics and blood
vessels
3D printers can be used to create rapid prototypes
Models can be transmitted digitally and then models printed out all across the world

Liquid Crystal Display screens

LCD screens are made up of millions of tiny liquid crystals.
The display is made of pixels arranged in a matrix
The display requires backlighting
They are used for TVs, monitors, tablets and phones
They have low power consumption and run at a cool temperature
They do not suffer image burn or flicker issues
They provide bright images and colours
They are cheaper to produce than LED screens

 Worked Example
Describe three benefits of LCD screens
[3]
Any 3 of:
Low power consumption [1]
Runs at a cool temperature [1]
Bright image/colours [1]
Do not suffer Image burn [1]
Cheaper to purchase than an LED screen [1]

Light emitting diode (LED) screen

An LED screen is made up of tiny LEDs
They do not need backlighting which makes them thinner and lighter to hang on the wall
LED screens are replacing LCD displays in TVs, monitors, laptops and mobile devices
They have better image quality and a longer life span
They can be used to create very large screens that can be used to show visual content at
events such as football matches and music festivals
They consume very little power making them suitable for being switched on for many
hours in the day

Organic light emitting diode (OLED) screen

Much thinner and lighter than traditional LCD screens
Use organic light emitting diodes (OLEDS).
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They use organic carbon compound to create semiconductors YOUR NOTES

No form of back lighting is required 
You can have very thin, flexible screens

Speakers
Speakers are used to take digital sounds or recordings and output them as sound waves
which can be heard by humans
The digital data is changed into a electric current using a digital to analogue converter
(DAC)
It is then passed through an amplifier to create a current large enough to drive a
loudspeaker
The loudspeaker converts the current into a sound wave
Typical uses include listening to music, listening to video sound, telephone calls and
alarms

 Worked Example
What would an appropriate output device be for a large screen showing replays
during a football match?
Justify your choice.
[3]

An LED screen [1]

Any 2 of:
Consume little power [1]
Can be used to create large screens [1]
Provide a better quality image compared to alternatives [1]

 Exam Tip
This section of the course has been simplified for exams taking place from 2023
onwards. In the past students needed to know how each device physically
worked. You now only need to know:
What each device does and why it does it
When it is used
Older textbooks may contain more detail than is required

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Sensors YOUR NOTES


Sensors
Sensors are input devices
They measure a physical property of their environment such as light levels, temperature
or movement
Sensors can be used for monitoring systems and control systems
A monitoring system tracks the state of a system, it gathers data and may issue
warning messages
A control system will control the system based upon the input from sensors
For example, if the water temperature in a fish tank fell below the acceptable level, a
control system would start up a heater. The system will then continue to check the
water temperature readings and when they are within the acceptable range it will
switch off the heater
This process of the outputs affecting the following set of input values received
from the sensors is called a feedback loop

 Exam Tip
You are likely to be given a scenario and asked to identify the sensors that
would be used.
The 14 sensors you need to be aware of are in the table below

Sensor type What it measures Typical use

Acoustic Sound levels To detect changes in sound

levels of industrial machinery
To monitor noise pollution
In security system to detect
suspicious sounds

Accelerometer Acceleration rate, tilt, vibration Detecting sudden changes in

vehicle movement and deploy
safety features if needed
In mobile phones to detect
orientation of the device

Flow Rate of gas, liquid or powder Detect changes in the flow

flow through pipes in water system

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YOUR NOTES
Gas Presence of a gas e.g. carbon Detect levels of gas in confined
monoxide spaces 

Detect gas levels when fixing

gas leaks

Humidity Levels of water vapour Monitor humidity in

greenhouses

Infra-red Detecting motion or a heat Security systems detecting

source intruders who break the beam
Measures heat radiation of
objects - used by emergency
services to detect people

Level Liquid levels Detects levels of petrol in a car

tank
Detect levels of water in a
water tank
Detect a drop in water levels
due to a leak

Light Light levels Automatically switching on

lights when it gets dark (street
lights, headlights)
Anti-lock braking system
Magnetic field Presence and strength
Monitoring rotating machinery
such as turbines

Moisture Presence and levels of Monitoring moisture in soil

moisture
Monitoring damp in buildings

pH Acidity or alkaline Monitoring soil to ensure

optimum growing conditions
Monitor pHlevels in chemical
processes

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YOUR NOTES
Pressure Gas, liquid or physical pressure Monitoring tyre pressure

Monitoring pressure in pipes
during manufacturing process

Proximity Distance Monitoring position of objects

in robotics
Used in safety systems to
prevent objects colliding

Temperature Temperature in Celsius, Used to maintain temperature

Fahrenheit or Kelvin in swimming pools
Used to control temperature in
chemical processes

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

What type of sensor would be used to help drivers when reversing?
[1]
A Motion
B Infra-red
C Light
D Proximity

D [1]
A proximity sensor would be used to monitor how close the car was to objects.
It would then sound a warning alarm when the proximity is below a certain value
(meaning the car is too close to an object)

Is this a monitoring system or a control system?

[1]
A Monitoring
B Control

A [1]
The reversing warning system is a monitoring system. It indicates to the user
when the car is too close to an object but it does not stop the car
automatically

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3.3 Data Storage YOUR NOTES


Primary Storage

Primary Storage
Primary storage is directly accessible by the CPU , it includes RAM, Cache, and ROM
The purpose of Random Access Memory (RAM) is to store data, instructions and software
(including parts of the OS) currently in use
RAM is also called main memory
RAM has faster read/write speeds than secondary storage
RAM is volatile which means it is temporary memory and all data will be lost when the
computer is switched off
The larger the main memory, the more data the computer access quickly, which can
improve the computer's performance
A standard desktop computer has between 4GB and 16GB of RAM
The parts of the operating system currently in use will be stored in RAM
The purpose of cache is to store frequently/recently used instructions and data
Cache has faster read/write speeds than RAM
There are different levels of cache
Level 1 cache is situated within the CPU
Level 2 and 3 cache are situated on the motherboard
If you increase the amount of cache you can store more frequently used data and
increase the performance of your computer
If you have too much cache it will decrease the data access speeds because the
data requested will take longer to find
Cache is volatile and all data will be lost when the computer is switched off

A diagram showing the parts of a computer system which are classed as primary storage
The role of Read-only memory (ROM) is to store the computer’s boot-up sequence

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The boot-up sequence is a set of instructions the computer executes when then YOUR NOTES
computer is initially switched on 
This sequence will run a series of checks to ensure all of the system hardware is
working
It will then load the operating system which will move from secondary storage to RAM
ROM is non-volatile which means data will be stored when the computer is switched off
ROM is read-only which means data cannot be written to ROM
The difference between ROM and RAM

RAM ROM

Volatile Non-volatile
Can read and write data to RAM Read-only

 Exam Tip
Make sure you're specific about which component you're referring to in exam
questions and give the proper name e.g. RAM rather than memory unit

 Worked Example
Describe what is meant by main memory and how it is used in the Von Neumann
model for a computer system
[3]
Any 3 of:
Memory is RAM [1]
It is primary storage [1]
It is volatile memory [1]
It holds currently in use data/instructions [1]
It is directly accessed by the CPU [1]

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Secondary Storage YOUR NOTES


Secondary Storage
Secondary storage is not directly accessed by the CPU
It is used for permanent storage of data
Secondary storage is non-volatile. This means data is stored even when power is lost to
the device
Secondary storage is needed as primary storage (such as RAM ) is volatile and will not retain
data when the computer is turned off
Unlike ROM, secondary storage can be read from and written to. ROM is read only
Common examples of secondary storage include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state
drives (SSDs), external hard drives, USB flash drives, CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray
discs. These can be used to store data to transfer it to another computer
Data access speeds for secondary storage devices are typically slower than primary
storage (such as RAM)
Secondary storage devices often have large capacity (can store large amounts of data)
Software such as the operating system is saved permanently on secondary storage. The
instructions and data that makes up the software then moves to RAM when it is in use
Secondary storage devices can be internal (inside the computer) and external (outside the
computer)

Diagram showing different internal and external secondary storage devices

Comparison of primary and secondary storage

Primary storage Secondary storage

Volatile / temporary Non-volatile /permanent

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RAM and cache can be read from and written to Secondary storage can be read from and YOUR NOTES
ROM is read-only written to 

Can be directly accessed by the CPU Cannot be directly accessed by the CPU
Smaller capacity Larger capacity
Data access speeds faster than secondary Data access speeds slower than primary
storage storage
Stores data and instructions Stores data and instructions

 Worked Example
Which of the following is an example of secondary storage?
A Random access memory
B Read only memory
C Solid State Drive
D Blu-ray disc

C and D [1]
Random access memory and read only memory are both primary storage and
can be accessed directly by the CPU. Solid-state drives and blu-ray discs are
classed as secondary storage. Data can be permanently stored on them but
they cannot be accessed directly by the CPU

 Exam Tip
When referring to a USB memory stick, don't refer to it as USB as this could be
anything that is plugged in with USB and not necessarily a storage device

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Types of secondary storage YOUR NOTES

There are three types of secondary storage - magnetic, solid state and optical 

 Exam Tip
You need to be able describe the operation of each type of secondary storage.
You may also need to recommend a type of storage for a given scenario and
justify your choice

Magnetic
Magnetic hard disk drives have been the main type of internal secondary storage in
personal computers for many years however solid state drives are increasingly popular due
to their durability, low power consumption and high read/write speeds
A magnetic hard disk is made up of several metal discs coated with a magnetic material
These are called platters
Iron particles on each platter are magnetised to represent a 0 or 1

A diagram showing the structure of a magnetic hard disk

Each platter is divided by concentric circles creating several tracks and wedge shaped
sectors. Where they intersect is a track sector

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YOUR NOTES


A diagram showing how each platter is divided by tracks and sectors

The hard drive spins the metal disk(s) at a high speed (typically around 5400-7200 RPM)
using a motor
A read/write arm, controlled by an actuator, moves the head over the surface of the disc to
the location of the data
The data is read/written using electromagnets

Solid State
Solid State secondary storage is made of transistors that are arranged in a grid layout
It uses NAND and NOR gates in electrical circuits to persistently control the flow of
electrons
Current flowing is 1, no current is 0 - which is how electrical flow can represent binary
values
A NAND gate will take in two inputs and produce an output (1/electrical current) as long as
both inputs are not 1
The truth table truth table for a NAND gate

InputA InputB Output

0 0 1

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0 1 1 YOUR NOTES

1 0 1
1 1 0

A NOR gate will produce an output (1) only when both inputs are 0
The truth table for a NOR gate

InputA InputB Output

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

Optical
Optical devices include CDs, DVDs and Blu-rays
Blu-rays have the largest capacity
CDs have the lowest capacity
CD-R are read-only (you cannot save data on to them)
CD-RW can be written to and read from
DVD-RW can be written to and read from
All optical devices work by shining a laser at the disk and processing the reflection
An arm moves the laser across the surface of the disk
In CD-Rs a laser burns the data, permanently on to the disk, by creating pits and lands
The laser is also used to read the data from the pits and lands
When the laser light hits the point where the pit changes into a land or vice versa the light
scatters and is not reflected back as well. This is captured by a sensor and can be
interpreted as a change in the binary value

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A diagram showing how data is burnt on to optical discs to create lands and pits which can YOUR NOTES
then be used 

In CD-RW the chemical composition of the disk is changed to represent 0s and 1s. This
change can be overwritten

 Exam Tip
Make sure you have a greater understanding of the operation of the different
types of storage

 Worked Example
Describe how a magnetic storage device stores data
[6]
Any 6 of:
Storage device has platters [1]
Platters/disk divided into tracks [1]
Storage platter/disk is spun [1]
Has a read/write arm that moves across storage media [1]
Read/writes data using electromagnets [1]
Uses magnetic fields to control magnetic dots of data [1]
Magnetic field determines binary value [1]

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Virtual Memory YOUR NOTES


Virtual Memory
The purpose of RAM is to store current data and program instructions in use
The amount of physical RAM available is limited. The average modern desktop computer
has between 4GB and 16GB of RAM. Some programs are larger than this
Virtual memory is part of secondary storage which acts as RAM when RAM is full
It prevents the computer system crashing when RAM is full
Data that needs to be accessed by the CPU directly is switched by the operating system
from virtual memory into RAM and an inactive page from RAM replaces it in virtual memory.
This is called page switching

A diagram showing page switching between RAM and virtual memory

The table describes the steps that are taken when a program is opened on a computer

Step Description

1 The memory manager software built into the Operating

System checks to see if there is sufficient space in RAM to
move the new program’s instructions into RAM, so that they
can be directly accessed by the CPU

2 If RAM is full, the memory manager will move out the most
inactive pages of data and put them in virtual memory until
needed

3 The new program instructions are moved into RAM

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Sandy is playing an open world role playing computer game set in a large 3D
environment. This requires the use of virtual memory. Explain why
[3]
To extend the RAM capacity [1]
To stop the computer game from crashing when the physical RAM is full [1]
To allow the computer to process the large amount of data required [1]

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Cloud Storage YOUR NOTES


Cloud Storage
Cloud storage is the concept of storing data on remote servers, that can be accessed via
the internet, instead of on a local storage device (such as an SSD or HDD)
The physical servers, where the data is stored, are owned and managed by a hosting
company
Cloud storage warehouses often have thousands of servers containing harddrives
The hosting company provides services such backing up the data, managing access
to the data as well as general security
The data can be accessed at any time, on any device, as long as there is an internet
connection
The data is accessible using a web browser or dedicated software that connects to the
cloud storage service
There is potentially limitless storage, although it does need to be paid for
Online storage means it is easy to share data and collaborate with others
If the internet connection is slow/lost the access to your data is affected

A diagram showing different devices connecting to remote servers

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Advantages of cloud storage YOUR NOTES

Cloud storage offers several advantages over storing data on a local secondary storage 
device

Benefit Explanation

Accessibility Data can be accessed from anywhere

Data can be accessed by anyone with the relevant
permissions, making it quick to share files and
collaborate with others
Data can be accessed on any device with an internet
connection

Scalability Cloud storage providers allow customers to increase or

decrease their storage capacity as needed

Reliability Cloud storage providers often use multiple servers to

store and backup data, reducing the risk of data loss
due to hardware failure

Security Cloud storage providers offer advanced security

features, such as data encryption and multi-factor
authentication multi-factor authentication, to protect
user data from unauthorised access
There is no need to hire specialist staff as IT services
being provided by the cloud storage provider

You also do not need to purchase local secondary storage devices

One cloud storage centre is more environmentally friendly than millions of individual
servers
There are some drawbacks to using cloud storage
If the user has a slow or unreliable internet connection they would have problems
accessing their files
If you are storing a lot of data it can be expensive
You have to pay the cloud storage provider
You may need to commit to an annual subscription
You may have to pay for high download and upload data transfer limits
Data being sent over the internet has the potential to be intercepted
Security is managed by the cloud storage provider which means the user does not
have complete control over it but is still legally responsible for ensuring any personal
and sensitive data is secure

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A school currently stores all of their data on local servers. They are considering
upgrading their system to utilise cloud storage.
Explain two disadvantages to the school of storing their data in the cloud.
[4]
You need a constant internet connection [1]
if the internet connection failed, teachers would not be able to access lesson
files [1]
if the internet connection failed, teachers would not be able to access student
data/take electronic registers [1]
if the internet connection failed, students would not be able to access their
work/coursework [1]
Reliant on third party to carry out security procedures [1]
but the school is still legally responsible if data is accessed by unauthorised
people [1]
Data stored on the cloud could be hacked or intercepted [1]

Explain two advantages to the school of storing their data in the cloud.
[4]
Additional storage can be purchased if needed [1]
The cloud hosting company provides back up [1]
The cloud hosting company provides security [1]
Data can be accessed from anywhere and from any device provided there is
an internet connection [1]
So teachers would be able to access data from home [1]
So students would be able to access work from home [1]

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3.4 Network Hardware YOUR NOTES


NIC

Network Interface Card

A Network Interface Card (NIC) or Network Interface Controller is an internal physical
component which enables computers and other devices to connect to a network
They are also known as network adapters
NICs have a built in ethernet port and can be connected to a network via an Ethernet
cable
You can have Wireless Network Interface Cards (WNIC) which allow a device to wirelessly
connect to a network
The primary function of a NIC is to send and receive data packets between the computer
or device and the network
The NIC converts data to be sent into signals that can be sent across the transmission
medium
If this is through a wired network, the signals will be voltages through an ethernet wire
or pulses of light through a fibre
If this is through a wireless network, the signals will be radio waves
NICs are likely to be integrated into the motherboard but can be added as an expansion
card

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MAC address YOUR NOTES


MAC Addresses
A Media Access Control/MAC address is used to identify a device on a network
It is a unique code which consists of six pairs of hexadecimal codes separated by a colon
Each pair of hex digits is a Byte of data. So in total a MAC address is 6 bytes or 48 bits long
An example MAC address is b4:71:ac:f3:21:a2
The MAC address is assigned to the NIC by its manufacturer
The first three pairs are the manufacturer ID number and the last three pairs is the serial
number of the NIC and identifies the device on the network

An example MAC address - the first part identifying the manufacturer and the second part
identify the device
A MAC address cannot be changed. It is static
A table listing the differences between an IP address and a MAC address

MAC Address IP Address

Permanently assigned to a Can be used to identify devices on a

NIC and cannot be network but are dynamic and can be
changed changed
MAC addresses are written
IP addresses are written in denary
in hexadecimal
MAC addresses are 6 bytes
IP addresses are 4 bytes long
long
MAC addresses are used to MAC addresses are used to identify a
identify a device on a LAN device on a WAN

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Describe what is meant by a MAC address
[4]
Any 4 of:
Used to identify a device [1]
It is a unique address [1]
It is a static address/it does not change [1]
It is set by the manufacturer [1]
The first part is the manufacturer ID [1]
The second part is the serial number of the device [1]

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IP Address YOUR NOTES


IP Address
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique numerical identifier assigned to devices
connected to the internet
IP addresses are used to identify and locate devices on the internet
This allows data to be sent and received between devices
An IPv4 address is four numbers separated by a full stop
Each number is a byte and range between 0-255
There are over 4 billion unique addresses using the IPv4 system
For example, an IPv4 address might look like this: 192.164.3.1
Routers and gateways have a unique public address
Public addresses are assigned by your internet service provider and is the IP address for
the network
Public addresses are often static addresses meaning they do not change

A diagram showing how Private and Public IP addresses are used to identify devices on the
Internet and within a LAN
A router can assign private IP addresses to devices connected within its network
These are often dynamic IP addresses meaning they can change
Dynamic addresses are assigned from a list of available addresses at the time they are
required

The IP4 system is running out of possible addresses due to the enormous increase in
networked devices
A new system called IPv6 has been developed. It provides enough unique addresses for
every networked device on the planet
IPv6 uses a 128 bit address
Digits are organised into eight groups
Each group is made up of four hexadecimal digits
For example bb43:ff3f:0000:549b:e43e:db84:1f1f:0b9e

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Give two characteristics of an IP address
[2]
Any 2 of:
A unique address [1]
Can be public or private [1]
Can be static or dynamic [1]
IPv4 has four groups of digits [1]
Each number is between 0-255 [1]
and separated by a full stop [1]
IPv6 has eight groups of digits [1]

A comparison of IPv4 and IPv6 IP addresses

IPv4 IPv6

32-bit address 128 bit address

Four groups of denary digits Eight groups of four hexadecimal
separated by a full stop digits separated by a colon
Over 4.3 billion unique Almost infinite amount of unique
addresses addresses

 Worked Example
Explain the difference between a private and a public IP address
[4]
Any 4 of:
A private IP address is not accessible from the internet [1]
and is used to identify a device within a local area network [1]
A public IP address is used to identify a device on the internet [1]
Public IP addresses are assigned by an internet service provider (ISP) [1]
Public IP addresses are unique [1]
Public IP addresses can be accessed from anywhere on the internet [1]
Public IP addresses allow devices to communicate with each other across
different networks [1]

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Router YOUR NOTES


Router
A router is an important piece of network hardware. It connects one network to another
network
This means it can be used to connect a local area network (LAN ) to the internet,
which is a wide area network(WAN )
An important role of the router is to analyse data packet and direct them on to their
destination

A diagram showing multiple networks connected by routers, represented by the blue

circular objects

A router being used to connect a LAN to a WAN will have a public IP address , which has
been assigned to it by an Internet Service Provider
It is this public IP address which other routers use to identify and direct packets to the
network
An important role of the router is to analyse data packets and direct them on to their
destination
The IP address of both the sender and intended recipient is stored in the header of
the data packet
The header contains information about the packet
The payload is the actual data being sent
If the data packet is coming into the LAN, the router will send the data packet to the
specific device, within its LAN, that the packet is meant for
If the packet is being sent from a device within the LAN, it will read the header of the packet
to determine the intended destination IP address
It will then forward the packet on to the destination
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It might have to travel through several routers before it gets to its destination YOUR NOTES
Each pass from router to router is called a hop 
The network access device or ‘home hub’ used in your home network will have a router built
into it
A summary of the steps a router takes when it receives a data packet

Step Description

1 a router receives incoming data packets

from one network and analyses the packet
header to determine the destination IP
address

2 It then looks up the IP address in a routing

table (routing table of known networks) to
determine the next network where the
packet should be sent

3 The router then forwards the packet to the

appropriate network or device

This process is repeated by every router the data packet passes through, until it reaches its
destination
In addition to routing data between networks, routers can also perform other functions
such as…
assigning IP addresses to devices within the LAN
filtering incoming traffic based on certain criteria, such as IP address, port number, or
protocol type

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