LASER

Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

The Einstein relation:
−𝑬𝟏
𝑬𝟐 −𝑬𝟏
𝑵𝟏 𝒈𝟏 𝒆 𝑲𝑻 𝒈𝟏 𝒈𝟏 𝒉𝒇
= −𝑬𝟐 = 𝒆 𝑲𝑻 = 𝒆𝑲𝑻 ---------------------------(1)
𝑵𝟐 𝒈𝟐 𝒈𝟐
𝒈𝟐 𝒆 𝑲𝑻

𝑁1 = Densities of the atoms in energy level E1

𝑁2 = Densities of the atoms in energy level E2
𝑔1 = The degeneracy parameter the number of sublevels within the energy levels E1
𝑔2 = The degeneracy parameter the number of sublevels within the energy levels E2
K = Boltzmann’s constant (1.380649 × 10−23 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
ൗ𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛)
T = Absolute temperature (kelvin)

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Upward transition rate: 𝑅12 = 𝑁1 𝜌𝑓 𝐵12
Downward transition rate: 𝑅21 = 𝑁2 𝐴21 + 𝑁2 𝜌𝑓 𝐵21
𝜌𝑓 = Spectral density the radiation energy at the transition frequency (𝑓)
𝐵12 = Einstein coefficient of absorption
1
𝐴21 = = Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission
𝜏21
𝐵21 = Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission
𝜏21 = spontaneous lifetime
For a system in thermal equilibrium, the upward and downward transition
rates must be equal and therefore 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐𝟏
𝑁1 𝜌𝑓 𝐵12 = 𝑁2 𝐴21 + 𝑁2 𝜌𝑓 𝐵21 -------------------(2)
𝐴21 𝐴21
𝑁2 𝐴21 ൗ𝐵21 ൗ𝐵21
𝜌𝑓 = = 𝑁1𝐵12 = ℎ𝑓 -------------(3)
𝑁1 𝐵12 −𝑁2 𝐵21 −1 𝑔1 𝐵12
𝑁2 𝐵21
𝑔2 𝐵21
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 −1 3
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Thermal equilibrium it produces a radiation density which is identical to
black body radiation
Planck showed that the radiation spectral density for a black body radiating
within a frequency range 𝑓 to 𝑓 + 𝑑𝑓 is given by
8𝜋ℎ𝑓3 1
𝜌𝑓 = ℎ𝑓 -------------------------------(4)
𝑐3
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 −1
Comparing (3) and (4)
𝑔2 𝑨𝟐𝟏 𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒇𝟑
𝐵12 = 𝐵 & =
𝑔1 21 𝑩𝟐𝟏 𝒄𝟑
If the number of sublevels within the energy levels E1 and E2 (g1 = g 2 ), then
the probabilities of absorption and stimulated emission are equal (𝐵12 = 𝐵21 ).
The ratio of the stimulated emission rate to the spontaneous emission rate is
given by:
𝑺𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑩𝟐𝟏 𝝆𝒇 𝟏
= = 𝒉𝒇
𝑺𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑨𝟐𝟏
Faculty: Shankar Aenagandula 𝒆𝑲𝑻 −𝟏 4
Q1. Calculate the ratio of the stimulated emission rate to the spontaneous
emission rate for an incandescent lamp operating at a temperature of 1000 K.
It may be assumed that the average operating wavelength is 0.5 𝜇𝑚.
𝑺𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑩𝟐𝟏 𝝆𝒇 𝟏
= = 𝒉𝒇
= 3.1 × 10−13
𝑺𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑨𝟐𝟏
−𝟏 𝒆𝑲𝑻
The result obtained that for systems in thermal equilibrium spontaneous
emission is by far the dominant mechanism.
It is apparent that in order to produce a coherent optical source and
amplification of a light beam the rate of stimulated emission must be
increased 𝑁1 𝜌𝑓 𝐵12 = 𝑁2 𝐴21 + 𝑁2 𝜌𝑓 𝐵21 -------------------(2)
It may be noted that for stimulated emission to dominate over absorption
and spontaneous emission in a two-level system, both the radiation density
and the population density of the upper energy level 𝑵𝟐 must be increased
in relation to the population density of the lower energy level 𝑵𝟏 . 5
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Faculty: Shankar Aenagandula 6
 Population inversion:
• Thermal Equilibrium: Lower energy level (E1 ) has more atoms than the
higher level (E2 ).
• Optical amplification requires the creation of a nonequilibrium state in
which 𝑁2 > 𝑁1 , known as population inversion.
• Achieved using pumping (exciting atoms into the upper energy level via
optical radiation or high-frequency fields).
• Limitations of a Two-Level System: Equal probabilities of absorption and
stimulated emission prevent population inversion.

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Three-Level Systems
(e.g., Ruby Laser):
Requires high pump
power since ground
state (E1 ) is involved.

Four-Level Systems
(e.g., He–Ne Laser):
More efficient, with
lower pumping
requirements. • To facilitate population inversion, both systems feature a
central metastable state where atoms remain for an unusually
long duration. Stimulated emission or lasing originates from
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this metastable level. 8
 Optical Feedback & Laser Oscillation
• Light amplification in the laser occurs when a photon colliding with an atom
in the excited energy state causes the stimulated emission of a second
photon and then both these photons release two more. Continuation of this
process effectively creates avalanche multiplication, and when the
electromagnetic waves associated with these photons are in phase,
amplified coherent emission is obtained.
• To achieve this laser action, it is
necessary to contain photons
within the laser medium and
maintain the conditions for
coherence. This is accomplished
by placing or forming mirrors
(plane or curved) at either end of
the amplifying medium, as
illustrated in Figure 6.4.
9
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Light Amplification Mechanism:
• A photon stimulates emission of another photon, leading to
avalanche multiplication.
• Coherent emission occurs when emitted photons remain in
phase.
Optical Resonator:
• Mirrors at both ends of the laser medium reflect photons back
and forth.
• The system acts as a Fabry–Pérot resonator.
Gain & Losses:
• Net gain is achieved after multiple passes through the medium.
• A partially transmitting mirror allows useful radiation to escape.
• Losses occur due to absorption, scattering, diffraction, and
transmission losses.
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• Standing waves are formed between the mirrors, occurring only at specific
frequencies where the distance between the mirrors corresponds to an
integral multiple of half-wavelengths. Therefore, when the optical spacing
between the mirrors is 𝐿, the resonance condition along the cavity axis is
expressed as:
𝝀𝒒 𝒒𝒄 𝒒𝒄 𝝀𝜹𝒇 𝝀𝟐 𝝀𝟐
𝑳 = ;𝐟 = ; 𝜹𝒇 = ; 𝜹𝝀 = = 𝜹𝒇 =
𝟐𝒏 𝟐𝒏𝑳 𝟐𝒏𝑳 𝒇 𝒄 𝟐𝒏𝑳
C = Light velocity
𝜆 = Emission wavelength
n = The refractive index of the amplifying medium
q = An integer (Longitudinal mode)
f = The emission frequencies
modes are separated by a frequency interval (𝛿𝑓) or separated wavelength(𝛿𝜆)
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Q2. A ruby laser
contains a crystal of
length 4 𝑐𝑚 with a
refractive index of
1.78. The peak
emission wavelength
from the device is
0.55 𝜇𝑚. Determine
the number of
longitudinal modes
and their frequency
separation.

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• Although the result of Q2 indicates that a large number
of modes may be generated within the laser cavity, the
spectral output from the device is defined by the gain
curve. Hence the laser emission will only include the
longitudinal modes contained within the spectral
width of the gain curve.
• This situation is illustrated in Figure 6.6 where several
modes are shown to be present in the laser output.
Such a device is said to be multimode.

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Transverse Laser Oscillation:
• Laser oscillation can also occur in directions perpendicular to the cavity
axis.
• This leads to transverse electromagnetic modes (TEM modes).
Transverse Electromagnetic Modes (TEM):
• Designated as TEMₗₘ,
• l and m indicate the number of transverse modes.
• Similar to transverse modes in waveguides.
Characteristics of TEM Modes:
• Longitudinal modes produce a single spot of light at the laser output.
• Transverse modes can create patterns of multiple spots at the output.
• In TEM₀₀ mode, all parts of the wavefront are in phase, ensuring the
highest coherence and spectral purity.
• Higher-order modes (TEM₁₀, TEM₁₁, etc.) have phase reversals, leading
to different mode patterns.
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Eliminating Higher-Order Transverse Modes:
• Higher-order transverse modes occur only if the cavity width is
sufficient.
• They can be eliminated by narrowing the laser cavity.
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Threshold condition for laser oscillation:
Steady-State Condition for Laser Oscillation:
• Achieved when gain in the amplifying medium balances total losses.
• Population inversion is necessary but not sufficient for lasing.
• A minimum threshold gain must be attained for oscillations to start and sustain.
Determining the Threshold Gain:
Losses (except transmission losses through mirrors) are represented by a
single loss coefficient per unit length (𝛼 cm⁻¹).
The amplifying medium completely fills the cavity of length L between two
mirrors of reflectivities r₁ and r₂.
Each round trip of the light beam through the medium incurs a fractional
loss:
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑒 −2𝛼𝐿
The gain due to stimulated emission increases beam intensity
exponentially:
2𝑔𝐿
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𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑒 16
 𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 × 𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒆−𝟐𝜶𝑳 𝒆𝟐𝒈𝑳 = 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒆𝟐(𝒈−𝜶)𝑳 = 𝟏

𝟏 1 𝟏 1
𝒈𝒕𝒉 = 𝜶 + ln = 𝜶 + ln
𝟐𝑳 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝑳 𝑟
𝑟 = 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 = The reflectivity of the mirrored ends.
Significance of Threshold Gain:
• A high threshold gain is required to overcome cavity losses.
• The values of 𝜶, L, r₁, r₂ depend on the type of laser.
• For continuous-wave (CW) lasers, steady-state conditions apply.
• Pulsed lasers have slightly different conditions for oscillation initiation.

Q3. An injection laser has an active cavity with losses of 30 𝑐𝑚−1 and
the reflectivity of the each cleaved laser facet is 30%. Determine the
laser gain coefficient for the cavity when it has a length of 600 𝜇𝑚.
Faculty: Shankar Aenagandula 17
Stimulated emission and lasing:
Population Inversion and Stimulated Emission
• Achieved by injecting electrons into the conduction band of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
• Electrons fill the conduction band states up to the quasi-Fermi level.
• Charge neutrality creates an equal density of holes in the valence band.
• Stimulated emission occurs when an incident photon induces an electron
transition from conduction to valence band.
• Condition for stimulated emission:
𝐸𝐹𝐶 − 𝐸𝐹𝑉 > ℎ𝑓 > 𝐸𝑔

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Population Inversion in p–n Junctions:
• Achieved via degenerative doping of both p- and n-type materials.
• Heavy doping: Lowers the Fermi level into the valence band (p-type).
Raises the Fermi level into the conduction band (n-type).
• Under forward bias, a high carrier injection
density results in an active region
where stimulated emission occurs.
• Key condition for lasing:
𝐸𝑔 𝐸𝐹𝐶 −𝐸𝐹𝑉
<𝑓<
ℎ ℎ
ensuring radiation amplification.

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Effects of High Impurity Concentration:

• Alters energy bands: Donor impurity levels

merge with the conduction band.
• Acceptor states extend into the energy gap.
• Lasing transitions may occur at energies
below 𝐸𝑔
• Example: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) lasing
wavelength varies from 0.85 - 0.95 μm.
• Effective lasing wavelength can be
controlled by impurity concentration.

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Optical Feedback and Laser Cavity:
• Fabry–Pérot cavity is formed by polishing end faces of the junction
diode to act as mirrors.
• Sidewalls are roughened to prevent light loss.
• Optical feedback is necessary to maintain laser oscillation.

Faculty: Shankar Aenagandula 21

Rate Equations for Semiconductor Laser:
• Define the electron density (n) and photon density (φ) in the active layer:
𝒅𝒏 𝑱 𝒏
= − − 𝑪𝒏𝝓 𝒎−𝟑 𝒔−𝟏 ---(1) J = The current density (𝐴/𝑚2) ; e = Charge on electron;
𝒅𝒕 𝒆𝒅 𝝉𝒔𝒑
𝒅𝝓 𝒏 𝝓
= 𝑪𝒏𝝓 +𝜹 − (𝒎−𝟑 𝒔−𝟏 ) ---(2) d = The thickness of the recombination region
𝒅𝒕 𝝉𝒔𝒑 𝝉𝒑𝒉
𝜏𝑠𝑝 = The spontaneous emission lifetime which is equivalent to 𝜏21 ; 𝜏𝑝ℎ = The photon lifetime;
• The first term indicates the increase in the electron concentration in the
conduction band as the current flows into the junction diode.
• The electrons lost from the conduction band by spontaneous and stimulated
transitions are provided by the second and third terms respectively
• The first term depicts the stimulated emission as a source of photons.
• The fraction of photons produced by spontaneous emission which combine to
the energy in the lasing mode is given by the second term. This term is often
neglected, however, as δ is small.
• The final term represents the decay in the number of photons resulting from
losses in the optical cavity.
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 Transient and steady-state behavior of laser:
• The steady state is characterized by the left-hand side of Eqs (1) and (2) being equal
to zero, when n and φ have nonzero values.
• In addition, the fields in the optical cavity which are represented by φ must build up
from small initial values, and hence dφ/dt must be positive when φ is small.
Therefore, setting δ equal to zero in Eq. (2), it is clear that for any value of φ, dφ/dt
will only be positive when:
𝟏
𝑪𝒏 − ≥ 𝟎----------------------------------(3)
𝝉𝒑𝒉
The threshold value for the electron density 𝑛𝑡ℎ is:
𝟏
𝒏𝒕𝒉 = (𝑚−3 )--------------------------(4)
𝑪𝝉𝒑𝒉
The current written in terms of its current density 𝐽𝑡ℎ required to maintain n = 𝒏𝒕𝒉 in
the steady state when 𝝓 = 0 may be defined from Eq. (1)
𝒆𝒅𝒏𝒕𝒉
𝑱𝒕𝒉 =
𝝉
-------------------------------------(5)
𝒔𝒑

Eq. (5) defines the current required to sustain an excess electron density in the laser
when spontaneous emission provides the only decay mechanism. Faculty: Shankar Aenagandula
23
The steady-state photon density 𝜙 𝑠 is providing by substituting Eq. (5) in Eq. (1)
(𝐽−𝐽𝑡ℎ ) 𝟏 (𝑱−𝑱𝒕𝒉 ) 𝝉𝒑𝒉
0= − 𝐶𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝜙; 𝝓𝒔 = = 𝑱 − 𝑱𝒕𝒉 (𝑚−3 )------(6)
𝑒𝑑 𝑪𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒅
The photon density 𝝓𝒔 cannot be a negative quantity, and for 𝝓𝒔 to be greater
than zero the current must exceed its threshold value.
𝝓𝒔 ∝ (𝑱 − 𝑱𝒕𝒉 )
Light Output vs. Current:
Characteristic Below 𝑱𝒕𝒉 :
Only spontaneous emission occurs.
Above 𝑱𝒕𝒉 : Stimulated emission
dominates, leading to a sharp
increase in optical output.
Optical gain = optical loss ensures
continuous laser oscillation. 24
Gain Coefficient and Threshold Current Density:
• the threshold current density for stimulated emission 𝑱𝒕𝒉 is to a fair approximation
related to the threshold gain coefficient 𝒈𝒕𝒉 for the laser cavity through:
𝒈𝒕𝒉 = β 𝑱𝒕𝒉
β = The gain factor (constant appropriate to specific devices).
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 1 𝟏 𝟏 1
𝑱𝒕𝒉 = 𝒈𝒕𝒉 = 𝜶+ ln = 𝜶 + ln
𝜷 𝜷 𝟐𝑳 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝜷 𝑳 𝑟
Q4. A GaAs injection laser has an optical cavity of length 250 𝜇𝑚 and width 100 𝜇𝑚.
At normal operating temperature, the gain factor 𝛽 is 21 × 10−3 𝐴 𝑐𝑚−3 and the loss
coefficient 𝛼 per cm is 10. Determine the threshold current density and hence the
threshold current for the device. It may be assumed that the cleaved mirrors are
uncoated and that the current is restricted to the optical cavity. The refractive index
of GaAs may be taken as 3.6.
Ans: The reflectivity for normal incidence of a plane wave on the GaAs–air Interface
𝑛−1 2
𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟 =
𝑛+1 Faculty: Shankar Aenagandula 25
Key Characteristics of Semiconductor Lasers:
• High internal quantum efficiency (50-100%) due to short
minority carrier lifetime (~𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 s).
• Narrow linewidth (~1 nm) for stimulated emission compared to
spontaneous emission (~tens of nm).
• Strongly confined structures have lower 𝑱𝒕𝒉

Faculty: Shankar Aenagandula 26