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Takeo Kajishima · Kunihiko Taira

Computational
Fluid Dynamics
Incompressible Turbulent Flows
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Takeo Kajishima Kunihiko Taira
•

Computational Fluid
Dynamics
Incompressible Turbulent Flows

123
Takeo Kajishima Kunihiko Taira
Department of Mechanical Engineering Florida State University
Osaka University Tallahassee, FL
Osaka USA
Japan

ISBN 978-3-319-45302-6 ISBN 978-3-319-45304-0 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-45304-0
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016948598

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To our families:
Yoko, Ryohei, and Junpei
Yuki, Kai, and Rio
Preface

The majority of flows encountered in nature and engineering applications are tur-
bulent. Although turbulence has been studied as part of classical mechanics for over
a century, it is still one of the unsolved problems in physics and remains to be an
active area of research. The field of study that uses numerical simulation to examine
fluid dynamics is called Computational Fluids Dynamics (CFD). There is great
demand in utilizing CFD for analyzing problems ranging from turbulent flows
around aircraft and ground vehicles to larger scale problems related to weather
forecasting and environmental assessment. Such demands are very likely to grow in
the coming years as the engineering community at large pursues improvements in
energy efficiency and performance for various fluid-based systems.
Presently, there are several commercial CFD solvers released with turbulence
analysis capability. With software creating beautiful visualizations of turbulent
flows, it may appear that any type of flows can be numerically predicted. While
there may be some truth to such capability, it is still difficult to solve most turbulent
flow problems without relying on companion experiments. That raises a question of
why we still are not able to perfectly predict the behavior of turbulent flows. The
dynamics of turbulent flows obeys the Navier–Stokes equations, upon which CFD
solvers are based. However, turbulence exhibits flow structures over a wide range
of spatial and temporal scales that all interacts amongst them in a complex nonlinear
manner. That means that the spatial grid must be fine enough to resolve the smallest
scales in turbulent flows while ensuring that the computational domain is large
enough to encompass the largest flow structures. Such grid requirement becomes
increasingly costly as we tackle flows at a higher Reynolds number. Despite the
significant improvement in the computational capability with recent
high-performance computers, we still do not expect computers to be able to handle
these large grids for very high Reynolds number flows.
For this particular reason, turbulence is not likely to be completely solved in the
near future. Flow physics taking place at scales below the resolvable scales must be
represented with appropriate models, referred to as turbulence models. Presently,
there is not a universally accepted turbulence model or numerical algorithm that can
yield a solution unaffected by discretizations of the flow field. Thus, CFD should

vii
viii Preface

continue to be an active field of research with efforts focused towards predicting the
essential features of turbulent flows with turbulence models. As such, engineers and
scientists using CFD must understand how the governing equations are numerically
solved. We must also be equipped with the ability to correctly interpret the
numerical solution. With these points in mind, we should construct a necessary and
sufficient computer program appropriate to simulate the fluid flow of interest. For
commercial software, sufficient details on the solver technique should be provided
in the reference manual so that users can determine whether the solver can be
appropriately used for the problem at hand.
This book describes the fundamental numerical methods and approaches used to
perform numerical simulations of turbulent flows. The materials presented herein
are aimed to provide the basis to accurately analyze unsteady turbulent flows. This
textbook is intended for upper level undergraduate and graduate students who are
interested in learning CFD. This book can also serve as a reference when devel-
oping incompressible flow solvers for those already active in CFD research. It is
assumed that readers have some knowledge of fluid mechanics and partial differ-
ential equations. This textbook does not assume the readers to have advanced
knowledge of numerical analysis.
This textbook aims to enable readers to construct his or her own CFD code from
scratch. The present textbook covers the numerical methods required for CFD and
places emphasis on the incompressible flow solver with detailed discussions on
discretization techniques, boundary conditions, and turbulent flow physics. The
introduction to CFD and the governing equations are offered in Chap. 1, followed
by the coverage of basic numerical methods in Chap. 2. Incompressible flow sol-
vers are derived and discussed in detail in Chaps. 3 and 4. We also provide dis-
cussions on the immersed boundary methods in Chap. 5. A brief overview on
turbulent flows is given in Chap. 6 with details needed for analyzing turbulent flows
using Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes equations (RANS) and Large-Eddy
Simulation (LES) provided in Chaps. 7 and 8, respectively. At the end of the
book, an appendix is attached to offer details on the generalized coordinate system,
Fourier analysis, and modal decomposition methods.
A large portion of the present book is based on the material taught over the years
by the first author for the course entitled “Computational Fluid Dynamics and
Turbulent Flows” at Osaka University and his textbook entitled, “Numerical
Simulations of Turbulent Flows” (1st and 2nd editions in Japanese) that has been
available in Japan since 1999. Chapters 1–4 and 6–8 as well as Appendices A and B
in the present book are founded heavily on the Japanese version by Kajishima. The
present textbook enjoys additions of stability analysis (Sect. 2.5), immersed
boundary methods (Chap. 5), and modal decomposition methods (Sect. 6.3.7 and
Appendix C) by Taira based on the courses taught at the Florida State University.
Furthermore, exercises have been added after each chapter to provide supplemental
materials for the readers.
The preparation of this book has benefited greatly from comments, feedback,
and encouragements from Takashi Ohta, Shintaro Takeuchi, Takeshi Omori, Yohei
Morinishi, Shinnosuke Obi, Hiromochi Kobayashi, Tim Colonius, Clarence
Preface ix

Rowley, Steven Brunton, Shervin Bagheri, Toshiyuki Arima, and Yousuff

Hussaini. The stimulating discussions with them on various topics of CFD over the
years have been invaluable in putting together the materials herein. We must also
thank our research group members and students for providing us with detailed
comments on the drafts of this book that helped improve the organization and
correctness of the text. Finally, we would like to acknowledge Michael Luby and
Brian Halm at Springer for working with us patiently and Nobuyuki Miura and
Kaoru Shimada at Yokendo for their support on the earlier Japanese versions.

Osaka, Japan Takeo Kajishima

Tallahassee, Florida, USA Kunihiko Taira
July 2016
Contents

1 Numerical Simulation of Fluid Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Overview of Fluid Flow Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Governing Equations of Fluid Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Conservation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Closure of the Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 Divergence and Gradient Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.4 Indicial Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.5 Governing Equations of Incompressible Flow . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.6 Properties of Partial Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4 Grids for Simulating Fluid Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5 Discretization Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6 Verification and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2 Finite-Difference Discretization of the Advection-Diffusion
Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Advection-Diffusion Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Finite-Difference Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.1 Taylor Series Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.2 Polynomial Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.3 Central Difference at Midpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.4 Compatibility of Finite Differencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.5 Spatial Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.6 Behavior of Discretization Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4 Time Stepping Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4.1 Single-Step Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4.2 Multi-Step Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

xi
xii Contents

2.5 Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.5.1 Stability of Time Stepping Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.5.2 von Neumann Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.5.3 Stability of the Discrete Advection Equation . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5.4 Stability of the Discrete Diffusion Equation . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.5 Stability of the Discrete Advection-Diffusion
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5.6 Time Step Constraints for Advection and Diffusion . . . . 62
2.5.7 Amplitude and Phase Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6 Higher-Order Finite Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.7 Consistency of Finite-Difference Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.8 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.9 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3 Numerical Simulation of Incompressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2 Time Stepping for Incompressible Flow Solvers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.3 Incompressible Flow Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.3.1 Fractional-Step (Projection) Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.3.2 Simplified MAC (SMAC) Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.3.3 Highly Simplified MAC (HSMAC) Method
and Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure Linked
Equation (SIMPLE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 79
3.3.4 Accuracy and Stability of Time Stepping . . . . . . . . .... 80
3.3.5 Summary of Time Stepping for Incompressible
Flow Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.4 Spatial Discretization of Pressure Gradient Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4.1 Pressure Poisson Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4.2 Iterative Method for the Pressure Poisson Equation. . . . . 92
3.4.3 Iterative Method for HSMAC Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.5 Spatial Discretization of Advection Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.5.1 Compatibility and Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.5.2 Discretization on Nonuniform Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.5.3 Upwinding Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.6 Spatial Discretization of Viscous Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.7 Summary of the Staggered Grid Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.8 Boundary and Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.8.1 Boundary Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.8.2 Solid Wall Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.8.3 Inflow and Outflow Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.8.4 Far-Field Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.8.5 Initial Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Contents xiii

3.9 High-Order Accurate Spatial Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 136

3.9.1 High-Order Accurate Finite Difference . . . . . . . . . . .... 136
3.9.2 Compatibility of High-Order Finite Differencing
of Advective Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 137
3.9.3 Boundary Conditions for High-Order Accurate
Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.10 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.11 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4 Incompressible Flow Solvers for Generalized Coordinate System . . . 147
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.2 Selection of Basic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.3 Strong Conservation Form of the Governing Equations . . . . . . . . 150
4.3.1 Strong Conservation Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.3.2 Mass Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3.3 Momentum Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.4 Basic Variables and Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.5 Incompressible Flow Solvers Using Collocated Grids. . . . . . . . . . 157
4.6 Spatial Discretization of Pressure Gradient Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.6.1 Pressure Gradient Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.6.2 Pressure Poisson Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.6.3 Iterative Solver for the Pressure Poisson Equation. . . . . . 165
4.7 Spatial Discretization of Advection Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
4.7.1 Compatibility and Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
4.7.2 Upwinding Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.8 Spatial Discretization of Viscous Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.9 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.10 High-Order Accurate Spatial Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.11 Evaluation of Coordinate Transform Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.12 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.13 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5 Immersed Boundary Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.2 Continuous Forcing Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.2.1 Discrete Delta Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.2.2 Original Immersed Boundary Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.2.3 Immersed Boundary Projection Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.3 Discrete Forcing Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.3.1 Direct Forcing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.3.2 Consistent Direct Forcing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.3.3 Cut-Cell Immersed Boundary Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
xiv Contents

5.4 Applications of Immersed Boundary Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

5.4.1 Flow Around a Circular Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.4.2 Turbulent Flow Through a Nuclear Rod Bundle . . . . . . . 199
5.5 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.6 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6 Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.2 Direct Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.2.1 Reynolds Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.2.2 Full Turbulence Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.2.3 Direct Numerical Simulation of Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.2.4 Turbulence Simulation with Low Grid Resolution. . . . . . 213
6.3 Representation of Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.3.1 Turbulence Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.3.2 Governing Equations for Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.3.3 Turbulence Modeling Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.3.4 Visualization of Vortical Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.3.5 Coherent Structure Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.3.6 Rotational Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.3.7 Modal Decomposition of Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.4 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
6.5 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7 Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.2 Reynolds-Averaged Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.2.1 Reynolds Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.2.2 Reynolds Stress Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.3 Modeling of Eddy Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
7.4 k-ε Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
7.4.1 Treatment of Near-Wall Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.4.2 Computational Details of the k-ε Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
7.4.3 Features and Applications of the k-ε Model . . . . . . . . . . 254
7.5 Other Eddy-Viscosity Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
7.6 Reynolds Stress Equation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
7.6.1 Basic Form of the Stress Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
7.6.2 Features of the Stress Equation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.7 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.8 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Contents xv

8 Large-Eddy Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
8.2 Governing Equations for LES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
8.2.1 Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
8.2.2 Governing Equations for Large-Eddy Simulation . . . . . . 274
8.3 Smagorinsky Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
8.3.1 Local Equilibrium and Eddy-Viscosity Assumptions . . . . 276
8.3.2 Derivation of the Smagorinsky Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.3.3 Properties of the Smagorinsky Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
8.3.4 Modification in the Near-Wall Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.4 Scale-Similarity Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
8.4.1 Bardina Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
8.4.2 Mixed Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
8.5 Dynamic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
8.5.1 Dynamic Eddy-Viscosity Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
8.5.2 Extensions of the Dynamic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.6 Other SGS Eddy-Viscosity Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.6.1 Structure Function Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.6.2 Coherent Structure Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8.6.3 One-Equation SGS Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.7 Numerical Methods for Large-Eddy Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
8.7.1 Computation of SGS Eddy Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
8.7.2 Implementation of Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.7.3 Boundary and Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
8.7.4 Influence of Numerical Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.8 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
8.9 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Appendix A: Generalized Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Appendix B: Fourier Analysis of Flow Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Appendix C: Modal Decomposition Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Chapter 1
Numerical Simulation of Fluid Flows

1.1 Introduction

Numerical simulations, along with experiments and theoretical analysis, are often
used as a tool to support research and development in science and engineering.
The use of simulations has been popularized by the development and wide-spread
availability of computers. Since numerical computations are advantageous to exper-
iments from the aspects of speed, safety, and cost in many cases, their uses have been
widely accepted in the industry. Simulations have also become a valuable tool in
fundamental research due to its ability to analyze complex phenomena that may be
difficult to study with experimental measurements or theoretical analysis. Reflecting
upon these trends, the adjective computational is now widely used to describe sub-
fields that utilize simulation in various disciplines, such as computational physics
and computational chemistry.
The field of study concerned with analyzing various types of fluid flows with
numerical simulations and developing suitable simulation algorithms is known as
computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Applications of CFD can be found in the analy-
sis of the following studies but not limited to
• Flows around aircraft, ships, trains, and automobiles;
• Flows in turbo-machineries;
• Biomedical and biological flows;
• Environmental flows, civil engineering, and architecture;
• Large-scale flows in astrodynamics, weather forecasting, and oceanography.
The flows in these settings usually do not have analytical expressions because of
the complex physics arising from boundary geometry, external forcing, and fluid
properties. In CFD, flow physics is analyzed and predicted by numerically solving
the governing equations and reproducing the flow field with the use of computers.
In general, a fluid can be viewed as a continuum, for which there are established
conservation laws for mass, momentum, and energy. For many fluids that are used in
engineering applications, there are well-accepted constitutive relations. The equation

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

T. Kajishima and K. Taira, Computational Fluid Dynamics,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-45304-0_1
2 1 Numerical Simulation of Fluid Flows

of state for gases or equations for phase transformation or chemical reactions are also
included in the system of equations as needed. The objective of flow simulations is
to numerically solve such system of equations with appropriate initial and boundary
conditions to replicate the actual flow. In the simulation, the flow field is represented
by variables such as velocity, pressure, density, and temperature at discrete set of
points. The evolution of these variables over time is tracked to represent the flow
physics.
There is always the question of whether a simulation correctly reproduces the
flow physics, because we are representing the continuum on discrete points. We
can only obtain reliable numerical solutions when the simulation methodology is
validated against experimental measurements or theoretical solutions. The use of such
validated method must be limited to parameters that are within the applicable range.
While there has been numerous achievements with computational fluid dynamics in
the design fields and fundamental research, the development of accurate simulation
methods that are widely applicable and more robust will continue in the future.

1.2 Overview of Fluid Flow Simulations

Numerical simulation of fluid flow follows the steps laid out in Fig. 1.1.

1. Decide to solve the full Navier–Stokes equations, the inviscid approximation,

or any other approximation to reproduce the flow physics of interest. Choose a
turbulence model and a non-Newtonian constitutive equation if necessary. Based
on these choices, the governing partial differential equations to be solved in the
simulation are obtained.
2. Discretize the governing equations with the finite-difference, volume or element
method and choose the appropriate grid (spatial discretization). The correspond-
ing algebraic equations to be solved are derived. We can then decide on the
numerical algorithm to solve these equations and develop a computer program.
In some cases, the program can be written to specifically take advantage of the
characteristics of the available computer hardware.
3. Numerical simulation of fluid flow can output a large number of numerical values
as the solution. Comprehending such solution is difficult with just pure numbers.
Hence, graphs and visualizations with computer graphics and animations are used
to aid the analysis of the simulation results.

Thus, to perform numerical simulations of fluid flows, it is not sufficient to only have
the understanding of fluid mechanics. One must have knowledge of numerical analy-
sis for discretization schemes and numerical algorithms, as well as computer science
for programing and visualization. It goes without saying that the combination of
these fields is necessary for CFD. To ensure that the results obtained from numerical
simulation of fluid flow are reliable, we must also be concerned with verification and
validation. We will discuss this in further details in Sect. 1.6.
1.2 Overview of Fluid Flow Simulations 3

experiments
(dye visualization)

Physical flow phenomenon

Approximation

Physical model

Governing equations
(partial differential equations)

Discretization

Grid generation

Discretized governing equations

(algebraic equations)

Numerical methods

Code development

Simulated flow phenomenon

(data set)

Data visualization/analysis

simulation 3D printing
(vorticity contour)

Fig. 1.1 General process of simulating fluid flows. Inserted visualizations are for unsteady flow
over a pitching plate (Reprinted with permission from [8]; copyright 2014, AIP Publishing LLC)
4 1 Numerical Simulation of Fluid Flows

With the invention of 3D printers, it is possible to print three-dimensional flow

structures that can be held and examined up close for a deeper understanding of
the flow physics. An example of a 3D print of the vortex behind a pitching plate is
illustrated in the bottom of Fig. 1.1 based on the data from direct numerical simulation
[8]. Such novel 3D printed prototypes can expand how we study flow fields and
convey findings to others.
The objective of this book is to explain how one can develop a program for
numerical simulations of incompressible turbulent flows. In particular, we focus on
the treatment of the motion of Newtonian fluid (e.g., air and water) that is described
by the Navier–Stokes equations. We also discuss methodologies to simulate turbulent
flow with high-order accurate methods.

1.3 Governing Equations of Fluid Flows

In this section, we present the governing equations of fluid flows. There are two
formulations one can use to describe a flow field: the Eulerian and Lagrangian rep-
resentations. The Eulerian representation describes the flow field with functions of
space and time. The Lagrangian representation on the other hand describes the flow
field following individual fluid elements in the flow. In this book, we discretize the
governing equations on a grid which is based on the Eulerian formulation. For that
reason, the discussions herein are based on the Eulerian representation of the flow
field.
For details on the two representations of a flow field and the derivation of the
governing equations starting from vector and tensor analysis, we list Currie [4],
Panton [15], and Aris [1] as references.

1.3.1 Conservation Laws

The governing equations for fluid flows consist of the conservation laws for mass,
momentum, and energy.
First, let us consider mass conservation. Denoting the density (mass per unit
volume) of the fluid by ρ, we perform a budget analysis for a control volume. We let
the volume and surface of the control volume be V and S, respectively, with the unit
normal vector n on the surface (directed outward) and the flow velocity u, as shown
in Fig. 1.2. The time rate of change of the mass within the control volume consists of
the mass flux going in and out of the volume (ρu) · n through the surface assuming
there is no mass source or sink:
 
∂ρ
dV = − (ρu) · ndS. (1.1)
V ∂t S
1.3 Governing Equations of Fluid Flows 5

Fig. 1.2 Control volume for S n

conservation laws u

Here, mass influx is negative (ρu · n < 0) and efflux is positive (ρu · n > 0).
Using Gauss’ theorem, the above equation can be written only with a volume
integral   
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρu) dV = 0. (1.2)
V ∂t

Equations (1.1) and (1.2) are integral representations of mass conservation. Since
Eq. (1.2) must hold for any arbitrary control volume, the integrand should be zero.
Thus, we have
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρu) = 0, (1.3)
∂t
which is the differential form of mass conservation.
Following similar control volume analysis, the equations for momentum and
energy conservation can be derived. We can represent these mass, momentum, and
energy conservation laws all together in a single equation using tensors. The integral
representation of the three conservation laws for a control volume V becomes
  
∂Λ
dV = − Π · ndS + Γ dV (1.4)
∂t
  V  S
 V
∂Λ
+ ∇ · Π − Γ dV = 0 (1.5)
V ∂t

with the corresponding differential form being

∂Λ
+∇ ·Π = Γ. (1.6)
∂t
Here, the vector Λ denotes the conserved quantities (per unit volume)
⎡ ⎤
ρ
Λ = ⎣ ρu ⎦ , (1.7)
ρE

where E is the total energy per unit mass, which is comprised of the internal energy
(per unit mass) e and the kinetic energy k
6 1 Numerical Simulation of Fluid Flows

E = e + k. (1.8)

The kinetic energy is defined as

|u|2
k= . (1.9)
2
The term Π is the flux of Λ
⎡ ⎤
ρu
Π=⎣ ρuu − T ⎦. (1.10)
ρE u − T · u + q

The term ρu can be recognized as the momentum per unit volume in the second row
of Eq. (1.7) and also as the mass flux vector for the first row of Eq. (1.10). The term
ρuu − T is the momentum flux tensor in the momentum equation which consists
of ρuu that describes the flux of momentum ρu moving at a velocity u and T that
represents the momentum exchange due to the stress at the surface of the control
volume. In the energy conservation equation, ρE u is the flux of energy, T · u is the
work performed by stress, and q is the heat flux. By taking an inner product of Π
and the unit normal vector n, we obtain the physical quantity that passes through the
control surface per unit time and area. Since n represents the outward unit normal
vector on a control surface S in Eq. (1.4), positive and negative Π · n correspond to
efflux and influx, respectively, from the control surface.
In what follows, we assume that there is no sink, source, or heat generation within
the volume of interest. If a body force f acts on the fluid, there is production of
momentum and work performed by the force, making the right-hand side of Eq. (1.6)
become ⎡ ⎤
0
Γ = ⎣ ρ f ⎦. (1.11)
ρu · f

Note that Eqs. (1.4) and (1.5) represent the change in conserved variables that is
attributed to the flux across surface of the control volume and the source within the
volume.

1.3.2 Closure of the Governing Equations

In order to solve the governing equations for fluid flow, we need to match the number
of unknowns to the number of equations. This is referred to as the closure of the
system of equations. For the flow equations, we need to express the stress T and heat
flux q in the flux term Π by ρ, u, and E. These relations are called the constitutive
equations.
1.3 Governing Equations of Fluid Flows 7

For a Newtonian fluid, the stress tensor T is expressed as the sum of pressure and
viscous stress in the following manner

1
T = − p I + 2μ D − I∇ · u , (1.12)
3
in which the Stokes relation has been used. Here, I is the identity tensor, p is the
static pressure, μ is the dynamic viscosity, and D is the rate-of-strain tensor given
by
1 
D= (∇u)T + ∇u . (1.13)
2
For the heat flux q, we can use the Fourier’s law

q = −k∇T, (1.14)

where T is the absolute temperature and k is the thermal conductivity. Note that μ
and k can be expressed as functions of T for Newtonian fluids (i.e., μ(T ) and k(T )).
We have introduced T and p, which can be related to ρ by the equation of state.
Here, we make an assumption that the fluid is an ideal gas in thermodynamic equi-
librium. The ideal gas law states that

p = ρRT = (γ − 1)ρe, (1.15)

where γ = c p /cv is the specific heat ratio, cv is the heat capacity at constant volume,
c p (= cv + R) is the heat capacity at constant pressure, and R is the gas constant.
The internal energy e is
e = cv T (1.16)

(or de = cv dT ). With the above relations, the system of equations is in closure.

Equations (1.4)–(1.6) expressed only in terms of the unknowns ρ, u, and E. Hence,
the number of equations and the number of unknowns are equated.

1.3.3 Divergence and Gradient Forms

The mass conservation equation is also referred to as the continuity equation and is

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρu) = 0 (1.17)
∂t
for flows without sinks or sources. We can consider the time rate of change and
transport of some physical quantity φ by the velocity field u to be decomposed as
8 1 Numerical Simulation of Fluid Flows
   
∂(ρφ) ∂φ ∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρuφ) = ρ + u · ∇φ + φ + ∇ · (ρu) , (1.18)
∂t ∂t ∂t

where the second term on the right-hand side becomes zero due to continuity,
Eq. (1.17). Accordingly, we have
 
∂(ρφ) Dφ ∂φ
+ ∇ · (ρuφ) = ρ =ρ + u · ∇φ , (1.19)
∂t Dt ∂t

where D/Dt is defined as

D ∂
≡ +u·∇ (1.20)
Dt ∂t
and called the material derivative (substantial derivative).
The second term on the left-hand side of Eq. (1.19) represents advection by the
divergence of ρuφ. For that reason, this form is called the divergence form (conserv-
ative form). The second term on the right-hand side is expressed as the inner product
of the velocity u and the gradient ∇φ, and is thus referred to as the gradient form
or advective form1 (non-conservative form). The terminology of conservative and
non-conservative forms is widely used in the CFD literature.
Equation (1.19) is merely a statement of differentiation rule with the continuity
equation incorporated. Therefore, calculations based on either form should be iden-
tical. For correctly discretized equations, the identity should hold, which makes the
use of the term non-conservative form for the right-hand side of Eq. (1.19) some-
what misleading. Depending on the discretization schemes, this relation may not
hold. It would appear more appropriate to use the term non-conservative to describe
incompatible discretization schemes rather than the form of the right-hand side of
Eq. (1.19). The notion of compatible numerical differentiation will be discussed in
detail in Chap. 2.
The conservation of momentum provides us with the equation of motion, which
is
∂(ρu)
+ ∇ · (ρuu − T ) = ρ f (1.21)
∂t
in the divergence form and
Du
ρ =∇ ·T +ρf (1.22)
Dt
in the gradient form. When the constitutive equation (Eq. (1.12)) for a Newtonian
fluid is used for T , the equation of motion is referred to as the Navier–Stokes equation
of motion. Since
Du ∂u
= + u · ∇u (1.23)
Dt ∂t

1 Advective form is often called convective form. We however use the term advective form to be
consistent with the use of the term advection instead of convection (= advection + diffusion) for
preciseness.
1.3 Governing Equations of Fluid Flows 9

corresponds to the acceleration of a fluid element, we can notice that Eq. (1.22)
describes Newton’s second law (mass × acceleration = force) per unit mass.
Taking an inner product of the momentum equation, Eq. (1.22), with the velocity
u, we arrive at the conservation of kinetic energy

Dk
ρ = u · (∇ · T ) + ρu · f . (1.24)
Dt
Subtracting the above equation from the conservation of total energy

DE
ρ = ∇ · (T · u) − ∇ · q + ρu · f , (1.25)
Dt
we obtain the conservation of internal energy

De
ρ = T : (∇u) − ∇ · q, (1.26)
Dt
where T : S denotes the contraction of tensors (i.e., Ti j S ji ). The set of equations
consisting of the mass, momentum, and energy equations for a Newtonian fluid is
called the Navier–Stokes equations.

1.3.4 Indicial Notation

Up to this point, we have used vector notation in the governing equations for fluid
flows. We can also utilize what is called indicial notation to represent the components
for a Cartesian coordinate system, in which we denote the coordinates with x1 = x,
x2 = y, and x3 = z and the corresponding velocity components with u 1 = u, u 2 = u,
and u 3 = w.
We then can express the mass conservation as

∂ρ ∂(ρu j )
+ = 0. (1.27)
∂t ∂x j

The momentum conservation equation can be written in the divergence form

(Eq. (1.21)) as
∂(ρu i ) ∂
+ (ρu i u j − Ti j ) = ρ f i (1.28)
∂t ∂x j

and in gradient form (Eq. (1.22)) as

 
∂u i ∂u i ∂Ti j
ρ + uj = + ρ fi . (1.29)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j
10 1 Numerical Simulation of Fluid Flows

The conservation of total energy in indicial notation becomes

∂(ρE) ∂
+ (ρEu j − Ti j u i + q j ) = ρu i f i (1.30)
∂t ∂x j

for the divergence form and

 
∂E ∂E ∂
ρ + uj = (Ti j u i − q j ) + ρu i f i (1.31)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j

for the gradient form (Eq. (1.25)).

The constitutive relations can also be written in indicial notation. The stress tensor
(Eq. (1.12)) is represented as
   
1 ∂u k ∂u i ∂u j
Ti j = −δi j p + 2μ Di j − δi j , where Di j = + (1.32)
3 ∂xk ∂x j ∂xi

and the Fourier heat conduction law becomes

∂T
q j = −k . (1.33)
∂x j

When the same index appears twice in the same term, summation over  that index is
implied (summation convention). That is, in two dimensions, a j b j = 2j=1 a j b j , and

in three dimensions, a j b j = 3j=1 a j b j . When summation is not to be performed, it
will be noted in the text. The symbol for the index can be different in the summation
but results in the same sum (i.e., a j b j = ak bk ). The symbol δi j appears often when
using indicial notation and is called the Kronecker delta, defined as

1 i= j
δi j = (1.34)
0 i = j

This is the component-wise representation of the basis tensor I for the Cartesian
coordinate system. Note that the trace in three dimensions is δkk = 3 (contraction of
δi j ).

1.3.5 Governing Equations of Incompressible Flow

Here, we summarize the governing equations for incompressible flow of a Newtonian

fluid, which is the focus of this book. For incompressible flow, the material derivative
of the density does not change
1.3 Governing Equations of Fluid Flows 11

Dρ ∂ρ
= + u · ∇ρ = 0. (1.35)
Dt ∂t
Note that incompressibility does not necessarily mean that the density ρ is constant.
This continuity equation becomes much more complex for multispecies system with
diffusion, even if the flow can be treated as incompressible [9]. With Eq. (1.35), the
continuity equation, Eq. (1.17), turns into

∇ · u = 0, (1.36)

which is also referred to as the incompressibility constraint or the divergence-free

constraint. This relation implies that the volumetric flux budget is enforced instan-
taneously at each moment in time, since there is no term with time rate of change.
Next, let us consider the momentum equation. For a Newtonian fluid in incom-
pressible flow, the stress tensor is

T = − p I + 2μ D. (1.37)

Thus, the momentum equation for incompressible flow becomes

 
∂u
ρ + ∇ · (uu) = −∇ p + ∇ · (2μ D) + ρ f . (1.38)
∂t

If we can treat viscosity to be a constant, the above equation can be further simplified
to become
∂u ∇p
+ ∇ · (uu) = − + ν∇ 2 u + f , (1.39)
∂t ρ

where ν = μ/ρ is the kinematic viscosity.

Taking the divergence of Eq. (1.39) with the assumption of ρ and ν being constant
and utilize Eq. (1.36), we arrive at an equation for pressure

∇2 p
= −∇ · ∇ · (uu) + ∇ · f , (1.40)
ρ

where ∇ 2 is the Laplacian operator. Here, the flow field is constrained by incom-
pressibility, Eq. (1.36), at all times and the corresponding pressure field is determined
from the instantaneous flow field. Equation (1.40) is called the pressure Poisson equa-
tion and is an elliptic partial differential equation that is solved as a boundary value
problem. While pressure for compressible flow is provided thermodynamically by
the equation of state, Eq. (1.15), the pressure for incompressible flow is not deter-
mined using thermodynamics. This leads to adopting different numerical methods for
incompressible and compressible flows. While both incompressible and compressible
12 1 Numerical Simulation of Fluid Flows

flows have attributes of wave propagation2 and viscous diffusion, incompressible

flow needs to enforce the divergence-free constraint, Eq. (1.36), which necessitates
an elliptic solver. On the other hand, compressible flow does not need an elliptic solver
since incompressibility need not be satisfied. Different types of partial differential
equations are briefly discussed in Sect. 1.3.6.
The conservation of internal energy for incompressible flow becomes

De
ρ = μ D : D − ∇ · q. (1.41)
Dt
With the use of Eqs. (1.14) and (1.16), the equation for the temperature field reads

DT
ρcv = μ D : D + k∇ 2 T. (1.42)
Dt
The first term on the right-hand side represents the heat generation due to fluid
friction (viscous effect). If the influence of friction on the temperature field is small,
the temperature equation simplifies to

DT
ρcv = k∇ 2 T. (1.43)
Dt
Under this assumption, we can consider the kinetic and internal energies separately
for incompressible flows. Since the conservation of kinetic energy depends only
passively on the conservation of mass and momentum, it is not necessary to explicitly
handle the kinetic energy in the fluid flow analysis. The conservation of internal
energy can be used as a governing equation for temperature. In the discussions to
follow, we do not consider the temperature equation.
Component-wise Representation
As a summary of the above discussion and for reference, let us list the governing
equations for incompressible flow with constant density and viscosity for a Cartesian
coordinate system using the component-wise representation. The continuity equation
(1.36) is
∂u i
=0 (1.44)
∂xi

and the momentum equation (1.39) is

∂u i ∂(u i u j ) ∂u i ∂u i 1 ∂p ∂2ui
+ = + uj =− +ν + fi . (1.45)
∂t ∂x j ∂t ∂x j ρ ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j

2 For incompressible flow, the Mach number M = u/a (the ratio of characteristic velocity u and
sonic speed a) is zero or very small. That means that the acoustic wave propagation is very fast
compared to the hydrodynamic wave propagation. In the limit of M → 0, the acoustic propagation
is considered to take place instantaneously over the whole domain, which leads to the appearance
of ellipticity in the governing equations.
1.3 Governing Equations of Fluid Flows 13

The pressure Poisson equation derived from the above two equations is

1 ∂2 p ∂ 2 (u i u j ) ∂ f i ∂u i ∂u j ∂ fi
=− + =− + . (1.46)
ρ ∂xi ∂xi ∂xi ∂x j ∂xi ∂x j ∂xi ∂xi

Note that Eqs. (1.45) and (1.46) make use of Eq. (1.44).

1.3.6 Properties of Partial Differential Equations

As we have seen above, the conservation laws that describe the flow are represented
by partial differential equations (PDEs). Hence, it is important to understand the
characteristics of the governing PDEs to numerically solve for the flow field. It
is customary to discuss the classification of PDEs and the theory of characteristic
curves, but unless readers go beyond the scope of this book or become involved in
the development of advanced numerical algorithms, there is not a critical need to
dive deeply into the theory of PDEs.
Depending on how information travels, the second-order PDEs are classified into
elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic PDEs as shown in Table 1.1. These types are not
influenced by the choice of coordinate systems but can be affected by the location
in a flow field. For example, let us consider flow over a bluff body. Flow away from
the body and outside of the boundary layer (without any vorticity) can be treated as
potential flow which is described by an elliptic PDE. However, in the region right
next to the surface of the body (boundary layer), viscous diffusion becomes the
dominant physics describing the flow which can be captured by a parabolic PDE.
Hence, the classification of PDEs is in general performed locally. We will let other
textbooks [10, 13] on PDEs describe the classification of PDEs, characteristic curves,
and initial/boundary value problems. For the purpose of this book, we will focus on
presenting the PDE types of the governing equations for flow in a brief fashion. The
classification of PDEs is based on the existence of a unidirectional coordinate [16].

Table 1.1 Canonical second-order partial differential equations in fluid mechanics

Type Examples
Elliptic Poisson equation ∇ 2 p = −ρ∇ · ∇ · (uu) + ∇ · f
Laplace equation ∇2φ = 0
∂u
Parabolic Diffusion equation = ν∇ 2 u
∂t
∂T k 2
Heat equation = ∇ T
∂t ρcv
∂2 u
Hyperbolic Wave equation = U 2∇2 u
∂t 2
14 1 Numerical Simulation of Fluid Flows

The temporal axis t is obviously unidirectional (past to future). On the other hand,
the spatial coordinate xi is bidirectional.
For viscous incompressible flows in general, the PDEs for unsteady flow (depen-
dent on t) are parabolic and the PDEs for steady flow (independent of t) are elliptic.
In some steady cases where the influence from downstream can be neglected, the flow
may be solved by marching from upstream to downstream. This is called parabolic
approximation (parabolization). One can also solve for steady flow by leaving the
temporal derivative term and reframing the problem as an unsteady one. Once the
solution is converged to the steady profile after sufficient time advancement, the time
derivative term would vanish and the flow field becomes the solution to the original
elliptic PDE. Such approach could be described as a parabolic technique for solving
an elliptic PDE.

1.4 Grids for Simulating Fluid Flows

For Eulerian methods, variables such as velocity, pressure, and density are determined
at a large number of discrete points to represent the motion of a liquid or a gas as
a continuum. A polygon (in two-dimensional and polyhedron in three-dimensional
space) made from local collection of discrete points (vertices) is called a cell and
the space filled by these cells is referred to as a grid (or mesh). Physical variables of
interest are positioned at various locations on the cells chosen to satisfy particular
numerical properties.
A few representative Eulerian grids are shown in Fig. 1.3. For a Cartesian grid,
the governing equations for the flow takes the simplest form and makes spatial
discretization effortless. However, it is not suitable for discretizing a flow field around
a body of complex geometry, as illustrated in Fig. 1.3a. Even a body with rather simple
geometry, such as a sphere or a circular cylinder, would requires a very fine mesh
near the body boundary to resolve the flow. One solution to this issue is to employ an
immersed boundary method that generates a body without regard to the underlying
grid. Chapter 5 is devoted to the immersed boundary method. Another remedy to
this problem is to use a curvilinear coordinate grid that fits around the boundary, as
shown in Fig. 1.3b. Such curvilinear grid is called a boundary-fitted coordinate grid
or a body-fitted coordinate grid (BFC). A transformation of such BFC in physical

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.3 Grids for fluid flow simulations (two-dimensional). a Cartesian grid. b Curvilinear grid.
c Unstructured grid
1.4 Grids for Simulating Fluid Flows 15

(a) (b)
A D

η
ξ Δη = 1
C D
B A η
y Δξ = 1
Computational domain

x B
ξ
C

Fig. 1.4 Mapping between the physical space and computation space for a boundary-fitted grid. a
Physical space. b Computational space

domain to another domain (computation domain), becomes convenient, especially

if we make the grid size unity in the computational domain (see Fig. 1.4). Grids that
has the same topology as a Cartesian grid is referred to as structured grids, as shown
by Fig. 1.3a, b.
One can also discretize the spatial domain as shown in Fig. 1.3c with cells that
are arranged in an irregular manner to accommodate complex boundary geometries.
Boundary-fitted grids of this type are called unstructured grids. Unstructured grids
often utilize triangles, quadrilaterals, and hexagons in two dimensions and tetrahedra
and hexahedra in three dimensions.
Structured grids are not as versatile as unstructured grids for discretizing com-
plex geometry. However, structured grids are often preferred for computing highly
accurate flow data in fundamental research. Given the same number of grid points,
structured grids allow for more orderly access to memory on computers, compared
to unstructured grids, and achieve higher computational efficiency. The boundary-
fitted coordinate is a generalized curvilinear coordinate which has basis vectors that
are not always orthonormal and these vectors can vary in space. Thus, the govern-
ing equations for flow become complex with the use of the generalized coordinate
system. See Appendix A for details.
Let us present a few types of boundary-fitted grids. Depending on the boundary
shape, different types of boundary-fitted grids is chosen. In Fig. 1.5, we show canoni-

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.5 Boundary-fitted grids. a O-grid. b C-grid. c H-grid

16 1 Numerical Simulation of Fluid Flows

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.6 Examples of hybrid grids. a Overset grid. b Patched grid. c Hybrid grid

cal boundary-fitted grids that are used to discretize the computational domain around
an airfoil. The O-grid places the grid around a body efficiently with low skewness
in general. For bodies with sharp corners (cusp), for example the trailing edge of an
airfoil, there can be highly skewed grids. The C-grid is aligned with the flow around
the body and is able to generate unskewed grids near the trailing edge. While such
arrangement of grids is suitable for viscous flows, there may be unnecessarily large
number of grids downstream of the wing. For airfoil cascade (arrangement of a series
of blades, such as in turbines) or flow over a body in a channel, multi-block approach
is often utilized with H-grids and L-grids (not shown).
It would be ideal to discretize the flow field with only one type of grid. With
the development of grid generation techniques, it has become possible to generate a
mesh of a single type even for somewhat complex geometries. However, generating
high-quality meshes remains a challenge (e.g., mesh with low skewness, mesh with
necessary and sufficient resolution). In many cases, one cannot know where the grid
should be refined a priori.
For flows with bodies of complex geometry, with multiple bodies, or with bodies
that move (relative to each other) or deform, we can consider the use of multiple
types of grids, as illustrated in Fig. 1.6. In most cases, information is transmitted
during calculation from one grid to the other at the overlap or along the interface of
the grids.
Concentrating grids in regions where the flow exhibits changes in its features
is effective for attaining accurate solutions. For example, we know a priori that the
boundary layer near the wall has large velocity gradients. Thus, it would be beneficial
to place a large number of grid points to resolve the flow there. One can also consider
adaptively generating additional grids at regions where the flow shows large gradients
in the variables of interest. For unstructured grids, this would be handled by simply
adding extra vertices in that region. Such approach is referred to as adaptive mesh
refinement and is often used to capture shock waves and flames. In case of flows with
time varying boundary shapes, such as the waves around a ship, a moving adaptive
mesh is used.
In what follows, we assume that the grid has been generated for the computational
domain. For details on grid generation, readers should consult with [6, 19].
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 NOUVELLES DES ÎLES
INFORTUNÉES
A Jules Renard.

C'était un pays doux, triste et vert, comme recueilli dans une

infortune ancienne, une vaste plaine affligée et résignée. Je pris un
sentier serré entre deux haies d'épines sans fleurs, de lamentables
épines qui semblaient pleurer sur la cruauté de leur destination, et,
après avoir marché pendant des heures en la prison des lamentables
épines, je fus arrêté par une barrière érigée telle qu'une absurde
estacade entre moi et l'infini.
Les madriers brutalement équarris s'entrecroisaient, délimitant
d'étroits losanges de lumière, je regardai et je vis:
Un jardin doux, triste et vert, où, fraîches et pommées, tristes,
tendres et vertes, des salades poussaient, rien que des salades, rien
que des laitues, et parmi ce tendre pâturage un troupeau de femmes
nues. Je ne m'y trompai pas un instant; les descriptions des
voyageurs étaient précises; je n'avais jamais vu de femmes: j'en
voyais.
Ce spectacle m'intéressa.
La femme m'apparut alors comme un animal assez gracieux, que je
classai immédiatement entre la sarigue et le kanguroo; mais elle
différait de ces types par quelques détails fort caractéristiques. Ainsi,
comme le cheval, les femmes ont une crinière, noire, baie, alezane,
qui leur retombe sur les yeux et traîne jusqu'à terre; leur poil est
rare, dru à certaines places, plus clair ou plus foncé que la crinière;
elles n'ont pas de queue; pour se gratter, elles relèvent la patte de
devant, contrairement à la plupart des autres animaux qui relèvent
la patte de derrière; leurs mamelles sont pectorales, tandis que chez
la plupart des mammifères elles sont inguinales.
Elles allaient çà et là, broutant de la tendre et verte laitue, ici une
feuille, là une autre feuille, l'air inquiet, l'air quêteur, flairant pendant
des minutes une salade qui, moi, m'aurait fort bien satisfait, mais
qu'elles dédaignaient pour une autre toute pareille ou même moins
appétissante.
Malgré leur apparence d'inquiétude, il me sembla qu'elles se
courbaient avec plaisir vers la terre, contentes de justifier leurs
appétits matériels, car pendant plus d'une heure que je les examinai,
pas une, une fois, ne releva la tête: la salade, la bonne laitue faisait
toute leur passion.
Jamais en vérité des animaux ne m'avaient intéressé à ce point;
j'aurais voulu les voir de près, les toucher: je sifflai, j'appelai,
j'imaginai les modulations les plus douces; comme au jardin des
plantes, je passai ma main à travers la barrière, faisant des signes
d'appel, feignant de détenir en mes doigts de bonnes choses: le
troupeau ne fut pas ému.
J'étais impatient, je devins colère, je lançai des pierres sur les belles
bêtes, mais je visais mal, je n'atteignis aucune croupe et le troupeau
ne fut pas ému.
Pourtant, je voulais une de ces bêtes!
La haie d'épines, la lamentable haie, triste de sa destination,
encerclait le jardin d'une inéluctable défense, mais la barrière était
franchissable. Je montai à l'assaut de mon désir, je réussis, et la ruse
de tomber à quatre pattes me fit approcher inaperçu d'une petite
alezane écartée du gros de la troupe. Elle fut saisie, jetée sur mes
épaules; je me retrouvai, après une fiévreuse escalade, de l'autre
côté de la barrière, sans que la conscience bien nette de ce rapt
étrange s'affirmât en mon esprit, et, troublé, affolé, n'ayant repris
haleine, ni regardé derrière moi, je m'enfuis, heureux de mon
fardeau, de la bonne bête volée,—qui gémissait un peu, mais se
laissait faire avec une inertie singulièrement douce.
Que se passa-t-il chez moi, dans la petite maison que je m'étais
organisée près de la côte, en attendant le navire aux ailes blanches
qui devait m'enlever aux Iles Infortunées?
Hélas! je ne saurais le dire.
Mais, dès que j'eus déposé la femme dans mon enclos, dès que je
l'eus flattée, dès que j'eus, par jeu, baisé son agréable crinière, dès
que, prenant sa tête entre mes mains, j'eus fixé mes yeux sur ses
yeux verts, ses yeux en vérité couleur de fraîche, de tendre, de verte
laitue,—oui, à ce moment-là, dès que les yeux verts de la belle bête,
ses yeux noyés dans une brume si animalement ingénue, ses yeux
profonds comme l'idée du printemps éternel, ses yeux résignés et
pleins d'une impérieuse charité, dès que ses yeux, des yeux comme
je n'en avais jamais vu, m'eurent imprégné de leurs fluides,—je
devins ivre, et peut-être fou.
Que se passa-t-il?
Rien que je puisse dire, puisque j'étais ivre et peut-être fou.
Mais depuis ce moment-là, la bête, dressée sur deux pattes, la bête
devenue toute pareille à ce que j'étais, me domine et me dompte.
Et c'est moi qui broute la salade, la fraîche, la tendre, la verte laitue.
Et, je le sais maintenant, nul navire aux ailes blanches ne viendra
m'enlever à la prison que je me suis faite, aux Îles infortunées.
 UN ÉPISODE DU JUGEMENT
DERNIER
A Charles Wiest.

Alors furent jugés ceux qui avaient reçu le don de l'intelligence et

ceux qui avaient simulé l'intelligence.
Pendant que les invocateurs de Satan tombaient comme des balles
de plomb dans l'excrémentiel marécage de leur propre crédulité, ils
s'avancèrent donc sous la garde des anges indifférents, les favoris
de la Parole.
Et parmi eux marchait un humble.
Ils furent tous jugés selon leurs œuvres, et leurs œuvres étaient si
mauvaises que chaque démon reçut son bouc.
«Et toi, humble, demanda Notre-Seigneur Jésus-Christ,—que
m'apportes-tu?»
«Hélas! Rien, Seigneur. Je n'ai pas œuvré, je n'ai pas écrit;—clos
dans un rêve d'amour, j'ai prié. O Seigneur, que je ne sois pas jugé
selon mon néant, mais selon votre miséricorde! Vous m'aviez donné
l'intelligence, le Verbe murmurait en moi, et je n'ai pas fait fructifier
mon intelligence et j'ai fermé l'oreille aux murmures sacrés du Verbe
éternel. Le champ de votre gloire est resté stérile sous mon inerte
charrue; j'avais pour mission d'évoquer sur la terre nue la splendeur
des moissons et la grâce des herbes: la splendeur et la grâce sont
demeurées enfouies dans le sol confié à mon génie;—et pendant
que les bœufs, couchés sous le joug inutile, dormaient, piqués des
mouches, à la chaleur du jour, et pendant que le soleil illuminait la
glèbe et lui donnait l'essence de la fertilité,—ah! Seigneur, qu'allez-
vous dire?—retiré à l'ombre, à genoux et les yeux fermés, les mains
jointes, je priais!»
«Viens, répondit Notre-Seigneur, viens, unique agneau qui me
ressembles, enfant de mon amour, fils de celle qui me fit homme,
ami de mon père, agneau comme moi et innocent, viens que je sois
ton frère, et Dieu te baise au front.
«Tu compris, toi, en la pureté de ton âme, ce que je demandais à
ton génie, et la vanité de l'œuvre et la méchanceté du travail, Tu
sus, laissant aux tristes l'âpreté des sueurs sous le soleil, gagner
l'ombre divine que je suis et te réjouir sous mes feuilles, agneau
avide de la fraîcheur répandue par l'arbre de vie.
«Tu avais reçu l'intelligence, homme, tu multiplias le don premier; je
te donnai un cerveau, tu t'en fis trois: un sur les épaules et un à
chaque genou.
«Tu priais, ami,—c'était l'Œuvre que je t'avais dévolue.
«Ah! poète vrai et sûr qui ne fus pas, comme d'autres,
l'entremetteuse de l'idéal, qui ne fis pas le trottoir dans l'irréel, qui
ne fus pas la putain du symbole,—tu le gardas donc pur de toute
commixtion, ton génie, et les sots ne burent pas à ta cruche!
«Fontaine scellée, l'eau qui dormait en toi s'est gelée selon le cristal
des Douze Pierres et tu contrescelleras, à côté de la Pierre Angulaire,
la porte désormais close de l'éternelle Jérusalem.
«—et cela, parce que tu as compris que le génie ne doit travailler
que pour Dieu, pour Dieu seul,
«—et te voilà innocent de la fornication de l'esprit,
«—te voilà chargé de plus de chefs-d'œuvre et de plus de mondes
que mon amour n'en avait conçu.
«Entre et sois la joie des Inconsolables: la Prière a tué l'Orgueil.»
 TABLE
LIVRE I. Quelques uns
Distraction matinale
La Cloison
Les petits Pauvres
Le Rêve
Le Rachat des laides
La Chèvre blonde
Le Phonographe
Xénioles I, II, III
La Tour Saint-Jacques

LIVRE II. Quelques unes

Les Cygnes
Paraphrases
Sœur et Sœurette
La fille de Loth
Petit Supplément
Les Correspondances
Le Crime de la rue du Ciel
Ariane, héroïde moderne

LIVRE III. Quelques autres

Vision
Prose pour un poète
L'Opérateur des morts
L'Enfer
Prescience
Les Joies primitives
Chambre de presbytère
L'Entrée des hommes d'armes
Une Maison dans les dunes
Nouvelles des Iles infortunées
Un épisode du Jugement dernier
LE MANS.—TYP. ED. MONNOYER
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