Warsash

Maritime Academy

DEC 404 (WET)

Stability & Cargo Operations

Liquid Cargoes

Study Guide
 Stability & Cargo
Operations
Wet Cargo

DEC 404

Copyright © 2018 by Solent University. All rights reserved. This book or any
portion of it may not be reproduced without the express written permission of the
publisher.

Printed in Solent University

Updated by: A. Whitcher

Version Date July 2018

 Contents
Chapter 1 - The Properties of Oil .......................................................... 3
Introduction .................................................................................. 3
The Hydrocarbon Chain .................................................................... 3
The Refining Process........................................................................ 5
The Hazards of Petroleum ................................................................. 6
Flammability ................................................................................. 6
Toxicity ..................................................................................... 13
Summary of Chapter 1.................................................................... 15
Chapter 2 - Sources of Ignition ........................................................... 17
Introduction ................................................................................ 17
General Sources of Ignition .............................................................. 17
Portable Electrical Equipment .......................................................... 17
Electrical Equipment Approvals ......................................................... 19
Static Electricity .......................................................................... 20
Precautions Against Static Electricity .................................................. 23
Design for Safety .......................................................................... 26
Summary of Chapter 2.................................................................... 30
Chapter 3 - Cargo Handling Systems ..................................................... 32
Introduction ................................................................................ 32
Pipeline Systems on Oil Tankers ........................................................ 33
Cargo Pumping Systems .................................................................. 38
The Pumproom ............................................................................ 44
Ballasting Arrangements on Tankers ................................................... 46
Ballast Water Management .............................................................. 46
Summary of Chapter 3.................................................................... 49
Chapter 4 Venting Systems ................................................................ 51
Introduction ................................................................................ 51
Venting Systems ........................................................................... 51
Pressure/Vacuum valves for small volumes due to thermal variations ............ 52
IG main and the vent mast............................................................... 52
High Velocity Vent Valve (HVV) ......................................................... 53
MARPOL Annex VI ......................................................................... 55
Summary of Chapter 4.................................................................... 58
Chapter 5 Inert Gas Systems and Operations .......................................... 60
Introduction ................................................................................ 60
Inert Gas.................................................................................... 61
Flue Gas and Inert Gas Composition .................................................... 62
The Flue Gas IG System .................................................................. 63
Description of Components .............................................................. 65
Inert Gas Operations ...................................................................... 69
Emergency Operations ................................................................... 71
Pyrophoric Iron Sulphides ................................................................ 72
Summary of Chapter 5.................................................................... 73
Chapter 6 - Tank Cleaning & Gas Freeing .............................................. 75
Introduction ................................................................................ 75
Tank Atmospheres ........................................................................ 77
Tank Cleaning Equipment ................................................................ 78
Crude Oil Washing (COW) ................................................................ 82
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 Gas Freeing ................................................................................ 84
Methods of Changing Tank Atmospheres ............................................... 86
Summary of Chapter 6.................................................................... 90
Chapter 7 Pollution ......................................................................... 92
Introduction ................................................................................ 92
MARPOL Conventions ..................................................................... 94
MARPOL Annex I Discharge Requirements .......................................... 95
SOPEP .................................................................................... 97
Crude Oil Washing(COW) .............................................................. 98
MARPOL ANNEX II .......................................................................... 99
Procedure and Arrangements Manual (P & A Manual)............................ 100
Summary of Chapter 7................................................................... 101
Chapter 8 Gauging Equipment & Cargo Calculations ................................103
Introduction ............................................................................... 103
Gauging Equipment ...................................................................... 103
Problems with Calculations ............................................................. 108
Chapter 9 General Precautions on Tankers at a Petroleum Berth ................111
Buoy Moorings ............................................................................ 112
Emergency Towing Off Wires ........................................................... 113
Tanker & Terminal Liaison on Safety Procedures ................................... 113
Summary of Chapter 9................................................................... 116
Chapter 10 Chemical Tankers and Gas Carriers ......................................118
Chemical Tankers ........................................................................ 118
The Main Hazards ..................................................................... 119
The IBC Code & Ship Types .......................................................... 121
Tank Coatings .......................................................................... 125
Gas Carriers ............................................................................... 127
Cargo Properties ...................................................................... 127
Cargo Containment Systems ......................................................... 129
Ship Equipment and Instrumentation .............................................. 133
Summary of Chapter 10 ................................................................. 138
Appendix 1 – Definitions (from ISGOTT) ...............................................141
Appendix 2 Reading list ...................................................................149

(Acknowledgement is made to the copyright holders of the International Safety

Guide for Oil Tankers & Terminals, 5th Edition)

2
Chapter 1 - The Properties of Oil
Introduction
Crude oil is the raw material from which products such as motor and aviation
gasoline, kerosene, diesel, gas oil and fuel oil are refined. Most of the chemicals
produced are also derived from crude oil.

Crude oil is essentially decomposed vegetation and animal life compressed under
great pressure over millions of years. It comprises hydrogen and carbon molecules
plus other components that range from Sulphur to water. The generic name for any
petroleum (crude and its by-products) is hydrocarbons.

The Hydrocarbon Chain

In its simplest form a hydrocarbon molecule comprises a single carbon atom to
which is bonded four hydrogen atoms; this is methane and at normal ambient
temperature and pressure it exists as a gas. Crude oil is made up of groups of
hydrocarbon molecules joined together to form chains. The length of the chain, as
well as the manner in which they are joined, determines the physical
characteristics of the petroleum.

Building up from the methane molecule, one or more of the hydrogen bonds can be
used to join with another carbon molecule:

All variations of petroleum hydrocarbons are derived from this basic molecule.

If another carbon atom and 2 hydrogen atoms are joined to methane then we have
Ethane:

The process can be repeated for an endless number of hydrocarbon molecules, but
as the number of carbon molecules in the ‘chain’ increases the nature of the
substance changes. Those hydrocarbons with less than 5 carbon atoms are gases at
normal ambient temperature and pressures. Those with between 6 and about 19
generally exist as liquids and those with 20 or more carbon atoms are usually
solids.

3
The following table indicates the molecular structure of a number of substances:

Substance Formula Physical Property

Methane CH4 Gas
Ethane C2H6 Gas
Propane C3H8 Gas
Butane C4H10 Gas
Pentane C5H12 Gas/Liquid

Crude oil and other petroleum substances will be made up of a mixture of different
length hydrocarbon chains.

If the hydrocarbon chain is not in a straight line (i.e. a straight chain) then the
physical properties will change. For example consider Butane and Isobutane. Both
share the same chemical formula (C4H10) but the former is a straight chain and the
latter a branched chain:

Butane is a gas belonging to the paraffin family and is a straight chain with a
boiling point of -0.5°C. Isobutane is known as a branched chain (isomer) and has a
boiling point of -12°C. Isobutane is a common propellant in aerosol cans. It is also
used in refineries to increase the octane of gasoline, (petrol), and make it cleaner
burning.

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Aromatics
These are ring-type arrangements of hydrocarbons which tend to be more reactive
due to them being hydrogen deficient. Benzene (C6H6 ) is an aromatic and is a
known carcinogen.

The Refining Process

Introduction
Crude oil needs to be refined into useable products as the more valuable lighter
components, or fractions, are mixed with longer hydrocarbon chains as well as non-
hydrocarbon components such as sulphur, nitrogen, salt, carbon dioxide, water and
trace metals.

There are five basic ways of refining but all begin with the distillation process
(sometimes known as fractionating ). Once distillation has been carried out further
processing is done to alter the size and structure of the hydrocarbon molecules
(‘cracking’). It is not necessary to have a detailed knowledge of refining processes
but the initial distillation stage is of interest and will be briefly discussed.

The distillation process relies on the fact that different components of crude oil
have differing boiling points and so can be separated into separate hydrocarbon
groups by heating. These different groups are known as ‘fractions’. The process
may be carried out at atmospheric pressure or under vacuum conditions.

Some pre-treatment is necessary to remove salts, solids and sulphur etc. This is
carried out to avoid corrosion and blocking of the refinery systems. It is usually
carried out with hot water or chemicals.

Atmospheric distillation
Once the crude oil has been pre-treated it passes through a heater (300 to 375
degrees Celsius) from where it is fed into the distillation tower. At these high
temperatures the shorter hydrocarbon chains turn immediately into vapour. As the
vapour moves through the tower cooling takes place and the various vapours
condense at different temperatures and hence different levels in the tower. A
number of trays collect the condensate. Gases are drawn off from the top of the
tower as they will not condense at all. Lower down products such as gasoline,
kerosene and diesel are collected. The bottom of the tower will contain the denser
components such as fuel oil and bitumen.

5
Vacuum distillation is essentially the same but allows distillation at higher
temperatures.

The Hazards of Petroleum

Petroleum by its nature has two main hazards:
• Flammability
• Toxicity

Flammability
In discussing flammability two aspects have to be considered; vapour pressure and
volatility

Vapour Pressure
When a substance burns it is the vapour being given off that burns and not the
substance itself. Vapour is given off through the process of evaporation and the
rate of evaporation is termed volatility which in turn will be dependent upon
vapour pressure. Put any liquid into a container and it will evaporate, some liquids
will evaporate faster than others. Water will evaporate slowly whereas gasoline
will evaporate rapidly. Petroleum products are composed of various components of
the hydrocarbon family and some of these components will be more volatile than
others. Some will actually exist as gases and may have evaporated off before the
oil reaches the ship. Within a cargo tank the chemical composition of the oil will be
different from the chemical composition of the vapour in the ullage space above
the cargo. There will be more of the lighter components in the vapour as these
tend to evaporate first.

Evaporation
All substances are made up of molecules and at any temperature above absolute
zero, (-273oC), they are constantly in motion. The rate of movement is directly
related to the temperature of the substance. The higher the temperature the
greater the motion.

The molecules are bound together by inter-molecular attraction but as the

temperature increases some of these molecules will break free of these bonds and
leave the liquid surface in the form of vapour molecules. This is evaporation
(changing from liquid to a vapour). At the same time some of the vapour molecules
6
will return to the liquid. This is condensation (changing from a vapour to a liquid).
This process will continue until there are an equal number of molecules leaving the
liquid as there are re-entering. The pressure at this point is termed the saturated
vapour pressure (S.V.P)

The S.V.P. does not mean that the space available for evaporation is 100 percent
full of vapour, it simply means that no more vapour can be produced at that
temperature.

If the temperature is then increased further more molecular movement will occur.
More evaporation will occur and exceed the rate of condensation until such time as
the two are in equilibrium and saturation has been achieved again.

Therefore the higher the temperature of the substance the more vapour is given
off and the higher the S.V.P. will be. SVP and liquid temperature are directly
related.

If the S.V.P. of a liquid at a given temperature reaches atmospheric pressure,

(approximately 1 bar or 14.7 pounds per square inch), then the liquid will boil. For
example water boils at 100oC at atmospheric pressure. This means the S.V.P. of
water is 1 bar when its temperature is 100oC. Essentially the liquid is trying to
change state from a liquid to a gas.

Evaporation takes place from the surface of the liquid whereas boiling occurs
within the body of the liquid.

True Vapour Pressure (T.V.P.)

The highest vapour pressure possible is the True Vapour Pressure. This is the
saturated vapour pressure when the gas to liquid ratio is effectively zero. It is the
highest vapour pressure possible at a given temperature and is a good indication of
a liquids ability to give off gas. However, it is difficult to measure without a
detailed knowledge of the molecular composition of the liquid in question. This is
beyond the scope of ships’ staff. From a practical view point ship operators require
a means of being able to give a reasonable indication as to whether a petroleum is

7
likely to give off vapour and as a means of comparing the vapour releasing
properties of one product compared to another. This is the Reid Vapour Pressure.

Reid Vapour Pressure (R.V.P.)

When wishing to make comparisons it is necessary first to establish standard testing
conditions. Mr. Reid simply took a container, put a pressure gauge on it and heated
up the oil under test in the container to a standard temperature of 100oF (37.8oC).
A vapour to liquid ratio was specified in order to allow plenty of room for
evaporation to take place. Once the test temperature was reached the container
was agitated to bring about equilibrium conditions rapidly and the pressure on the
gauge read to give the R.V.P.

The test is still used today and the results usually included on load port
documentation.

It is useful for comparing the volatility of different products in a general kind of

way, i.e. the closer the R.V.P. is to atmospheric pressure (1 bar) the gassier the
cargo will be. It is of little value in estimating the likely gas evolution in specific
circumstances due to variations from the standard test condition.

Other Factors Affecting Gas Evolution

For any given liquid the amount of evaporation will be dependent not only upon
the vapour pressure and temperature but also the following:

Surface area of the liquid.

A small test tube of oil will give off less vapour than a cargo tank containing the
same oil because the surface area is less. It should be noted that it is the surface
area that is a determining factor and not the volume since evaporation takes place
from the surface and not the body of the liquid.

Vapour to liquid ratio.

With a volatile liquid in a small container saturation will occur quickly. In a cargo
tank with a large ullage space (the space above the liquid) saturation will take
longer to occur. One of the reasons for this extended time is that hydrocarbon
vapour is generally denser than air and so will tend to layer on the surface of the
8
liquid. This layer may be saturated but any further vapour will have to filter
through the layer and move upwards into the remaining space. This takes time.
Turbulence.
If the liquid is agitated, for example by ship movement, then energy will be
imparted on the hydrocarbon molecules. There may be enough energy to cause
molecules on the surface of the liquid to break free and escape into the vapour
space.

Density of Hydrocarbon Vapour

If the density of air is considered to be 1.0 then it can be seen from the table that
most hydrocarbons are denser than air, (assuming they are at the same
temperature):

Substance Formula Density (Air = 1.0)

Methane CH4 0.50
Ethane C2H6 1.00
Propane C3H8 1.50
Butane C4H10 2.00
Pentane C5H12 2.50

The fact that hydrocarbon vapours are denser than air presents concern onboard
ship as they will tend to linger at the bottom of tanks, pumprooms etc. and
potentially on deck, thus causing problems in removing the vapour.

Volatility
Liquids cannot burn unless vapour is produced and so flammability is a function of
the ability to give off vapour. This is known as volatility but the measure of a
liquids flammability is its flashpoint.

Both are functions of temperature - the higher the temperature the more vapour is
given off. Flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off enough
vapour to form a flammable mixture in air when an external ignition source is
applied

If a liquid is at a temperature below its flashpoint then there will not be enough
vapour to create a flammable atmosphere.

9
Flashpoint Test
There are two types of flashpoint test; the closed cup (c.c.) and the open cup
(o.c.). The test involves heating the liquid in a container and at regular intervals
introducing a flame to the surface of the liquid. The temperature at which the
vapour first briefly ignites (‘flashes’) is noted. This is the flashpoint temperature.

The open cup test is similar except that there is no lid on the test apparatus. In
this case, since the vapour molecules can escape, the flash point temperature will
be slightly higher than in the closed cup version. For safety the closed cup value,
(with the lower flash point), is normally quoted.

The flashpoint is important as it is the temperature at which a product becomes

flammable.

Combustion
In order for a fire to occur three things must be present at the same time:
Fuel – from cargo vapour
Oxygen – from air
Source of Ignition – generates heat

The above are commonly represented by the fire triangle.

Even if all three factors are present the fuel / air mixture must be in the correct
proportions and there must be sufficient heat energy to create ignition.

Consider an empty cargo tank full of air into which is introduced hydrocarbon
vapour. Initially if an ignition source was introduced nothing would happen because

10
there is not enough fuel in relation to the volume of air in the tank. If more vapour
is introduced eventually ignition could be achieved but the fire created would not
be very efficient. The point at which ignition first occurs is the Lower Flammable
Limit (L.F.L.) and occurs at about 1 percent by volume of hydrocarbon gas in air.

At about 4 to 5 percent by volume hydrocarbons the fire will be at its most

efficient and at about 10 to 11 percent by volume (for typical petroleums) the fire
will be extinguished because there will be too much hydrocarbon gas by volume in
the air. This point is known as the Upper Flammable Limit (U.F.L.).

Flammable Range Diagram

The region between the Lower and Upper Flammable Limits is known as the
Flammable Range. In air the flammable range is between about 1 and 10 percent
by volume hydrocarbon gas. If the oxygen content is reduced then the flammable
range decreases until at about 11 percent oxygen by volume there will be
insufficient oxygen to sustain combustion. Any space with less than this oxygen
content is described as having an inert atmosphere.

If the atmosphere in the space is above the U.F.L the atmosphere is described as
being too rich and if it is below the L.F.L. then it is termed too lean.

The diagram shown is for most petroleums. Other substances, such as certain
chemicals, may have different flammable ranges. For example methanol has a
range of 6 to 36 percent.

It should be appreciated that the diagram is derived from laboratory tests where
even mixing of the gas / air mixture is achieved. In practice the atmosphere within
a cargo tank may have regions within the flammable zone and some outside of it.

It is the aim of safe tanker operations to maintain the atmosphere outside of the
flammable range at all times where possible.

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Classification of Oil
The main source of reference for tanker safety is the International Safety Guide for
Oil Tankers and Terminals, (ISGOTT). This and other authoritative sources classify
petroleums’ into two groups:
• Volatile
• Non – Volatile

Petroleums are classified into one of the two groups in relation to their flashpoint.
Those with a flashpoint below 60oC are volatile, those with a flashpoint of 60oC or
above are non-volatile.

The choice of 60oC is fairly arbitrary and has probably been chosen as it is above
ambient temperatures found anywhere in the world.

Certain operational procedures are relaxed concerning the carriage and handling of
non-volatile cargoes. It is therefore essential that these products do not become
contaminated with volatile substances.

It is important to remember that quoted flashpoints are for the liquid. If the liquid
is sprayed (for example spraying out from a small hole in a pipe) then amount of
vapour produced may be increased.

Fire Point
This is the temperature at which a substance will give off enough vapour to ignite
and stay alight when exposed to an external source of ignition. The fire point is
typically about 10oC above the flashpoint of the liquid.

Auto Ignition Temperature

Molecules breaking away from the surface of a liquid as a vapour have a certain
amount of energy which is proportional to the heat applied to the liquid. The
greater the heat applied the greater the rate of evaporation and hence the greater
the energy contained within vapour molecules. If a flammable liquid is heated
sufficiently high the energy contained will be high enough to ignite the vapour
without an external source of ignition being applied. This is the auto ignition
temperature (A.I.T)

There is no direct connection between flashpoint and auto ignition temperature as

the following table shows:

Substance Typical Flashpoint Typical A.I.T

Gasoline - 46 oC +280 to 490 oC
Crude Oil - 15 oC +260 oC
Diesel + 71 oC +220 oC
Cooking Oil + 230 oC +270 oC

Note the closeness of the flashpoint and A.I.T for cooking oil. This is why fat fires
in the galley, (or in kitchens ashore), are quite common.

12
Toxicity
The other hazard associated with petroleum is the toxicity of the substance. The
word ‘toxic’ means poison, it is therefore essential that cargo vapours do not enter
the body. There are three main routes of entry into the body:

• By ingestion – swallowing
• By inhalation – breathing the vapour
• Intra Dermal – through the skin

Of the three, inhalation is the main problem. A crew-member is unlikely to swallow

the cargo. Coming into skin contact with oil is not generally a problem in the short
term. There is a possibility of suffering minor skin disorders such as dermatitis if
the skin is not cleaned thoroughly of oil traces. There is some concern about the
long term effects of prolonged working with fuel oil causing skin cancers.

Some poisons will act in the short term, these are acute poisons (i.e. cyanide,
hydrogen sulphide). Others act over a long time frame (lead, mercury, benzene)
and are termed chronic poisons.

Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and exposure can have acute and
chronic effects. The table below shows the effects on the average person to
exposure to petroleum:

Concentration % L.F.L Effects

0.1% vol.(1000 ppm) 10% Irritation of eyes within 1 hour
0.2% vol.(2000 ppm) 20% Irritation of eyes, nose and throat,
dizziness and unsteadiness within ½ hour
0.7% vol.(7000 ppm) 70% Drunken symptoms within 15 minutes
1.0%vol.(10000 ppm) 100% Rapid onset of drunken symptoms, may
lead to unconsciousness and death if
exposure continues
2.0%vol.(20000 ppm) 200% Paralysis and death occur very rapidly

It can be seen that a relatively small concentration of petroleum vapour can have
serious consequences if inhaled

Exposure Limits
There are sets of standards established for concentrations of airborne substances
based on what it is thought humans can tolerate safely with no ill effects; these
are known as Threshold Limit Values, (TLV)

There are 3 different types of TLV:

• Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) The concentration a person may be
exposed to averaged over an 8 hour day every day for the entire working
life. Usually expressed in parts pre million (ppm).

• Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL). The concentration a person may be

exposed to averaged over a 15 minute period, usually in ppm.

• Ceiling (TLV-C) The concentration which should not be exceeded during any
part of the working exposure.

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In the U.K. the standards and limits are set by the Health and Safety Executive and
are published annually. The limits are usually stated in terms of parts per million
(ppm) and it should be remembered that they are guidelines only, are subject to
change, and so cannot be taken as a definitive line between safe and unsafe levels.

The TLV-TWA of petroleum is currently 300 ppm. (Source – ISGOTT)

Toxicity of Specific Components of Petroleum

Crude oil and petroleum mixtures are a combination of different components that,
in totality, give that substance its characteristics. For example crude oil is a
mixture of long and short chain hydrocarbons, sulphur compounds, hydrogen
sulphide etc.

Certain refined products, for example motor gasoline, will not generally contain
sulphur compounds but will contain benzene and additives such as methyl
tert.Butyl ether (m.t.b.e) which is used to enhance performance.

Heavy fuel oils will contain sulphur (3.5% by weight maximum, although new rules
will reduce this to 0.5% for ships bunker fuel by 2020 – See MARPOL Annex VI).

Cargo tanks that have contained inert gas and been subsequently gas freed may
contain traces of the products of combustion since inert gas is derived from
exhaust gases obtained from the combustion of a mixture of fuel in air. There may
be carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide / trioxide and nitrogen oxides.

14
Summary of Chapter 1
This chapter summary may be useful for revision once the main body of the text
has been studied. It covers the main points.

The Hydrocarbon Chain

• Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrogen and carbon molecules
• The simplest hydrocarbon is methane
• Hydrocarbon molecules join together to form chains
• Those chains of less than five carbon molecules exist as gases
• Those chains between five and twenty carbon molecules normally exist as
liquids
• Over twenty carbon molecules the substance will normally be a solid
• Hydrocarbon molecules can form into chains of different shapes. This will
give substances with the same carbon count different characteristics.

The Hazards of Petroleum

Volatility
• It is the vapour given off from a substance that burns, not the substance
itself
• Vapour is given off by the evaporation process
• Condensation is the reverse process to evaporation
• When evaporation equals condensation then saturation conditions exist
• The pressure exerted when saturation occurs is the saturated vapour
pressure (SVP) and this is related to temperature
• If the SVP equals atmospheric pressure (approximately 1 bar) then the liquid
will boil
• Evaporation takes place from the liquid surface, boiling occurs from within
the liquid
• Volatile substances evaporate rapidly, non-volatile substances slowly
• Evaporation is affected by:
1. Temperature
2. Surface Area
3. Liquid to vapour ratio
4. Turbulence

• True vapour pressure (TVP) is the highest pressure possible but is difficult to
calculate
• Reid Vapour pressure (RVP) is a useful test for comparing the volatility of
different products but does not give an indication of the likely vapour
generation within a cargo tank
• Hydrocarbon vapour is generally denser than air

Flammability
• Flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which a substance gives off enough
vapour to briefly ignite when an external source of ignition is applied
• Flashpoint is a measure of a substances flammability
• Flashpoint dictates when a liquid is becoming flammable
• Tanker cargoes are classified as volatile or non-volatile according to their
flashpoint
• If the flashpoint is below 60oC then the substance is volatile
• If the flashpoint is 60oC or above it is non-volatile

15
 • The auto ignition temperature (A.I.T.) is the temperature at which a
substance will ignite without the application of an external ignition source
• There is no direct correlation between flashpoint and auto ignition
temperature

Combustion
• Three things are required for a fire to occur; fuel, oxygen and heat, (source
of ignition)
• The combination of these must be in the correct proportion to create a fire:

• Oxygen: 11 to 21% by volume

• Fuel (petroleum gas): 1 – 10% by volume
• Sufficient heat energy to ignite a flammable mixture

• The Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) is the lowest concentration of

hydrocarbon gas in air to support combustion
• The Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) is the highest concentration of
hydrocarbon gas in air to support combustion
• The range between the LFL and UFL is known as the Flammable Range
• The region within which combustion can take place is known as the
Flammable Zone
• The region above the UFL is termed Too Rich
• The region below the LFL is termed Too Lean
• The region below 11% oxygen by volume is termed Inert
• Substances other than petroleum may have different flammable ranges

Toxicity
• Toxic means poisonous
• There are three main routes of entry for toxic substances into the body:
1. ingestion
2. inhalation
3. through the skin

• Inhalation of cargo vapour is the main problem

• Poisons either act in the short term (acute) or long term (chronic)
• Petroleum may contain hydrogen sulphide (acute) or benzene (chronic)
• Threshold Limit Values are given for substances to ensure a safe working
environment

16
Chapter 2 - Sources of Ignition
Introduction
All oil tankers are designed around the premise of preventing the three sides of the
fire triangle combining at the same time and in the correct proportions such that
combustion will take place.

Many lessons have been learnt over the years from the design and operational
disasters that have occurred and today’s tankers, whether oil, chemical or gas are
very safe if operated correctly.

As a tanker is built to carry flammable cargoes and oxygen may be present it is

necessary to control sources of ignition. This can be achieved by using approved
electrical equipment and avoiding heat sources or sparking through good
operational practice. There are also naturally occurring ignition sources such as
lightning and static electricity and steps must be taken to prevent these coming
into contact with a flammable atmosphere.

General Sources of Ignition

Smoking
It may be surprising to learn that a lit cigarette probably does not contain
sufficient heat energy to ignite a flammable atmosphere (no guarantees given!).
The problem occurs with the means of lighting it. A match or mechanical lighter
definitely does possess sufficient energy to ignite a flammable mixture.

If the above is the case there must surely be an argument for banning any form of
smoking on a tanker. This is impracticable due to the addictive nature of smoking.
A committed smoker will engage in surreptitious smoking, which will be
uncontrolled. It is far better to allow smoking in dedicated areas so that it can be
controlled. The number of areas may be restricted depending on the operational
stage of the voyage. More hazardous operations such as loading, discharging or tank
cleaning may require smoking to be further restricted or even banned for a period
of time.

Galley
Modern tankers have electrical cooking appliances that if correctly installed,
operated and maintained will present little hazard. The location and ventilation
arrangements of the galley have to be considered at the design stage to avoid
exposure to flammable atmospheres.

Portable Electrical Equipment

Tools
Portable electrical drills, grinders etc. and their power cables cannot be used
within the cargo tanks and adjacent spaces or on the tank deck (the deck that
forms the upper containment boundary of the cargo tanks, i.e. the main deck)
unless the following precautions are taken:

A hot work certificate(permit to work) is in force

Adjacent areas are also certified for hot work or gas freed and inerted or
completely filled with ballast water
17
All other spaces are secured closed
The portable electrical equipment and the power lead are intrinsically safe
The equipment is contained in an explosion proof housing

Intrinsically safe means the equipment is generally low power and has been tested
to prove it will not create sufficient heat energy in normal and faulty conditions to
ignite a flammable atmosphere.

Flashlights and Portable Battery Powered Equipment

This will include portable walkie-talkie radios. A competent authority must approve
any such equipment for use in a flammable atmosphere. They will be intrinsically
safe. It should be noted that changing batteries or components of such equipment
must be carried out in a safe location away from hazardous areas such as the main
deck. The certification for intrinsic safety requires the equipment to be intact;
removing covers to replace items does not meet these criteria.

Other Electrical Equipment

Radios, cameras containing batteries, tape recorders, MP3 players, mobile
telephones and pagers are considered a risk and must not be used outside the
accommodation unless of an approved type.

Battery operated watches, heart pacemakers and hearing aids are considered to be
sufficiently low powered so as not to pose a risk.

Radio Transmitting Antennae / Radar

It is possible for the energy from radio transmitting devices to induce an electrical
potential in unearthed metallic ‘receivers’ such as rigging, derricks, mast stays etc.
This can occur at distances up to 500 metres for medium and high frequency
transmissions. For this reason such equipment should be earthed and not used in
ports during cargo operations.

If it is necessary to run such equipment, for example to carry out servicing then the
terminal must be consulted and agreement reached. A work permit may need to be
issued.

VHF and satellite transmissions are of sufficiently low energy and are not generally
a problem. However VHF transmissions should only be made in port on the low
power setting (typically 1 Watt).

Radar transmissions can also induce potentials but due to the location of the
scanners, high up on the main mast, the problem is reduced. However 10 cm radar
can induce potentials at up to 50 metres on non-earthed conductors (3 cm radars
are generally considered safe over 10 metres). This could be a problem when
carrying out ship to ship lighterings where the transmissions may point directly at
the tank deck of the other ship and at terminals depending on the location of
metallic items. It should also be remembered that the motors driving the scanner
will be of a non-approved type (see Electrical Equipment Approvals section of this
chapter).

Cathodic Protection Anodes in Cargo Tanks

The use of coatings in cargo tanks has reduced the use of protective anodes in
cargo tanks but they may still be found, especially on older vessels. The most
effective material to use is magnesium followed by aluminum and zinc. The first

18
two are unlikely to be found in cargo tanks as they can create an ignition hazard.
This occurs due to a thermite reaction when the anode strikes a hard surface, for
example if an anode falls from high up in a tank onto the tank bottom. The impact
can set off the thermite reaction, which is a chemical process. Intense heat can
occur which could ignite any flammable atmosphere present. A number of
explosions have occurred in the past due to this and have resulted in the banning of
magnesium from cargo tanks and the restriction in the height at which aluminum
anodes can be placed (Class Society Rules).

Zinc anodes do not suffer from this problem but their securing arrangements should
be checked frequently because if they fell to the tank bottom an impact spark
could occur.

Spontaneous Combustion
Oil soaked materials are liable to self-combust due to oxidisation causing gradual
heating. The problem is greater for vegetable oils but can still happen with
petroleum based oils especially if the oil based material is stored next to a heat
source. Good housekeeping procedures in dealing with oil soaked rags etc. should
be employed

Electrical Equipment Approvals

Introduction
Class Society rules require any electrical equipment located within a hazardous
area to be of an approved type so as to ensure a flammable atmosphere is not
ignited by electrical equipment. The main source of reference for approved
electrical equipment is the International Electrotechnical Commission Standard
60092-502. The guidance given is applied to ships and terminals.

The IEC standard divides areas at terminals into three zones depending on the
likelihood of a flammable vapour being present:

Zone 0 – Flammable mixtures are continuously present, or present for long periods
Zone 1 – Flammable mixtures are likely to occur in normal operation
Zone 2 – Flammable mixtures are unlikely to occur in normal operation

Tankers do not use this system. There are either ‘safe’ or ‘hazardous’ areas, but
for the purpose of electrical system approvals only the three-zone system is used.
For example a tanker’s pumproom presently falls between Zone 0 and Zone 1.

The major class societies consider the following areas to require approved
electrical equipment (the rules may vary slightly between various class societies):
Areas on the open deck for the full width plus three metres fore and aft of the
cargo tanks and pumproom up to a height of 2.4 metres are considered hazardous
Areas within 3 metres of any opening or potential opening (hatch lids, vent pipes,
tank cleaning openings etc.) are also considered hazardous.

Within these areas any electrical equipment must be of an approved type. Outside
of these areas equipment may be of a lesser, but still safe, type.

Cable runs are not allowed through most hazardous areas unless they are
continuously monitored for leakage to earth.

19
Static Electricity

Introduction
In the 1950’s, 60’s and 70’s a number of explosions occurred in tankers due to
static electricity. One of the worst periods was over a two week period in
December 1969 when three VLCC’s exploded following which inert gas was
introduced as an operating concept on tankers.

Static electricity is a naturally occurring phenomenon that can be controlled but is

difficult to eliminate entirely. This section will explain how it occurs and the
precautions to be taken to avoid static electricity igniting a flammable
atmosphere.

Creating a Static Charge

The word static is short for electrostatic and is used to differentiate between this
type of electricity and that produced by a current flow as found in an electric light
circuit.

Perversely the problem with static electricity is dependent upon a movement of

electrons.

All materials contain an equal number of positive and negative charges. Normally
these charges are evenly distributed throughout the material. An electrostatic
charge occurs whenever this even distribution of positive and negative charges is
unbalanced.

If two dissimilar materials, for example oil in a steel pipeline, are bought into
contact with each other there will be a transfer of electrons between the two. As
long as there is no movement between the materials a state of equilibrium will
exist despite the electron flow between the two.

The electrical charging process happens at the interface between the two
materials. A layer of charges attaches to the interface and another oppositely
charged layer just inside the interface. This is known as the ‘electric double layer’.

Pipe line wall

__________ _

+++++++++ + + Electric Double Layer

+++++++++++
___________

Fig.1

When the materials are separated, for example if oil flows through a pipeline the
charges (positive and negative) at the interface are also separated but they want
to re-combine to their original pairing and in doing so a voltage is created.

20
If there is a convenient pathway an electrical current may result. The voltage
produced may be sufficiently large to create an incendive spark.

_ ____ _
(+ + + + +)
Movement Charges want to re-combine
_ ____ _ (+ + + + +)

Fig.2

It may be that the positive charge is nearest the boundary depending on the
materials involved.

There are three criteria that must be fulfilled in order for a static spark to take
place:
• Separation
• Accumulation
• Discharge

Separation
When the two materials are stationary and in contact with each other a potential
difference exists but it is very small. When the charges are physically separated
the voltage increases, the greater the separation the greater the voltage. The
space around the charges also becomes charged. This is known as an electrostatic
field. Some research has suggested that the electric field strength must exceed a
value of about 30000 Volts (30 kV) for a spark to occur. Up to this value the
surrounding air acts as an insulator.

The analogy of oil passing through a pipeline has been used to describe the static
process but there are a number of other circumstances on a tanker that create a
static electricity hazard:

Settling of solid particles within a liquid

Breaking up of a liquid column in free fall
Bubbling of gas through a liquid
Tank cleaning jets disturbing oil residues
Steam in a pipe
Discharging CO2 through a pipe
Inert Gas
Running a man-made fibre rope through rubber gloves

The above list is not exhaustive.

Repeated joining and separation, such as when two materials are rubbing together,
increases voltages.

21
Accumulation
The electrical charges separate quite easily and want to recombine. If the charges
recombine very quickly there is no time for the voltages produced to accumulate.
The problem starts when the voltages build up in one of the materials and the
charge takes an appreciable time to decay.

The electrical conductivity of the material dictates the decay or relaxation time. A
conductive material will let the charge pass through it quickly and so accumulation
is low. Conversely a non-conductive material maintains the charge and so will take
a longer time to decay.

Remember that the voltage needs a path to discharge. If a refinery produced a

product that was completely free of impurities then no significant static charge
would be generated. This is because pure hydrocarbon molecules are so tightly
bound and balanced within themselves that charge separation is difficult. It is the
trace impurities found in commercial products which allows a charge to develop.

A substance that has a lot of impurities such as crude oil or fuel oil offers a very
effective pathway for any charge to dissipate. Those products that have only a few
impurities, for example jet fuel, have a poor pathway and so any charge is allowed
to build up will take considerable time to decay.

Discharge
The next point to consider is whether a spark from an electrostatic discharge is
powerful enough to ignite a flammable atmosphere. There are two types of
discharge:
• Single Electrode (or Corona) discharge
• Double Electrode

The single electrode discharge is rarely incendive in normal tanker operations. In

theory if the liquid has an electrical charge and the tank has a zero or opposite
charge then a spark could occur, but in practice the surface area of the liquid is
large which does not allow the charge to be focused and the heaviest charge
density will be in the centre of the liquid, away from the tank bulkheads.

The double electrode is more dangerous and is so called as it involves the discharge
of electrical energy between two conductors, which are close together. For
example a metal sounding rod approaching an electrically charged cargo surface.

An example of a single electrode discharge would be a plasma ball while a double

electrode discharge would be the spark created by lightening

A review of tanker accidents attributed to electrostatic discharge show that in the

majority of cases a foreign object (sounding rod, tank cleaning machine etc.) was
present in the tanks where the explosion occurred thus creating a double electrode
discharge.

22
Precautions Against Static Electricity

Liquid Flow
The faster the flow of a liquid through a pipe then the greater the separation.
However the separation process will not continue indefinitely as after a certain
length of pipe (30 to 50 metres) the increasing charge density is enough to drive
them back to the pipe wall as fast as they are being separated. Once this point has
been reached in a pipeline of constant cross section no further charging can take
place.

For cargoes that are static accumulators such as clean products it is important to
restrict the flow during the early stages of loading to less than 1 metre per second
(400 metres cubed per hour for a 400 mm diameter pipe). This is done for two
reasons:

When a tank is first filled there is more likelihood of water being mixed with oil.
Oily water mixtures can generate a large static charge
Initial slow loading reduces turbulence in the tank thereby reducing separation and
also vapour generation. Any water will also settle out more quickly.

Additionally anti-static additive (ASA) may be put into the cargo. This was
developed initially for the airline industry and is often used in the product trade by
refineries. Anti-static additive provides metal ions for the cargo to give it good
electrical conductivity and reduces the relaxation time. ISGOTT does not allow any
relaxation of operational procedures if ASA is used.

Dipping, Ullaging and Sampling Tanks

Restrictions on dipping, ullaging and sampling are necessary as these are foreign
objects being introduced into a tank and so could act as one part of a double
electrode discharge.

The following explains a number of scenarios where there is a hazard:

23
3. Free Floating Objects
Experiments carried out in shore tanks show that there is a real risk from metallic
objects freely floating on an oil surface. For example, a metal sampling can will
quickly pick up any electrical charge of the oil. If the object then floats across to
the side of the tank and a potential difference exists between the two a spark can
occur.

It is imperative that any pipelines or hoses used on tankers have electrical

continuity. This is called bonding and means connecting two objects by a cable or
strap to maintain electrical continuity. Tank cleaning hoses must be checked for
electrical continuity before use.

Bonding and Earthing

Grounding or earthing means electrically connecting equipment to the main body
of the ship structure to provide a path to ‘earth’ for electricity. In a ships case the
'earth' is the sea. A steel ship floating in water is as well earthed as any metal
structure on land. Even a perfect paint surface on the hull will allow electricity to
pass and it has been found that a ships electrical resistance to ‘earth’ is a fraction
of an ohm.

Bonding is connecting items of metallic equipment (i.e. tank cleaning hoses, cargo
pipelines etc.) to each other to maintain electrical continuity

Electrostatically Charged Mist

An electrostatically charged mist is created through the disturbance of a charged
substance into a mist. For example a tank cleaning machines water may disturb oil
puddles on the tank bottom thereby creating a fine mist in the tank atmosphere
which is electrically charged. If an insulated probe is then introduced into the tank
a charge will be induced on it. If the now charged probe comes close to the ship’s
structure a spark could occur between the probe and the ship’s structure (which is
providing a path to earth). For this reason any metal objects introduced into the
tank should be earthed to prevent charge build up.
24
Conclusion
Chapter 3 and section 11.8 of ISGOTT, (5th edition), details the precautions to be
taken in handling static accumulator cargoes and specifically when introducing
items into tanks. Certain operations such as loading of cargo or tank cleaning may
require the use of unearthed metallic equipment to be restricted during and after
the operation if the ship is not inerted. The time lapse varies from 30 minutes to
five hours and is deemed to be sufficient to allow charge decay to drop to a safe
charge level

If ships’ cargo tanks are inerted then ignition of a flammable atmosphere cannot
occur. Static electricity is still taking place but the oxygen side of the fire triangle
has been removed.

An inerted atmosphere is best – when a tank is maintained in an inerted

atmosphere no anti-static precautions are necessary.

25
Design for Safety

Introduction
It is generally agreed that the first purpose built oil tanker was the ‘Gluckhauf’,
She was built in the UK in 1886, had her engine room aft and the navigating bridge
and deck officers accommodation amidships. This design remained popular for the
next 80 to 90 years. Tankers built from the mid - 70’s onwards are built with the
engine and accommodation aft. This is not a matter of fashion, it is a requirement
under SOLAS and has come about as the result of a number of serious explosions on
ships with amidships accommodation.

Ask a town planner if he or she would allow an oil, chemical or gas storage depot
to be built next to a power station that had a hotel on top of it. The planning
application would more than likely be rejected; but this is essentially what the
situation is with a tanker – the cargo tanks are the storage area, the engine room is
the power station and the accommodation the hotel (hopefully 5 star!). This
configuration obviously poses safety related problems that have to be addressed.

The Safety Barrier Concept

In Chapter One it was seen that the main problem with petroleum cargoes is the
vapour being released, short of refrigerating cargoes to well below their flashpoint
temperature the cargo vapours must be controlled in such a way that they do not
enter the accommodation or engine room. This is achieved by the safety barrier
concept and essentially looks at all areas of the ship in relation to the fire triangle
by preventing cargo vapour coming into contact with any sources of ignition that
may be present on a ship.

26
A tankers safety barrier is an imaginary screen running down the front of the
accommodation block to the keel. The region forward of this is termed the
hazardous zone because this is where hydrocarbon vapour may exist. Aft of the
safety barrier is the gas safe zone and comprises the accommodation and engine
room. It is imperative that hydrocarbon vapour is kept out. Looking at the three
areas marked in the diagram above the danger present can be assessed in terms of
the fire triangle:

Area A – The accommodation and engine room. Oxygen and sources of ignition will
be present. Therefore keep flammable vapour out.
Area B – The cargo tanks. Hydrocarbon vapour may be present depending upon the
stage of the voyage cycle; oxygen may also be present. Keep sources of ignition
out.
Area C – The above deck area. Oxygen and possibly hydrocarbon vapour exist.
Sources of ignition must be controlled.

Note. The lettered areas A, B & C are for identification purposes only; they are not
described as such in SOLAS, ISGOTT etc.

Looking at the three areas in more detail area A is within the Gas Safe zone. As
mentioned earlier it now a requirement under SOLAS 74/78 that tankers are
constructed with their accommodation aft. So what was the problem with
amidships accommodation?

Basically the centre castle straddled the cargo tanks. Hydrocarbon gas escaping
from tank lids, valve spindles, tank cleaning openings etc. was more readily able to
enter the amidships accommodation where air is present. Mix that with plenty of
sources of ignition within the centre castle and there was a serious likelihood of
explosions occurring. There were on a number of occasions.

Case History
In December 1976 the crude oil tanker ‘Sansinena’ was ballasting her cargo tanks
after discharging Arabian crude oil in Long Beach, California. She was not fitted
with inert gas, at that time there was no requirement for this. As the ballast was
going into the cargo tanks the hydrocarbon vapour remaining in the tanks from the
27
cargo was being displaced to the deck area through the open tank lids and tank
vent pipes (which had been lashed in the open position). There was very little
wind and so the denser hydrocarbon vapour tended to linger around the deck. A
wind shift occurred during the day and instead of coming from ahead backed to
blow gently from aft. The wind speed (about 5 knots) was not enough to disperse
the gas but had enough power to move the hydrocarbon gas towards the amidships
accommodation where air-conditioning vents were located. The source of ignition
was not known for certain but was suspected to be a cooling water pump motor
controller cutting in and out and creating a spark. The route of entry of the
vapour was thought to be the vents to the a/c fan room. The vapour ignited and
flashed back to number 10 centre cargo tank and then to the other tanks being
vented. Six crew members were killed and 36 members of the public were injured.

The United States Coast Guard report into the incident stated that there would
probably not have been an explosion if there was no centre castle. The report also
criticised operational procedures regarding venting operations.

With Area ‘A’ the hydrocarbon gas has to be kept out and sources of ignition
controlled. Onboard regulations control such things as hot work, smoking, use of
portable electric equipment etc.

Outer accommodation doors should be kept shut except for access. The best way of
keeping vapour out of the accommodation is to maintain a positive pressure inside
with the air-conditioning system. This will ensure that there will be flow of air
from inside to outside and not vice versa. Intakes for the engine room and a/c are
usually high up and face out to the sides to reduce the chance of gas entering the
accommodation.

Under SOLAS no openings are allowed on the forward accommodation bulkhead and
for a distance of 3 metres along the sides. Wheelhouse doors are excluded from
this requirement, as they are considered sufficiently high up to not normally pose a
problem.

In Area ‘B’, comprising the cargo tanks and pumproom sources of ignition must be
avoided and the release of vapours must be in a controlled manner. With regard to
sources of ignition, these can be controlled but not totally excluded; for example
lightning strikes or a dropped metallic item creating a spark. Inert gas may be used
within the cargo tanks to give a further level of safety and closed gauging systems
will help to keep vapours away from the accommodation.

The pumproom, (if fitted), is the interface between the hazardous and gas safe
zone. Because of the location, design, operation and the need for personnel to
enter the pumproom special precautions are necessary. There is a concentration of
piping in the pumproom that may leak oil. Sources of ignition may be present
(over-heated bearings). Therefore thorough ventilation is required by SOLAS in
order to remove any flammable vapour. The ventilation fans must be of the
extraction type (as hydrocarbon vapour is denser than air and so will tend to stay in
the bottom of the pumproom). Twenty atmosphere changes per hour are required.

If a leakage occurs between the pumproom and the engine room then the safety
barrier has been breached. To prevent this any connection between the pumproom
and the engine is required to have special glands or sealing arrangements.

28
Area ‘C’, the above deck area, may be exposed to hydrocarbon vapour during
various stages of the voyage cycle, and of course air will be present. Sources of
ignition must be controlled. Approved electrical equipment requirements have
already been discussed and safe working practices regarding the use of tools need
to be used.

If the hydrocarbon gas is vented away from the deck area then the hazard is
minimised, therefore venting arrangements are designed to emit gas from the
cargo tanks at a certain height through either specifying a minimum vent pipe
height or using high velocity vent valves. This subject will be dealt with in another
chapter.

Hydrocarbon gas should also be kept away from the deck from the toxic point of
view and not just the flammability aspect.

In fig.6 the location of the safety barrier has been shown and it will be noted that a
question mark is shown over the fo’c’sle head. If within this space there are
potential sources of ignition then this space must be treated in the same way as
Area ‘A’, i.e. keep cargo vapour out. Generally speaking sources of ignition will
exist, as there will be lights, motors, cables etc. The class society surveyor will
assess this space at the building stage and may require approved electrical
equipment to be fitted.

29
Summary of Chapter 2

General Sources of Ignition

• Smoking must be controlled within the accommodation
• Smoking is not allowed on the open deck
• Further restrictions may be imposed if an increased hazard exists (loading,
discharging, ballasting, tank cleaning etc.)
• Galley equipment must be approved and the galley location assessed in
relation to the possibility of hydrocarbon gas entering.

Portable Electrical Equipment

• Portable electrical equipment must be of an approved type if used on the
open deck
• Flashlights and other portable battery operated equipment must be of an
approved type
• Radios, cameras containing batteries, mobile phones etc. must not be used
outside the accommodation

Main Radio Installation and Radars

• May induce electrical potentials in unearthed metallic ‘receivers’ (rigging,
derricks etc.) up to 500 metres for MF & HF transmissions
• Radars can have the same effect up to 50 metres from a 10 cm wavelength
scanner and 10 metres for a 3 cm scanner.
• GMDSS equipment is not normally considered a problem due to transmission
frequency used
• Main radio transmitters should be earthed in port and not used
• Radars’ should not be used in port
• VHF radio transmissions are not considered hazardous on the low power
setting

Electrical Equipment Approvals

• Electrical equipment that is to be used in a hazardous area must be of an
approved type
• The hazardous area is the full width of the cargo tank deck and its’ full
length plus a distance of 3 metres forward and aft of this area, also for a
height of 2.4 metres above the tank deck and within 3 metres of any
opening or potential opening in or on the tank deck
• Guidance on electrical equipment approvals is given in the International
Electrotechnical Commission Standard 60092-502.
• For the purposes of approval the ship is assessed in three zones (0,1 & 2)
depending on the likelihood of flammable gas being present
• All approved electrical equipment must be tested by an approved authority
and issued with a certificate. The equipment will be marked accordingly

Static Electricity
• Large voltages can be produced by static electricity
• Two dissimilar materials coming into contact with each other create static
charges. An electric double layer is created
• Large static charges are created when the materials are then separated
• Separation occurs with movement of the materials
• Accumulation of the charge depends on the level of impurities. The more
the number of impurities the easier the charge decays or relaxes
30
 • Clean oil products have fewer impurities than dark oils and so are static
accumulates.
• The charge decays with time
• The accumulated charge must be discharged to create a spark
• A double electrode discharge is more dangerous than a single electrode
discharge as the discharge is more focused

Precautions against Static Electricity

• Reduce initial flow rates for static accumulator cargoes – less than 1 m/sec
• Metal sounding tapes should be grounded to the ships structure before
inserting into tanks
• Metal flanges on lengths of hose or pipelines should be bonded electrically
by means of a wire or a bonding strap
• Precautions against inserting metallic equipment into cargo tanks should be
taken for a period of time which varies from 30 minutes to five hours (see
ISGOTT)
• Electro-statically charged mists can be created by agitating oil in cargo
tanks
• Operating in inerted conditions avoids a static charge igniting a flammable
atmosphere

Design for Safety

• All tankers are now constructed with the accommodation and engine room
aft of the cargo tanks and pump room
• The ship is divided into two areas: the hazardous and gas safe areas. The
boundary between the two is the front of the accommodation
• It is essential that hydrocarbon gas is prevented from entering the gas safe
area due to the presence of oxygen and sources of ignition
• Sources of ignition must be avoided in the cargo tanks and pumproom due
to the possible presence of hydrocarbon vapour and air
• The above deck area must be kept free of hydrocarbon gas due to the
possibility of ignition sources and the toxic gas effect on personnel
• The pump room is a particularly sensitive area as it is the interface between
the hazardous and gas safe area

31
Chapter 3 - Cargo Handling Systems
Introduction
In this chapter the design of oil tankers is looked at in more detail. A tankers cargo
is carried in separate tanks, sub-dividing the ship longitudinally and transversely;
this gives segregation to the cargo and strength to the ship structure. Ballasting
arrangements have changed in recent years, from older ships where ballast was put
into empty cargo tanks to modern double hull arrangements where ballast tanks
are segregated from cargo tanks. Depending on the trade the ship has been
designed for there will be a pipe line system of varying complexity. Similarly the
pumping arrangements will vary and the different pump types will be reviewed in
this chapter.

Other functions of the cargo handling system include control of the tank pressure
to prevent over and under pressurisation of the tanks. Annex VI to MARPOL deals
with air pollution and tankers are now equipped with vapour recovery manifolds to
reduce the emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds, (VOCs), in certain ports.

General Layout of an Oil Tanker

Tankers used to have single hulls but as a result of various tanker pollution
incidents the rules have changed and with the exception of some small tankers
under 5,000 dwt all tankers now have a double hull. Cargo tanks are sub-divided
longitudinally and transversely into centre tanks and wing tanks. The capacity of a
pair of wing tanks is approximately equal to that of the corresponding centre
tanks.

The slop tanks are used to collect oil residues from the tank cleaning operation.
They may also be used for carrying cargo.

32
Double hull tankers also offer a degree of protection against collision and stranding
damage by protectively locating the cargo tanks.

The degree of longitudinal sub-division of the cargo tanks will vary; smaller tankers
will have none, larger vessels will have one or two sub-divisions. Most of the
longitudinal strength members are located in the segregated ballast tanks. This
gives flush cargo tanks, which are easier to drain and clean.

The number of cargo tanks will vary; crude oil tankers tend to have large tanks and
so correspondingly fewer of them. As crude is usually carried as a single grade the
pipeline system is fairly simple, two or three grades of crude may be carried and
some pipeline mixing will occur. This is acceptable. Product tankers will be smaller
ships but have relatively smaller tanks and more of them. This is necessary, as
product tankers must be able to carry a number of different grades, possibly five or
six, at the same time. The pipe line system is more complex as segregation
between grades must be maintained.

Chemical tankers are very sophisticated ships that carry a large number of
different chemicals that must be completely segregated from each other. Some
tanks will be separated by cofferdams and on more sophisticated ships each cargo
tank will be served by its own pump and pipeline. Chemical tankers will be looked
at in some detail in chapter 9.

Liquid gas carriers are specialist ships that maintain their cargoes in a liquid state
by either pressurisation or refrigeration or a combination of both. The cargo
containment will be discussed in chapter 10.

Pipeline Systems on Oil Tankers

The function of the pipeline system is to allow the cargo to be loaded from a
terminal into the designated tanks on the ship and to take the oil from the ship’s
tanks to the ship’s pumps to pump the oil back to a terminal when discharging.
There are valves within the pipeline system to control the flow of cargo to the
correct locations within the vessel.
33
Cargo is loaded and discharged through manifolds usually located amidships on
each side of the vessel. The terminal connect to the ship’s manifolds via metal
loading arms called ‘Chiksans’ or ‘Hard Arms’. Smaller vessels or terminals may
use flexible rubber hoses. Most tankers have 3 or 4 manifolds allowing several
Chiksans to be connected to increase the loading or discharging rate.
Chiksans offer a secure connection to the ships manifold. Modern systems use
hydraulic clamps rather than the conventional bolted flange. This allows fast de-
coupling in the event of an emergency. The Chiksans are designed specifically for
each berth and should allow for the range of movement vertically for the ships
whilst loading or discharging plus the range of tide experienced. They do not have
a large operating envelope in the fore and aft direction and so it is imperative that
the ship is maintained in position securely.
The cargo pipelines found on oil and chemical tankers can be broadly split into 2
types, bottom line systems and deck line only systems.

Bottom Line Systems

Vessels with bottom line systems will also have a pumproom located immediately in
front of the engine room. The bottom lines run from the pumps in the pumproom
forward with branch lines connecting to each of the cargo tanks. There will
typically be 3 or 4 bottom lines each connected to a set of cargo tanks. To provide
more flexibility there will be valves to connect the bottom lines together if
required.

Typical Bottom Line Arrangement

34
The bottom lines must connect to the manifolds on deck and there are 2 lines
which do this, the drop line and the pumproom riser. The simplified side elevation
diagram below shows this arrangement.

Side Elevation of Pipeline Arrangement

Loading
When the vessel is loading cargo is pumped from the shore into the ship’s manifold,
down the drop line into the bottom line and then into the required cargo tanks via
the branch lines. The valves control which tanks are filled. During loading the
ship’s pumproom is isolated and not used.

Discharging
To discharge the cargo the required tanks are opened and the cargo flows through
the branch line into the bottom line, through the ships pump, up the pumproom
riser, along the deck line to the manifold and then to the terminal via the Chiksan
arm. During discharge the drop line valve is kept closed.

Deck Line Only Systems

On this type of vessel there are no bottom lines and no pumproom. On deck there
will typically be 3 or 4 deck lines which connect to the cargo tanks via branch lines.
At first glance this looks similar to the bottom line system, (although it is on deck).
The bottom lines have lines to cross connect between them but each tank has a
loading line and a discharging line as can be seen in the diagram.

35
 Deck Line Only System – View of lines on deck

In this system there is no pumproom or bottom line system so each tank has to
have its own cargo pump and loading line which can be seen in the diagram below

Side Elevation of Pipelines in a Cargo Tank – Deck Line Only System

Loading
The terminal pump the cargo through the Chiksan arm into the ship’s manifold and
then into the deck line. The loading valves on the tanks to be loaded are opened
and the discharge valves are kept closed.

36
Discharging
The cargo pump in each tank to be discharged is started and the oil pump up
through the discharge line and through the discharge valve into the deck line,
through to the manifold and then into the terminal via the Chiksan arm. The
loading valve remains closed during the discharge operation.

In some chemical tankers, in order to keep all cargo grades separate from each
other, each tank has a loading and discharge line as previously described, but
instead of going through a branch line into a deck line which is also connected to
other tanks, each tank will have its own dedicated deck line and manifold. This
means that on these vessels, instead of having 3 or 4 manifold there may be in
excess of 30 manifolds as shown in the photo below.

Chemical Tanker Manifold

37
Cargo Pumping Systems

Introduction
A tanker must have the capability of discharging her cargo as well as handling
ballast. The type of pumps fitted will depend on the type of tanker. There is
usually more than one type of pump fitted in order to deal with the different
stages of a pumping operation i.e. bulk discharge where high pumping rates are
required, and removing the final residues (the ‘stripping’ process) where good
suction characteristics are required.

As tanker size has increased so has the requirement to increase pump size. A
modern day VLCC (very large crude carrier) is capable of pumping at 12000 m3 per
hour.

A tanker officer must be familiar with the different characteristics of the pumps
fitted and this section aims to describe the main features of commonly found pump
types. Knowledge of pump types can also be helpful on other ship types where
similar pumps may be used in a ballast system.

Centrifugal Pumps
These are used on all tankers for pumping at high discharge rates and this type of
pump is used for the majority of the discharge operation to get the cargo out as
quickly as possible.

They work by imparting energy to the liquid in the form of increased velocity.
Centrifugal force is imparted to the liquid by rotation of a single, or possibly
double, impeller rotating at about 1200 rpm. The velocity produced is converted to
a discharge pressure by slowing it down in a suitably shaped casing known as a
volute.

The impeller blades are curved and operate to fine tolerances within the pump
casing.

38
The drive mechanism for the pump is via a drive shaft from the ‘prime mover’
which may be an electric motor or on vessels with a pumproom, it can also be a
steam driven turbine located in the engine room. With a pumproom arrangement
the prime mover is always located in the engine room for safety.

Advantages:
• Capable of pumping large bulk quantities per hour possible
• Relatively compact size

Disadvantages:
• A major one – they are not good at handling gas/air/liquid mixtures which is
an issue when trying to remove low levels of liquid in the tank. This can be
overcome to a certain extent by fitting a self-priming device.
• Not good at creating suction pressures below atmospheric, (i.e. sucking the
liquid up into the pump). This is not a problem when discharging the bulk of
the cargo as the head of oil in the tank exerts pressure on the suction side.
When the oil level is low in the tank (say, 1 to 2 metres at the after end of
the tank) the pump has to create its own vacuum. Centrifugal pumps
struggle to do this.

Centrifugal pumps are used as the main cargo pumps for bulk discharge. Other
pumps or systems that can create a good suction at low tank levels must
supplement them in order to strip all the liquid from the tank.

Submerged Pumps
These are centrifugal pumps but instead of being installed in a pumproom they are
installed in the cargo and submerged in the cargo. Usually they are hydraulically
driven, (but can be driven by electric motors), and have their impeller located in
the bottom of the tank. Typically they are found on ships which have the deck line
only pipeline system.

39
The hydraulic supply pipes into the tanks are contained in a cofferdam to avoid
contamination with the cargo in the event of leakage.

As the pumps are submerged in the cargo good stripping performance is achieved.
An additional small bore stripping line is provided to clear the pump stack of the
last remnants of cargo. Air or nitrogen is blown into the top of the stack and the
cargo is forced out through the small-bore line forward of the (closed) discharge
valve.

Advantages:
• Eliminates the need for a pumproom, so increased space available for cargo
• If the ship has individual pumps and lines then total segregation is achieved
• Reduced piping in cargo tanks
• Good stripping performance
• Eductors are not required

Disadvantages:
• Initial high installation costs, (a pump required for each tank)
• Bulk discharge rate may not be as high as with conventional centrifugal
pumps

One obvious problem with submerged pumps is how to deal with a pump failure
with cargo still in the tank. This is addressed by supplying the ship with a portable
pump that can be lowered into the tank.

Eductors
Tankers with bottom line systems require a different pump type to strip out all the
liquid from the bottom of the tank at the end of the discharge. They are usually
supplied with one or two eductors for this purpose

An eductor is a pump that has no moving parts but relies on Bernoulli’s principle to
function. A suction is created by a constriction in part of the eductor. This
increases flow velocity and creates a low pressure (suction). While the centrifugal
pump has the greatest pumping capacity, the next most efficient pump is the
eductor.

40
Advantages:
• No moving parts, hence reliable.
• Simple construction.
• Self – priming, will suck liquid and gases.

Disadvantages:
• Requires a motive liquid to ‘drive’ it. During cargo discharge the two liquids
combine and so must be of the same grade.
• Efficiency depends on driving pressure and low back pressure. Usually used
for internal stripping and not directly ashore.

Positive Displacement Pumps

This type of pump which is also known as a reciprocating pump and is also used to
help with stripping out the last of the liquid cargo from the tanks and the
pipelines. They don’t require a motive liquid like the eductors so they can be used
to drain pipelines at the very end of the discharge. Their capacity is usually much
lower than an eductor so they are only used for small quantities at the end of the
discharge operation. The type of pump shown here would typically be found on
tankers with bottom line systems and pumprooms. A different type of positive
displacement pump called a screw pump is often found on ships with deck line only
systems and this is used to drain the lines at the end of the discharge.

41
This pump is often steam driven and consists of two pistons in separate chambers.
Steam forces the steam piston up. The linkage connecting the two pistons forces
the oil chamber piston to the left displacing the oil in the chamber out to the
discharge pipe. On the reverse stroke the oil piston moves to the left, creating a
vacuum. This fills the oil chamber with a volume of oil equal to the volume of the
chamber. Flap valves ensure the suction side is closed when the piston is on its
discharge stroke and vice versa.
The pump speed is slow, typically 30-35 double strokes per minute.

Advantages:
• Very good suction characteristics
• Doesn’t require a motive liquid to drive it

Disadvantages:
• Not suitable for high flow rates. Hundreds rather than thousands of cubic
metres per hour. The pumping capacity is directly related to the size of the
cylinders. Huge dimensions would be required to achieve high rates.
• Not good for pumping against high back pressures.

Positive displacement pumps are used as stripping pumps due to their good suction
characteristics at low volumes. Typically one or two will be fitted.

42
Summary
Centrifugal pumps are used for high pumping rates. They are not good at sucking
from low levels so in ships with bottom lines and pumprooms they normally require
eductors and stripping pumps.

Vessels that are fitted with submerged pumps in each tank, (deck line only
systems), don’t require eductors because the pump is located at the very bottom
of the tank, (often in a sump or drain well so don’t have to suck the liquid into the
pump), and only have a small positive displacement pump for stripping the lines at
the end of the discharge.

Chemical tankers and gas carriers tend to have submerged pumps in each tank to
achieve total segregation.

A deck officer should become familiar with the capabilities and restrictions of
different pump types.

43
The Pumproom

At first glance a tanker’s pumproom appears to be a complex arrangement of pipes

and pumps. A deck officer serving on a tanker must become entirely familiar with
the pumproom. There is no easy way to do this, it is simply a matter of tracing the
different lines and valves and seeing what they do. There will be a main cargo
pump for each of the bottom lines and connections from each of these to the
stripping system. This duplication of lines and connections makes the system look
complex at first glance but once broken down it is quite logical and straight
forward.

In addition to the main cargo pumps, stripping pumps and eductors there will be a
tank washing system which will include a tank-cleaning heater. This is a steam
driven heater used for raising the temperature of the water used for tank cleaning
if required. Water is drawn from the sea suction with a main cargo pump and
diverted to the tank cleaning line and hence to the tank cleaning machines either
through the heater or bypassing it.

44
The emergency ballast connection shown is a spool piece and must not be
connected in normal operations. It is only fitted if there is a failure of the
segregated ballast pump or contamination of ballast water occurs, in which case a
cargo pump must be used for ballasting operations.

Extractor fans capable of 20 atmosphere changes per hour are fitted to remove
cargo vapours in the event of leakage (SOLAS requirement).

45
Ballasting Arrangements on Tankers

Double hull tankers reduce the risk of pollution significantly. MARPOL Annex I
requires tankers over 5000 DWT to be constructed of a double hull and has phased
out single hull tankers. The double hull serves as the ships ballast tanks and is used
for segregated ballast. There is no direct connection between the cargo and ballast
systems and so pollution is avoided – except in the case of leakage from a cargo
tank into the double hull.

The quantity of ballast carried will vary between 30 and 40 percent of the vessels
summer deadweight, depending on the weather conditions anticipated. On double
hull tankers the ballast capacity is minimised (typically about 30 percent) in order
to maximise the cargo tank volume. If severe weather is anticipated then it may be
necessary to introduce ballast in a set of cargo tanks. If this is done the ballast so
introduced must be treated as dirty ballast and dealt with accordingly in order to
avoid pollution when it is discharged.

Ballast Water Management

Tankers, as well as other ship types, require ballast when on the unladen voyage.
Within the ballast water will be a multitude of micro-organisms, which will also
exist within any sediment present in the ballast tanks.

These micro-organisms may not be particularly harmful in their host environments

but when transported across oceans and discharged in an alien environment may
cause havoc with the local ecology. Not all of the micro-organisms will survive, or
be harmful, but some may, and if they reproduce can overwhelm and even destroy
the local marine environment.

46
Examples of Invasive Species

Species Location Notes

Zebra Mussel Great Lakes Introduced during the 1980’s
from a fresh water source in
Europe. Causes hull fouling &
clogging of industrial
pipelines. Estimated to
cause $US.20 m damage a
year
Northern Pacific Seastar Tasmania The seastat has nearly wiped
out a variety of shellfish & is
affecting the Tasmanian
fishing industry
Comb Jellyfish Black Sea Estimate $US250 million of
damage to the fisheries in
the area
Dinoflagillates (toxic) Australia Responsible for ‘Red Tides’
& outbreaks of paralytic
shellfish poisoning

(Table courtesy of Intertanko)

It has been estimated by IMO that shipping annually transports some 10 billion
tonnes of ballast water. IMO has been directed by the United Nations to address
this problem and come up with means to minimise the transfer of harmful aquatic
organisms and pathogens. Guidelines have been produced and are the forerunner
to an International Convention on Ballast Water Management. The guidelines
address the control and management of ballast and will enter into force when
ratified by 30 states representing 35% of the world merchant shipping tonnage.

Various countries (Australia, Canada, USA etc.) have already introduced National
legislation requiring mid-ocean ballast exchanges.

There are serious problems to be overcome in order to ensure ballast water is

‘safe’ to be discharged. The methods to be used are either by ballast exchange or
ballast treatment. Both have their own problems from an operational viewpoint
and are itemised below. Ballast water exchange is considered an interim method
of management and will be phased out and replaced by ballast treatment methods
once the convention comes into force.

47
 Method Efficiency Description
Ballast Water 95% Presently the most practical method but concerns about
Exchange how this can be done safely in the open sea with regard
to seaworthiness & stresses on the ship structure. Two
methods:
Sequential Exchange:
Ballast tanks purged of the original ballast and refilled
with mid-ocean ballast.
Flow-through Exchange:
Tanks are flushed through with mid-ocean ballast that
displaces departure port ballast via air-pipes & access
hatches. Flushing with 3 tank volumes achieves about
95% exchange.

Fresh Water 100% This idea has not been progressed but by taking fresh
Ballast water ballast it could be discharged ashore and used in
the load ports industrial and social infrastructure

Heat Treatment >98% Heated salt water from the ships main engine cooling
water system is re-routed to the ballast tanks, killing
off the organisms. Has proved successful in trials but
concerns about the corrosive aspects of using hot water

Filtration 82-95% Filters placed over sea suctions. Tests used different
sized mesh with some success but ballast loading rates
inevitably reduced. A secondary treatment such as ultra
violet or heat would probably be required to eliminate
bacteria and viruses. One benefit is that less mud /
sediment is taken on board.

Hydrocyclones 95-100% Centrifugal separators are used backed up worth

secondary UV treatment. Would cost about $US2.5
million per ship, so may be unattractive to owners but
have been proven in offshore installations for a number
of years.

Bio-degradable 75-97% Currently being developed in Germany. Approximately

chemicals 50 litres per 1000 tonnes of ballast water would be
required

Electro- 95% Low electrical power is applied to the ballast water as

chemical it passes through porous graphite electrodes. Not
control seriously tested at present

Summary
Whichever method of treatment is used it must be:
• Safe
• Cost effective
• Environmentally acceptable
• Workable
Currently the most practicable option is Ballast Water Exchange in mid-ocean with
its attendant problems regarding seaworthiness and stresses on the ship structure.
48
Summary of Chapter 3
The main points of the topics covered in chapter 3 are included as an aid to
revision

General Layout of Tankers

• Single hull tankers are sub-divided longitudinally and transversely into
centre tanks and wing tanks for the carriage of cargo.
• Double hull tankers protectively locate the cargo tanks by surrounding them
with double bottoms and side tanks. Tankers built after 1994 must have this
arrangement under MARPOL regulations (some exceptions).
• The number of cargo tanks varies depending upon ship type. Crude carriers
have relatively few; product and chemical tankers have more due to the
extra segregation requirements between grades and the size of parcels
carried.

Pipeline Systems on Oil Tankers

• Flexible hoses or ‘Chiksan’ loading arms connected to the ships manifold
achieves the connection between ship and shore at the terminal.
• On ships with bottom line system and pumprooms manifolds run athwartship
and from them drop lines are connected to the tankers bottom lines that
run forward and aft to direct oil to the tanks via a system of branch lines
and valves.
• For discharging the drop lines are bypassed and oil flows from the bottom
lines to the cargo pumps located in the pumproom. From there the oil is
pumped via the pumproom risers to the deck lines and manifolds to shore.
• On vessels with deck line only pipeline systems there are no bottom lines or
pumprooms. Each cargo tank has a loading line, a cargo pump and a
discharge line.

Cargo Pumping Systems

Centrifugal Pumps
• Used for bulk discharge with high flow rates. These may be in a pumproom
or as part of a submerged pump.
• An impeller located in a specially shaped casing called a volute imparts
velocity on the cargo. The volute slows down the flow creating a pressure
differential between the suction and discharge side.
• They are not good at creating pressures below atmospheric.
• Centrifugal pumps are not good at handling gas / air / liquid mixtures and
so alternative pumps are used for draining and stripping tanks.

Submerged Pumps
• Used on chemical and gas carriers. Some crude and product tankers also
fitted with them.
• Submerged pumps are of the centrifugal type with the impeller located
within the cargo tank. Usually each tank has its own load / discharge line
and manifold. Gives complete segregation.
• Small bore stripping line fitted to remove pump stack volume of cargo.
• Bulk rate not usually as high as conventional centrifugal pumps but
outweighed by low cargo residues remaining.
• High initial installation costs but warranted if full segregation between
grades required.

49
Eductors
• Used to strip cargo and tank washing residues.
• Simple construction due to no moving parts.
• Constriction in discharge pipe creates low pressure on suction side.
• Requires a motive liquid to ‘drive’ it.
• Motive liquid and stripped fluid mingle, so must be compatible.
• Simple construction.
• Self-priming.
• Efficiency depends on driving pressure and back pressure.

Positive Displacement Pumps

• Used as stripping pumps
• Pistons in separate oil and steam chambers are inter-connected. Steam
pressure forces the steam piston up and hence the oil-side piston is forced
up, displacing the oil in the chamber.
• Not capable of large volumes without disproportionate increase in cylinder
size.
• Very good at creating suction and can handle gas / air / liquid mixtures
• Not good at pumping against high back pressure.

Pumprooms
• Located at the after end of the cargo tanks and contains the cargo pumps,
stripping pumps, ballast pump and eductors.
• Due to the hazards of leakage in the pumproom extractor fans are fitted to
provide at least 20 atmosphere changes per hour.

Ballasting Arrangements
• Segregated ballast, which also includes the forepeak and the after peak
tanks, has its own pumping and pipe line system.
• Segregated ballast is that which is put into tanks specially designed for this
purpose. There is no connection between the cargo and ballast systems.
• Double hull tankers have segregated ballast, which is carried in double
bottoms and side tanks. There is sufficient capacity for normal sea-going
conditions. Heavy weather ballast may be put in a cargo tank in rare cases.

50
Chapter 4 Venting Systems
Introduction
Oil or chemical tankers cargo tanks must be able to load and discharge cargo and
ballast without damage to the tank structure. When cargo is loaded the
atmosphere within the tank must be vented otherwise over pressurisation will
occur. Similarly when discharging cargo the cargo volume being discharged must be
replaced by an equivalent volume of atmosphere in order to prevent under
pressurisation.

A tanker’s cargo tanks are relatively fragile and share similar shell thickness to
internal volume ratios as an egg. It does not take much pressure or vacuum to
cause structural damage with possibly catastrophic consequences.

In this chapter the various venting systems found on board will be described and
the regulations concerning them outlined. Additionally Marine Vapour Emission
Control Systems and Volatile Organic Compound Management Plans as required by
MARPOL Annex VI will be discussed.

Allowable Tank Pressures

When a tanker is built the Classification Society rules dictate the maximum and
minimum pressure that a tankers cargo tanks must be able to withstand. Unless
otherwise stated figures shown are those adopted by Lloyd’s Register.

Prior to leaving the shipyard and going into service the cargo tanks will be tested
to 0.245 bar (3.4 psi) which is the equivalent to a pressure head of 2.45 metres of
water column. The cargo tank is filled with water and allowed to overflow through
a pipe of this height extending above the tank top. If no damage is found the tank
is accepted. This is the maximum pressure that the tank should ever be subject to
and is a one off test.

A pressure not exceeding minus 0.07 bar ( - 1 psi) is allowed on the vacuum side.
This is not actually tested for but is assessed by calculation of the tanks structural
strength profile.

The design of a suitable venting system will depend upon a number of factors:
• Design loading rate for the tanks – the higher the liquid flow rate the faster
the vapour produced must be removed from the tank.
• Maximum vapour flow velocity. Typically 40 metres per second is used.
• Gas evolution – the volume of vapour flowing out of the tank may be greater
than the volume of the oil flowing into the tank due to evaporation from
the oil. A factor of 1.25 times the maximum loading rate is required by
SOLAS to allow for this vapour generation.
• Obstructions to flow such as flame screens, pipeline friction, bends and
valves in pipes etc. must be considered.

The main aim of the venting system is to keep tank pressures within acceptable
limits, i.e. what goes in must come out and vice versa.

Venting Systems
SOLAS requires that the venting system must be able to deal with:

51
 • The flow of the small volumes of vapour, air or inert gas mixtures caused by
thermal variations in a cargo tank in all cases through pressure/vacuum
valves and
• The passage of large volumes of vapour, air or inert gas mixtures during
loading, ballasting or during discharge

Pressure/Vacuum valves for small volumes due to thermal variations

A P/V valve consists of a weighted pressure disk (see Fig.below) and a weighted
vacuum disk. The weight of the disks is calculated so that they lift at a pre-set
pressure.

If the tank pressure exceeds the lift pressure of the valve the weight is lifted
allowing pressure to be relieved to the outside atmosphere.

If the tank is subject to under pressurisation the vacuum created acts on the upper
surface of the vacuum disk, lifting it to allow air into the tank.

As cargo tanks are able to withstand pressure better than vacuum the relative
weight of the two disks is different. A flame screen is fitted on the vacuum side.

Pressure/Vacuum Valve

SOLAS requires these P/V valves be fitted at least 2m above the deck to disperse
flammable vapours. They must also be at least 5m horizontally from intakes to
spaces where there may be a source of ignition present.

These P/V valves are often incorporated into High Velocity Vent Valves which are
described below.

IG main and the vent mast

Many tankers have an inert gas, (IG), system which is described in another chapter.
Part of an IG system is a pipeline running from aft to forward, (the IG main), with
branch lines connecting to each cargo tank. When the vessel is discharging IG is
delivered to the tanks via the IG main and branch lines to maintain a positive
pressure in the tanks.

At the forward end of the IG main is a tall vent mast, (at least 6m high), which can
be used to vent the gases from the tanks when the vessel is loading. As oil flows
into the tanks the vapour in the tank flows out through the branch line, into the IG
main and then to the vent mast. The exit velocity of the gas from the vent mast
depends on the pressure in the tanks and the loading rate. Because this could be
slow the vent mast is required to be at least 6m above the deck to aid the
52
dispersion of flammable vapours. Also due to the potentially low exit velocity of
the gas a flame screen is required to be fitted at the top of the vent mast. If the
vent receives a lighting strike while venting the flammable vapours would be
ignited. The flame screen would prevent the flame from passing back down the
vent mast into the piping system.

IG Main and Branch Lines

The branch lines from the IG main to the tanks are usually fitted with isolation
valves but this means there is a risk that they could be left closed by accident
when the tank is being loaded which could cause a tank to be over pressurised. To
address this SOLAS has 2 requirements:
• Firstly the isolating valves must be capable of being locked in the open or
closed position to prevent unauthorised operation.
• Secondly each tank is required to have a secondary means of full flow
ventilation. The secondary means of ventilation is a High Velocity Vent
Valve, (HVVV).

High Velocity Vent Valve (HVV)

A HVVV is fitted to each tank and opens when the tank pressures reaches a pre-set
value. The exit velocity is required by SOLAS to be at least 30m/s. A hydrocarbon
mixture within the flammable range will have an open air flame speed of 3 metres
per second. If the flame is confined within a pipe the flame path is constricted and
speeds exceeding the speed of sound can be achieved. The resultant pressure wave
could be catastrophic. If the exit velocity of the gas can be maintained above 3
m/sec then flame cannot travel back down the pipe. High velocity vent valves
ensure the exit velocity is at least 30 m/sec thereby giving a factor of safety of
ten. For this reason a flame screen is not required in the HVVV.

53
As any gas is ejected at a high velocity the gas is dispersed well above the deck
level and is unlikely to penetrate the safety barrier by entering the accommodation
or engine room.

The constant exit velocity is achieved by constructing a variable diameter opening

at the end of the vent pipe. If the gas flow is low the opening narrows and
increases the exit velocity. If the gas flow is high the opening is widened to allow
full flow at a velocity of at least 30 m/sec.

Due to the high exit velocity which will push the gas up and away from the deck
SOLAS requires that these vents be at least 2m above the deck level.

54
HVVVs usually incorporate a vacuum relief valve and so they also act as the P/V
valve. In such cases a separate P/V is not required on the tank.

Ships without IG systems

Not all tankers have an IG main, or in the case of some chemical or product tankers
which carry many different grades of cargos, it cannot be used for venting all tanks
to prevent contamination between different grades. These vessel will use HVVVs,
(at least one on each tank), as their primary means of venting from the tanks. It
was previously stated that SOLAS requires a secondary means of venting so there
should be some back up to the HVVV. SOLAS says that in lieu of a secondary means
of venting, pressure sensors may be fitted in each tank with a readout in the cargo
control room together with an alarm to warn of high pressure in the tank.

MARPOL Annex VI
Air pollution from vessels is generally from engine exhaust emissions and volatile
organic compounds, (VOC) from oil cargoes. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s)
discharged into the air from crude oil, gasoline blends and other volatile cargoes
are believed to damage the ozone layer. Benzene components also present a long-
term health hazard.

Regulation 15 of MARPOL Annex VI deals with VOCs and allows terminals to regulate
the emission of VOCs from tankers while they load by establishing a Marine Vapour
Emission Control System, (MVECS), which would be set up ashore. Terminals who
wish to set up such a system can require tankers to send all of the vapours they
would normally vent to the atmosphere back to the shore based MVEC which would
process the vapours in an environmentally safe manner. This means that most
tankers are now fitted with a Vapour manifold alongside the normal liquid
manifolds to allow them to connect to and return vapour to the shore MVEC
system.

Operational Hazards
There are a number of hazards associated with vapour recovery systems.
Essentially the ship and shore are connected by a vapour stream that may be
flammable. Also events happening on the ship can directly affect what is happening
ashore and vice versa.

The hazards can be summarised as follows:

Misconnection of vapour recovery lines. The recovery system is designed to handle

vapour not liquid. Severe problems could occur ashore or liquid in the ships vapour
lines could cause pollution through spraying out of vents. To overcome this the
vapour manifold on the ship is painted yellow with two red bands and the word
‘vapour’ stencilled on it. Additionally a one inch (25 mm) metal stud is welded at
the 12 o’clock position on the flange face. If a cargo hose is presented to the
flange it cannot be connected. A vapour hose has a matching hole on its flange
face.

Over and Under Pressurisation. Tank pressures need to be closely monitored. The
pressure within a vessels ullage space can be directly affected by conditions
ashore. Full flow venting and PV devices must be in good working order and
maximum allowable loading rates not be exceeded. Pressure monitoring onboard
and ashore will be required. Essentially the shore controls tank pressures on the
ship by adjusting the cargo loading and vapour recovery rate.

55
Cargo Tank Overfill. The vessel must have an approved closed loading gauging
system in operation. The vessel will probably also require additional protection in
the form of spill or rupture valves. These are valves located on deck such that
when actuated spill oil onto the tankers deck to relieve pressure. Alternatively
onboard and/or shore side monitoring systems may be used.

Static Electricity. Bonded hoses and insulating flanges will be required on cargo and
vapour hoses.

Fire and Explosion. Precautions against fire and explosion take the form of passive
and active devices. Passive devices consist of detonation arrestors that are capable
of absorbing explosive energy. Active devices are located at strategic locations
within the system. They can be divided into four groups:
• Inerting devices – reduces the oxygen content to less than 8 percent by
volume.
• Diluting devices – reduce the hydrocarbon content to well below the lower
flammable limit. Likely to be <30 per cent LFL.
• Enriching devices – increase the hydrocarbon content to well above the
upper flammable limit. Likely to be >170 percent UFL.

Detonation arresting valves – these are quick acting valves that can contain an
explosion once it has occurred. Sensors detect the advancing pressure wave from
an explosion and activate the valves.

Marine Vapour Emission Control System (MVECS)

56
Recognising that crude oil cargoes will emit the most VOCs regulation 15 also
requires crude oil tankers to have VOC management plan which must out
procedures to minimise VOC emissions during loading, while at sea and during
discharge of the cargo.

57
Summary of Chapter 4
As a revision aid the main points of this chapter have been summarised:

Venting Control
• Cargo tanks must not be allowed to become over or under pressurised
• Displaced cargo tank atmospheres are vented via mast risers or HVVV
• The venting system must deal with daily variations in tank pressures due to
localised heating and cooling and full flow venting when loading or
discharging
• Pressure Vacuum valves deal with the small daily variations in pressure and
these are often incorporated into the HVVV
• Full flow venting during loading can be done through the IG main and a vent
mast if the vessel is fitted with an IG system
• Vent mast must be at least 6m above deck
• SOLAS requires there is a secondary means of full flow venting and this may
be HVVV
• High velocity vent valves (HVVVs) ensure an exit velocity of at least 30
metres per second and must be at least 2m above deck
• PV and HVVV operate by having weighted pressure and vacuum disks.
• Venting arrangements must incorporate devices to prevent the passage of
flame
• If the vessel only has HVVV, (no IG system or common venting system with a
vent mast), then in lieu of a secondary means of venting each tank must
have a pressure sensor with a read out in the cargo control room and a high
and low pressure alarm to warn against over pressurisation.

Marine Vapour Emission Control Systems

• MARPOL Annex 6 aims to reduce emissions from ships engines and volatile
organic compounds from volatile cargoes when vented to atmosphere.
• Regulation 15 deals with VOCs and allows terminals to build MVECSs. If a
terminal has a MVEC they can insist a vessel uses it by returning the vapours
to the shore MVECS system rather than venting to the atmosphere
• A separate vapour return manifold is fitted to the ship.
• The ships inert gas main may be used as a vapour main or a separate one
may be provided.
• The vapour manifold is painted yellow with two red bands for easy
identification. A one inch (25 mm) stud is placed at the 12 o’clock position
to prevent connection of a liquid cargo hose. The word ‘vapour’ is stencilled
in black on the manifold.
• As cargo is loaded vapour is displaced through the vapour main and manifold
to ashore. A vacuum pump ashore may help the process.
• The loading rate of the cargo dictates the recovery rate of the vapour
generated and is controlled from shore

Operational Hazards of Vapour Control Systems

• Misconnection of vapour lines – clearly identifiable vapour manifolds with
stud piece.
• Over and under pressurisation – ship and shore monitoring systems for tank
pressures. Loading rates & vapour recovery rates kept within limits.
• Cargo tank overfill – Approved closed gauging system plus additional
protection (spill or rupture valves or level monitoring systems).

58
• Static electricity – bonded hoses plus insulating flange on vapour and cargo
hoses.
• Fire and explosion – passive and active devices used:
1. Inerting devices
2. Diluting devices
3. Enriching devices
4. Detonation arrestors
• Close communication between ship and shore required.
• Operations manual required for marine vapour emission control systems.

59
Chapter 5 Inert Gas Systems and Operations
Introduction
As previously described, three things need to be present for a fire to take place,
namely fuel, air (oxygen) and a source of ignition. Through good design and safe
operating practices sources of ignition can be controlled but not completely
eliminated. As fuel may be present in the form of cargo vapour and the cargo tanks
may contain air there is always the possibility of a fire. If the air in the tank can be
replaced with a gas with a low oxygen content that cannot support combustion
then this risk can be avoided. Gases that do not support combustion are known as
inert.

Inert gas systems for tankers have been in existence since the 1920’s and were first
developed as a means of controlling corrosion in cargo tanks. The technology at the
time was not able to provide an efficient system and its use was not widespread.

In the 1950’s, 1960’s and 70’s a series of explosions occurred on tankers, usually
associated with tank cleaning or gas freeing operations. A defining period was
December 1969 when three VLCC’s exploded within a 17 day period. The ships
were the Mactra, Marpessa and Kong Hakkon IV. All three were tank cleaning at
the time. The oil companies and government agencies carried out a lot of research
in order to establish the cause of the explosions. It was quickly established that
flammable atmospheres were present, efforts were then made in finding the
source of ignition. By a process of elimination it was decided that the likely source
of ignition was static electricity. Water ‘slugs’ passing through electrically charged
mists in the tank, become charged and discharged a spark between the slug and
the tank structure.

Having established the cause a solution was sought and the issue of inert gas was
re-visited. By replacing the air in a cargo tank with inert gas no explosion can take
place, irrespective of whether a source of ignition occurs, as the air side of the fire
triangle has been removed.
It is now a requirement under SOLAS for all oil and chemical tankers over 8,000
deadweight to be fitted with and use inert gas. The SOLAS definition of an inerted
atmosphere is one that contains less than 8 percent oxygen by volume in the tank
and with positive pressure maintained. The IG plant must be capable of producing
inert gas with an oxygen content of 5%. A flammable petroleum atmosphere can
ignite down to an oxygen content of 11%. The 8% level gives a safety margin.

60
 Flammable Range Diagram

Inert Gas
Inert means dead or lifeless and there are a number of inert gases available:
• Argon
• Helium
• Carbon dioxide
• Nitrogen

Of these, argon and helium are very expensive and therefore are not commercially
viable. Nitrogen is quite expensive but may be justifiable in protecting high value
chemicals or gases.

For economical and safe tanker operations a plentiful supply of inert gas is
required due to the large tank volumes involved and it must be cheap enough that
cost is not a controlling factor.

The simplest and cheapest way of providing an inert gas is to burn oil in air and use
the products of combustion for inert gas. The SOLAS regulations do not specify the
source of the inert gas (IG). It could be nitrogen from cylinders or a nitrogen
generator or from the exhaust emissions from boilers or a dedicate inert gas
generator. Exhaust gases are used on many oil tankers. The emissions are known as
flue gases and have to be processed before introducing to the cargo tanks as it
contains some unwanted components. Once processed flue gas is termed inert gas.

61
Flue Gas and Inert Gas Composition

Component Flue Gas Inert Gas

O2 2 – 4% 2 – 4%
CO2 12 – 14% 12 – 14%
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) & 0.2% 0.02%
Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)
Nitrogen (N2) 80% 80%
3
Solid particles 300 mg / m 8 mg / m3
H2O 5% 0.1%
o
Heat 300 C Within 5oC of the sea
temp.

The components in bold in the above table need to be processed:

• The sulphur components react with water. At any temperature SO2 plus H2O
= sulphurous acid (H2SO3). At high temperatures SO3 plus H2O = sulphuric
acid (H2SO4). Both of these are highly corrosive.
• Solid particles of carbon may be red hot and ignite a flammable
atmosphere. Dry solids sent down pipelines may cause abrasive damage to
pipelines and valves. Also if solids mix with water slurry is created which
can block the system.
• Water passing over fan blades can create damage. Additionally water with
heat accelerates corrosion.
• Flue gas has a temperature of about 300oC. If this were introduced into the
cargo tanks more cargo vapour would be released increasing tank pressures.
Also the auto ignition temperature of crude oil is about 230oC and vapour
will ignite at less.

62
The Flue Gas IG System
An inert gas plant must convert flue gas to inert gas. Fig.2 shows a basic flue gas
system.

63
64
Description of Components

The main processing unit for turning flue gas into inert gas is the scrubbing tower
(‘scrubber’), see Fig.2. There are a variety of designs in use; the following
describes a common method found.

The flue gas is introduced to the base of the tower and bubbles through a water
trap that must have a continuous water supply. This commences the cooling
process and washes out larger solid particles and sulphur components. The solids
and acids are washed overboard and are rapidly diluted in the sea. The lower part
of the tower is lined with rubber to prevent the acids corroding the mild steel of
the tower.

As the gas moves upwards it passes through a series of sprays, which results in
further cooling and washing. Further up the scrubbing tower are a series of baffle
and impingement plates. This causes a variation in speed and direction of the gas
and throws out any remaining sub-micron particles. The particles collect on the
plates and are washed off by an upper set of water sprays.

Finally, the clean, cool gas is passed through demister pads that remove the
majority of water droplets picked up during the washing process.

The flow of flue gas through the scrubber is by suction from the blowers. These are
turbine fans that distribute the inert gas towards the cargo tanks. SOLAS requires
that there are two blowers fitted and the combined capacity must be at least 125%
of the maximum pumping capacity of the ships cargo pumps. This is to avoid under
pressurisation of the cargo tanks in the event of cargo being discharged at a
greater rate than the inert gas can be supplied to replace the discharged cargo. In
practice many owners supply 2 x 125% capacity blowers, so that in the event one of
65
the IG blowers fail there is no reduction in cargo pumping capacity. Other owners
fit 1 x 125% plus 1 x 62.5% blowers or 2 x 62.5% capacity, but this could result in
reduced pumping rates in the event of a blower failure.

From the blower the gas is directed to the gas regulating valve (GRV). This must be
located on the bulkhead forming the boundary between the non-hazardous and
hazardous zones. The GRV controls the flow of gas to the rest of the system and
cargo tanks. Pressure transmitters located between the deck isolation valve and
the cargo tanks allow the GRV to control flow. On some systems this is by use of
the vent line and valve. Excess IG pressure is passed to vent line which goes
through the ships funnel to exhaust to atmosphere. The GRV and vent line valves
are interlocked.

A fresh air intake is provided for use in gas freeing cargo tanks.

As the IG pipe work is deliberately piercing the safety barrier there must be a
number of safety devices within the system, otherwise the hazardous and non-
hazardous areas are connected allowing a pathway for possibly flammable gas to
enter the safe area. The first of these is the deck water seal, which is a form of
non-return valve. There are a number of variations but they all aim to prevent any
back flow of flammable gas from the cargo tanks to the safe area. This situation
could occur if the pressure in the cargo tanks exceeds the IG pressure through the
lines. The main types of deck water seal are the wet type, semi-dry type and dry
type. All three are allowed by SOLAS but the wet type is the most popular due to
its reliability. The wet type is shown in Fig.4.

In normal flow conditions IG bubbles through the water trap, through the demister
pads and into the deck IG main to the tanks.

If there is a back flow of gas from the cargo tanks the pressure created acts on the
sealing water surface. The water level falls under pressure and creates a plug of
water (the water seal) in the IG inlet pipe. There is insufficient pressure to
66
penetrate the water seal and so back flow of gas is prevented from entering the
non-hazardous area.

There must be a continuous supply of water to the wet type deck water seal.
Heating coils are fitted as the deck water seal is located on deck and therefore
exposed to possibly sub-zero temperatures.

Forward of the deck water seal is a mechanical non-return valve. Any mechanical
type valve within an IG system cannot be relied upon totally as scouring of valve
seats can occur from any solid particles that are carried over from the scrubbing
process.

A deck isolation valve is located forward of the mechanical non-return valve. As

the name implies its purpose is to isolate the cargo tanks from the IG supply
system. This may be necessary if cargo tanks are gas-freed for tank entry purpose.
A vent is fitted between the mechanical non-return valve and the isolation valve to
relieve any residual pressure in the system when the isolation valve is closed.

From the isolation valve the IG main runs the full length of the tank deck area.
Branch lines direct the inert gas to the cargo tanks. Isolation valves will be fitted
to each branch line.

There is a further safety device fitted somewhere on the IG main. This is a pressure
vacuum breaker. This is a system protection device against over or under
pressurisation. It does not protect individual tanks; that is the function of full flow
vents, mast risers and PV valves. The PV breaker is a water plug and works on a
similar principle as a deck water seal and is illustrated in Fig.5.

67
The breaker consists of an open-ended pipe connected to the IG main. An inverted
chamber, open to the atmosphere at its upper end surrounds the IG main
connection pipe. The breaker is filled with a mixture of water and glycol (anti-
freeze) to prevent freezing in cold conditions.

At normal atmospheric pressure the level of the liquid is the same in each
chamber. As IG flows along the IG main pressure is exerted on the liquid in the
inner chamber. The level will rise and fall according to the pressure exerted. If the
design pressure for the system is exceeded the level will drop below the end of the
inner chamber and release the excess pressure to atmosphere (and dump the liquid
onto the deck).

If a vacuum is created in the system the liquid is drawn up the inner chamber and
falls in the outer chamber. If the level in the outer chamber falls to below the lip
of the inner chamber air is drawn in from atmosphere, thereby relieving the
vacuum in the system.

The design pressures for the PV breaker is higher than that of the vessels normal
venting arrangements, but less than the design pressure of the cargo tanks.

The PV breaker only protects the system against over and under pressurisation. It
does not protect individual tanks. SOLAS also requires individual tanks to be
protected.

68
The IG main may terminate in a mast riser or a number of IG mains (say three) may
be used to group tanks together if contamination of different grades of cargo
vapour is an issue. The IG main may also be used as the vapour recovery line for
the delivering gas to the shore based Marine Vapour Emission Control System.

There are a number of alarm and control systems that have not been shown. The
following alarms will initiate an automatic shut down of the IG plant:

• Low scrubber water – this will close the gas regulating valve followed by
automatic shut down of the blowers.
• High IG temperature – as measured on the output side of the blower. Shuts
down the blowers and closes the GRV.
• High effluent level – this indicates a blockage in the scrubber, usually in the
drain. The tower will fill with water and effluent and possibly get back into
the boiler. Scrubber pump stops, level falls to below the low scrubber level
setting. Blowers stop and GRV closes.

High oxygen content is an alarm condition but does not result in an automatic shut
down; otherwise the plant could probably never be started! Oxygen content is a
combustion problem not a plant problem. If the it is required to change the
Oxygen content of the inert gas the engineers must adjust the fuel air mixture in
the combustion chamber which is in the engine room.

SOLAS Regulations
SOLAS deals with inert gas systems and states which ships require inert gas. As of
January 2016 all new oil and chemical tankers >8,000 dwt must be fitted with an IG
system

The Fire Safety Systems Code gives details of what comprises an inert gas system
and the requirements for the individual components in the system (blowers,
scrubbers, alarms, deck seal etc.).

Reference is made to the IMO publication ‘Inert Gas Systems’. This publication
outlines the regulations and gives guidance on the regulations and describes the
operation of different components. The book also details what must be done in the
event of an inert gas system failure. This will be dealt with later.

To be considered inerted a vessel must have an oxygen content of less than 8

percent in the cargo tanks and the tanks must be kept under a positive pressure.

If a positive pressure is not maintained air may be drawn into the tanks thorough
the venting arrangements, thereby increasing the oxygen content.

Inert Gas Operations

Introduction
It is a general principle that ships that are required to be inerted should remain so
at all times. The only exceptions are when it is required to gas free the tanks for
inspection or repair purposes on the ballast passage or dry-docking.

69
The Voyage Cycle
The following describes the use of the inert gas system during a normal voyage
cycle:
Primary inerting – consider a new ship, or one coming out of dry dock. The existing
tank atmosphere, in this case air with an oxygen content of 21%, must be
exchanged for an atmosphere containing 8% oxygen or less. The inert gas plant is
run and the original atmosphere vented off.

Loading cargo – prior to loading, the tanks are inerted. Once loading is commenced
inert gas must be vented via the mast riser or HVVV to prevent over pressurisation.
The inert gas plant will not be run, but a positive pressure in the tanks must be
maintained by controlled venting.

Top up pressure – Following the completion of loading or ballasting it may be

necessary to top up the inert gas in the tanks whilst on passage. Climatic changes
and/or diurnal variations in temperature will affect tank pressures due to varying
cargo levels. Leakage through PV valves or tank lids may occur if not maintained
properly. Some ships are equipped with a ‘top up’ generator for this purpose or
may use an exhaust gas. This avoids firing up the main boilers for the provision of a
relatively small amount of IG.

Discharging cargo or ballast – this is the main period when the inert gas plant is
run. The cargo or ballast being discharged will have to be replaced by inert gas, to
ensure that positive pressure is maintained.

Changing tank atmospheres – This is necessary to vary a hydrocarbon or oxygen

content. This process is known as purging. If the oxygen content rises above 8%
then the plant is run and more inert gas is put into the tanks, the existing
atmosphere being vented through a purge pipe to the outside atmosphere. Some
companies require this to be done prior to arrival at the load port in order to
reduce hydrocarbon emissions and mercaptans (sulphur components) from the mast
riser during loading. There is no statutory requirement to do this.

Gas free tanks – this is required for tank entry purposes. The tanks inert
atmosphere must be purged to below 2% hydrocarbons with inert gas and then
ventilated to 21 percent oxygen and below 1 percent of the lower flammable limit
(ISGOTT). It is necessary to purge initially with inert gas before introducing air so
as to avoid the tank atmosphere passing through the flammable range. See Fig.6.

70
Emergency Operations
The regulations concerning inert gas on tankers are contained in SOLAS, it is
therefore considered a safety system and so a failure of the system is considered to
be serious.

In the event that the inert gas system is unable to meet the operational
requirements set out above and it has been assessed that it is impracticable to
effect a repair, then cargo discharge, and tank cleaning shall only be resumed
when the “emergency conditions” laid down in the ‘Guidelines on Inert Gas
Systems’ are complied with.

The guidelines referred to state the following:

On ships carrying crude oil:

• Stop all operations
• Close IG deck isolation valve
• Effect repair of the fault or obtain an alternative source of IG

On ships carrying products:

• Stop all operations
• Decide if repair is practicable
• If repair is not practicable operations can be resumed if:
1. The IG system is isolated from the deck
71
 2. Open vent riser which will allow air to be drawn into tanks during the
discharge
3. Do not allow free fall of water into slop tanks (static hazard)
4. No sounding, ullaging or sampling unless essential for the safety of the
ship. If necessary wait 30 minutes from IG failure and restrict for 5
hours. All metallic components to be earthed

Pyrophoric Iron Sulphides

The reason a tanker carrying products can continue operations, under certain
conditions, whilst a crude carrier cannot is due to the effect of pyrophoric iron
sulphides.

These occur under the following conditions:

• An oxygen deficient atmosphere must be present

• Iron oxides (rust) must be present
• There must be hydrogen sulphide present

When all three are present a chemical process occurs that converts the iron oxide
to iron sulphide. This is not a problem in itself, but when there is a subsequent re-
exposure to air the iron sulphide rapidly converts back to iron oxide. Energy in the
form of heat (exothermic reaction) is produced which may be sufficiently high to
ignite a flammable atmosphere.

If the inert gas plant fails and operations are continued air may be sucked into the
cargo tanks. This could kick- start the chemical re-conversion process.
Crude oil contains hydrogen sulphide whereas the majority of products do not as it
has been refined out. Crude tankers don’t usually have coated tanks so there may
be rust present, while product tankers have coated, (painted) tanks so there is less
chance of rust being present. Tankers carrying products are therefore permitted to
continue if the criteria met in the Inert Gas System Guidelines are met.

It is not possible to specify ‘safe;’ levels of hydrogen sulphide as it depends on the

exact combination of the three components at any given time.

SOLAS Reporting Requirements

SOLAS requires that whenever an accident or defect is discovered that affects the
safety of the ship, the master or owner shall report at the earliest opportunity to
the Administration. If the ship is in port then the Port State authorities must also
be informed.

72
Summary of Chapter 5

Inert Gas
• If an atmosphere contains less than 11% oxygen then combustion cannot
take place
• Inert gases are used to replace the oxygen and/or flammable gases to a safe
level
• The most common inert gases used are from the by-products of combustion
(flue gas) or nitrogen
• For a vessel to be considered inerted the oxygen content in the tank must
be below 8 percent and a positive pressure must be maintained
• The Inert Gas plant must be capable of producing inert gas with 5 percent
oxygen content or less
• SOLAS requires all oil and chemical tankers over 8,000 dwt to be fitted
with, and use inert gas.
• Flue gases contain unwanted components; heat, water, sulphur compounds
and solid particles. These must be removed or reduced before putting inert
gas into the cargo tanks

The Inert Gas System

• The inert gas system is required to produce gas of the required quality and
the design must conform to SOLAS requirements
• The system consists of:
1. A flue gas inlet from the boiler or inert gas generator
2. Scrubbing tower – to reduce heat, remove solids and sulphur compounds,
consists of a series of water sprays and baffle and impingement plates.
Demisters remove water droplets
3. Blowers to give the gas velocity to the tanks. Two blowers are required
with a combined capacity (at least) of 125% of the vessels cargo
pumping capacity
4. A gas regulating valve – to control the flow of gas to the deck
5. A vent to atmosphere
6. The deck water seal – a non-mechanical non-return valve to stop back-
flow of cargo gas to the non-hazardous area. Back flow of gas creates a
water plug in the inlet pipe so preventing flammable gas getting back
into the system
7. A mechanical non-return valve
8. A deck isolation valve – to isolate the system from the deck IG piping
9. The IG deck main – carries the inert gas up the deck
10. IG branch lines – directs the IG to the tanks
11. A PV breaker – a liquid filled pressure and vacuum relief valve to protect
the entire system
12. (Usually) a mast riser – for full flow relief when loading cargo or ballast
13. HVVV valves to protect tanks against over and under pressurisation
14. PV valves (usually part of the HVVV), for diurnal variations in pressure
• The IG system may also be used for gas-freeing by opening the air intake
and running the blowers
• Alarm and control systems are fitted, only three alarms initiate an
automatic shutdown: high effluent in the scrubber, high IG temperature,
low scrubber water level

73
IG Operational Cycle
• Primary inerting – changing the existing tank atmosphere i.e repacing fresh
air with inert gas
• Loading cargo or ballast- inert gas plant not running, inert gas in tank
vented to atmosphere to avoid over pressurisation
• Topping up – due to climatic or diurnal changes in sea or air temperature
the IG may need to be topped up to maintain positive pressure while on
loaded passage
• Discharging cargo or ballast – IG plant is run to replace discharged liquid.
Positive pressure must be maintained
• Changing tank atmosphere – may be necessary to reduce oxygen content or
to reduce hydrocarbon content. Known as purging
• Gas freeing from inert – required for tank entry purposes. Hydrocarbons
must be reduced to less than 2% by volume by purging with IG before fresh
air is introduced into the tank.
• Fresh replaces IG and hydrocarbons until there is 21% oxygen and then less
than 1% of LFL of hydrocarbons which is required for tank entry

Emergency Operations
• In the event of IG plant failure crude oil carriers must:
1. Stop all cargo operations
2. Close IG deck isolation valve
3. Effect repair or obtain an alternative source of IG
• In the event of IG plant failure product carriers must:
1. Stop all operations
2. Decide if repair is impracticable
3. Isolate system from the deck
• Operations can resume on product carriers if:
1. Open vent riser and check flame arrestors
2. Do not allow free fall of water into cargo tanks
3. Take precautions when ullaging, sounding, sampling. Do not do unless
necessary for the safety of the ship. Wait 30 minutes from IG failure and
restrict for 5 hours

• The difference between response to IG failure on crude and product tankers

is due to pyrophoric iron sulphides
• In an oxygen deficient atmosphere hydrogen sulphide, iron oxide(rust) and
oxygen combine to create iron sulphide
• If re-exposure to oxygen occurs the iron sulphide tends to revert back to
iron oxide. The chemical reaction is exothermic (gives off heat) and may
ignite a flammable atmosphere
• Crude oil contains hydrogen sulphide, clean products do not. Crude tankers
may have rusty tanks while product tankers will have coated tanks and no
rust, hence different operational allowances

74
Chapter 6 - Tank Cleaning & Gas Freeing
Introduction

Tank cleaning is carried out for a number of reasons:

• Quality control for next cargo to prevent contamination

• For ballast in cargo tanks (rarely done for extreme weather)
• Residue control
• For dry dock preparation
• For tank entry inspection / repair

The degree of tank cleaning varies; ranging from very little if the same grade of
cargo is being carried next voyage, to highly intensive for particularly sensitive
grade changes.

Crude oil washing (COW) is required for crude oil carriers under most circumstances

The Washing Medium

For the majority of cargoes it will only be necessary to wash with cold (ambient
temperature seawater). Water is drawn directly from the sea and pumped through
the tank cleaning, line and to the tank washing machines located in the tanks or
one of the slop tanks is filled with cold water that is then pumped through the tank
cleaning system to the tank washing machines in the tanks.

Some cargoes, due to their high pour point (the temperature at which a liquid will
not flow) may require washing with hot water of at least 60 degrees Celsius. The
means of heating is usually by a tank cleaning heater (sometimes known as a
butterworth heater) located in the pumproom. Alternatively water in the slop tank
can be heated by heating coils located in the tank, but this is a slower process to
get the required temperature.

On a practical point if hot water washing is required it should be greater than

60°C. If warm water is used, (say 40°C) there is no benefit - the temperature will
not be hot enough to melt the residues but may be hot enough to remove some
lighter ends leaving an even denser residue to remove. Coated tanks may have a
recommended maximum temperature, (often 70-75°C) for washing so do not
exceed this.

In extreme cases the addition of tank cleaning chemicals will be required, but
these occasions will be rare. The method of application varies depending on the
area to be covered - it may only be necessary to spot clean by hand as a final
touch-up in persistent spots. Alternatively it may be decided that the nature of the
previous cargo or existing residues requires the chemical to be incorporated into
the main washing programme. The chemical is either injected into the tank
cleaning main for mixing or a “soup” is made up in the slop tank and recirculated -
the soup will have to be freshened up at regular intervals to maintain its
effectiveness.

The decision to use chemicals should not be taken lightly as problems may occur in
disposing of the wash residues - reception facility operators will not generally
accept them as the oil cannot be recovered and processed readily and the

75
reception firm still has the problem of disposal. They cannot be mixed or processed
with non- chemical treated residues.

Whatever the method of cleaning used it must be understood that this is one of the
most hazardous operations carried out in the voyage cycle. ISGOTT recognises this
(5th Edition, pg.187, 11.3.2) and gives comprehensive advice on safety precautions
to be taken. Most of this advice has stemmed from hard-earned experience. Skills
and experience were not growing at the same rate as tanker size. Hand washing
was still happening on some ships until tank sizes got too big.

Up until the 1950s tankers were small and generally hauled products around the
world. Tanks were washed by hand hoses and each company and even individual
masters / mates had their own procedures. There was not much in the way of anti-
pollution legislation and anyway what laws there were did not cover non-persistent
oils (products).

Trading patterns changed following nationalisation of various oil company

refineries. Refineries were then built in Europe in order to benefit from more
political stable climates. It was then crude that was moved with more frequency.

There was a steady increase in ship and hence tank size. Hand washing was no
longer an option and portable tank cleaning machines were used. Tank cleaning
procedures were re-thought. Steam was in favour for sweating out residues from
generally un-coated tanks, often being carried out in conjunction with the water
washing, as well as for driving ventilators. A series of explosions occurred around
this time

Case history - Fernmount

The vessel, a 34,000 dwt tanker, was anchored off Genoa awaiting orders, having
just discharged a cargo of Kuwait Crude. The main operation in progress at the
time of the incident was gas freeing 8 centre with a steam operated tank
ventilator in order to achieve a too lean atmosphere before washing. Preparations
had been made to clean the tank concurrent with the gas freeing, possibly in order
to maintain a too lean atmosphere due to vapour generation caused by
disturbance of the sludge during washing. Two portable machines had been
lowered 10 feet into the tank. The washing machines were not operating at the
time of the explosion.
The ventilator had been operating for about 20 minutes when the explosion
occurred. There was an initial low power explosion followed by a second, larger
explosion. The subsequent inquiry investigated all possible sources of ignition
including: the magnesium anodes causing a thermal ignition or impact spark, tools
etc. being dropped down the tank cleaning hatch by the crew, tank cleaning
machine dropping into the tank and causing a spark, electrical equipment failure
etc. All these were discounted.
In view of earlier explosions on the other ships, and subsequent research into the
causes static electricity was looked at as a source of ignition. Although no definite
conclusion was reached the balance of the evidence suggested that an electrically
charged mist, created by the steam being injected into the tank and the
suspended tank cleaning nozzles allowed a spark to occur.

76
Tank Atmospheres
The concept of controlling tank atmospheres during washing was not universal up
until this time but a lot of research was done and the Tanker Safety Guide in 1963
recommended that atmospheres were controlled - but didn’t specify which method
was preferred. Some companies opted for washing in a too lean condition, others
in a too rich state.

Following the explosion of three VLCC’s in 1969 the use of inerted atmospheres was
bought in. This was discussed in chapter 5.

Today ISGOTT recognises only 2 atmosphere conditions for tank washing:

• Inert – Oxygen content less than 8%, the safest option, you cannot create a
flammable atmosphere
• Non-inert – the tank atmosphere is not inerted and so measures are taken to
minimise the presence of hydrocarbons in the tank, (the fuel side of the fire
triangle)

Depending upon the atmosphere the precautions will vary:

Inerted
• Before starting to wash check the Oxygen content is less than 8% 1m below
the deck and at half the tank depth
• Maintain a positive inert atmosphere in the tank throughout the washing

Non-inert
Before washing:
• Pumps, pipes and the bottom of the tank to be flushed with water and
stripped back to a slop tank to remove as much hydrocarbon as possible
from the tank
• The tank must be ventilated until the hydrocarbon content is less than 10%
of the lower flammable limit, (LFL)

During washing – to minimise the fuel side of the fire triangle:

• The tank atmosphere must be monitored. If it reaches 35% of the LFL
washing must stop
• The tank is ventilated until the atmosphere is less than 10% LFL
• Washing and monitoring may resume

During washing to minimise the ‘source of ignition’ side of the fire triangle:
• No tank cleaning machines throughput can be greater than 60 m3/hour
• Total water throughput must not be greater than 180 m3/hour
• No recirculated water may be used, (increased risk of static)
• Additional precautions are listed in ISGOTT for the introduction of metallic
sounding equipment into the tank for up to 5 hours after the washing
operations is completed. This is because of the risk of static. Generally,
properly bonded metal equipment is permitted but ISGOTT should be
consulted.

It can be seen that washing in the inerted condition is preferred. Anything other
than this condition requires operational restrictions. Generally all the precautions
77
aim to reduce the chance of an electrostatic spark igniting a flammable
atmosphere.

Tank Cleaning Equipment

The tank cleaning system comprises a tank cleaning pump, (sometimes a cargo
pump can be used in lieu of a separate cleaning pump), a tank cleaning line which
runs from aft to forward and is connected to each tank by branch lines. On each
tank there will be a number of fixed washing machines which are permanent
fixtures and are connected to the branch line. The tank cleaning line has
connection points, similar to fire hydrants, to allow portable tank washing hoses to
be connected to the main tank cleaning line.

Tank cleaning system overview

78
 The majority of tank cleaning is carried out by means of
portable or fixed tank cleaning machines. These are
powered by the washing water, (or oil in the case of
crude oil washing|), and comprise a single or multiple
nozzle unit that rotates through 360o and change their
angle of elevation by 1 or 2 degrees with every 360°
rotation. This ensures maximum coverage of the cargo
tank surfaces.

Fixed machines may be programmable or non-

programmable, (most are programmable) and are
permanently installed in the tanks at the end of a steel
pipe.

A programmable machine allows the user to select the

angle of the wash. When the nozzle is pointing down
the angle is 0°. To wash the bottom of the tank a
typical wash cycle would be 0 – 40 – 0° meaning the
nozzle would start pointing down, each 360° rotation
the nozzle angle would change by the set value, say 2°, until the nozzle was at 40°
when it would begin to go down again until it was back at 0°. The number of
machines depends upon the size of the tank and internal structure.

Programmable unit on the top of a fixed tank washing machine

79
 Fixed washing machines

Portable machines are lowered into the tank through circular access holes located
in the deck by means of a flexible hose that is connected to the washing main on
deck. These are not programmable and have 2 nozzles which constantly rotate
360° in a horizontal and vertical plane. They are typically used to wash the small
areas which may be in the shadow of a fixed machine.

Portable tank washing machines

80
 • The water pressure dictates the jet length - look at manufacturer’s
guidance, typically 8 to 10 bar is required.
• Check electrical continuity of hoses in dry condition
• Machine/hose has to be connected to the wash main before lowering into
tank and not disconnected until after removal (this earths the machine and
removes a potential static hazard)
• For ease of lowering and to reduce load on the hose and machine itself a
hand rope is attached to the machine with a half hitch around the lower
part of the hose.
• Typically 3 or 4 “drops” per tank. Look at ships plans to decide drop heights
- especially at after end position machines to clean platforms effectively.
Drops are carried out from top to bottom with a longer washing time on the
bottom, as this is where the washings collect
• The size and internal structure of the tank dictate the number and location
of fixed machines

Tank Draining
The success of the tank cleaning is closely linked to the ability to keep the tank
well drained. If a build-up of water/oil is allowed to occur the bottom of the tank
will not be clean.

Stripping pumps or eductors are used for draining purposes. They must be able to
remove the tank contents at a greater rate than the tank cleaning machines are
introducing the washing medium.

Washing Cycles
A vessel may use an open or closed cycle washing programme. Open cycle involves
continuously drawing the washing medium from its source (the sea when water

81
washing or a cargo tank when crude oil washing) and collecting the tank washing
residues in the slop tanks. There will be a constant increase in the slop tank levels.

Closed cycle washing takes the washing medium from one slop tank and collects
the tank washing residues in another slop tank.

Open cycle washing reduces the risk of static electricity being generated.

Crude Oil Washing (COW)

COW was initially developed as a means to reduce pollution but it also provides a
commercial advantage. Crude oil contains sediments which will settle to the
bottom of the tank during a voyage and may be left in the tank when the oil is
discharged. Over time this build up will reduce the amount of cargo that can be
carried. When the vessel prepares for dry dock all of this sediment would need to
be dug out by hand which is dangerous, time consuming and expensive. Crude oil
washing is carried out during cargo discharge and ensures that the sediment is
removed from the bottom of the tank and is discharged with the cargo to the
terminal leaving the ship’s tank clean.

The COW system is the same as the tank washing system described above. So a
crude oil tanker will use the same tank cleaning line and tank washing machines for
crude oil washing during cargo discharge and for water washing tanks when that is
required. Two important differences between water washing and COW:
Only fixed tank washing machines may be used for COW, portable machines are not
permitted

The tank atmosphere must be inerted, non-inert atmospheres are not permitted for
COW

COW is required by MARPOL Annex I. The regulations in MARPOL require the vessel
to have a special COW manual which explains the equipment fitted to that ship and
how the COW should be carried out. The regulations require that approximately
25% of the tanks should be COW’d every discharge although no tank needs to be
washed more than once every 4 months.

It is the solvent effect of the oil that has a large impact on the cleaning efficiency
when crude oil washing, generally it is the lighter oils that have the higher solvent
effect. Some crudes, due to their high viscosity, are not suitable for crude oil
washing. A list will be given in the vessels COW manual.

Practical COW Operations

Some further points on COW:
• Pressure test the COW line before COW
• Only ‘dry’ oil should be used. This means no water and so it is necessary to
de-bottom cargo tanks at the beginning of discharge by 1 metre, or more if
necessary, to remove any free water
• If using a closed cycle wash, i.e. recirculating wash oil from the slop tank,
then recharge the oil in the slop tank regularly with ‘fresh’ oil in order to
maintain the solvent effect
• Monitor the level in the slop tank carefully as it will rise throughout the
COW operation and could overflow

82
 • Maintain correct operating pressure for line/machines as detailed in COW
manual. If pressure is too low washing will not be effective. Do not over
pressurise line.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Crude Oil Washing

Advantages:
• Reduced operational sea pollution
• Improved cargo out turn
• Reduced tank corrosion
• More cargo able to be carried due to less residues reducing available
deadweight
• Less de-sludging time for dry dock preparation

Disadvantages:
• Higher workload during cargo discharge
• Discharge time extended (6 to 12 hours typically)
• Higher risk of pollution in port
• More equipment and personnel required

COW Precautions
The following points need to be considered before and during COW operations:
• There must be a port specific plan, understood by all concerned
• COW line must be pressure tested before use
• There must be close coordination between ship and shore
• Communications must be tested
• Conditions under which COW is aborted or suspended understood
• A responsible person must check for leaks before and during operations
• The vessel must be inerted: check and calibrate oxygen analysers, oxygen
content in tanks to be less than 8% and checked at multiple levels, positive
pressure maintained
• The washing machines must be operating correctly: only in designated
tanks. Correct washing programme set (programmable machines)
• Adequate stern trim maintained to aid draining, float type gauging
equipment housed to prevent damage from washing jets

The vessel will be supplied with a ship specific Crude Oil Washing manual, giving
detailed advice on the equipment and procedures to be followed.

83
Gas Freeing

Introduction
Irrespective of whether a vessel is operating in an inerted condition or without
inert gas, it will be necessary to gas free the cargo tanks for entry purposes to
carry out repairs or for inspection purposes. ISGOTT identifies gas freeing as one
of the most hazardous tanker operations so it is important to understand the
hazards and procedures to minimise them.

All venting of gases from the tanks must be via the ships approved venting system
to ensure that potential flammable mixtures are vented clear of the deck and any
possible sources of ignition. Care should be taken to ensure flammable vapours are
not drawn into accommodation and engine room intakes.

Vessel equipped with inert gas systems are able to conduct the operation with the
greatest degree of safety. The tank is gas freed in 2 stages.
Stage 1
Inert gas is used to purge out hydrocarbons from the tank until the
hydrocarbon content is less than 2% by volume.
Stage 2
Fresh air is blown into the tank.

As can be seen from the diagram by following this procedure the tank atmosphere
can never enter the flammable range

Gas freeing with inert gas

84
Ships without Inert gas systems may at some point have a flammable atmosphere in
the tank so it is important to ensure there are no sources of ignition present

Gas freeing without inert gas

If the ship is equipped with an inert gas system then the IG blowers can be used by
opening the air intake and directing the gas through the IG lines to the tanks.
Alternatively, portable air or water driven fans are placed over circular openings in
the deck to ventilate the tank with fresh air.

85
Methods of Changing Tank Atmospheres
There are essentially two means of gas freeing a tank; by mixing the tank
atmosphere with the incoming air (dilution) or by displacing the tank atmosphere
slowly with the incoming air (displacement). The former relies on a high input
velocity to create mixing, the latter a slow input velocity to maintain the interface
between the air and tank atmosphere. This is illustrated in in the diagram below

The dilution method is convenient for gas freeing an individual tank, since a high
velocity can be maintained. A number of atmosphere changes are normally
required.

If a number of tanks require gas freeing then the displacement method may be
preferred. With a number of tanks open the inlet velocity will be low. This is
necessary to maintain the interface between the two atmospheres. In theory only
one atmosphere change is required, practically two are required due to mixing at
the interface.

Monitoring Atmospheres

Whichever method of gas freeing is used the tank atmosphere must be monitored.
This is by means of portable instruments. There are three aspects of an
‘atmosphere’ that need to be measured:

86
 1. Oxygen content
2. Hydrocarbon gas content
3. Toxic gases

There are many types of instrument available, the following are commonly used:
• Combustible Gas Indicators for measuring the percentage of the Lower
Flammable Limit
• Hydrocarbon meters for measuring hydrocarbon contents above the LFL
• Oxygen analysers for checking the oxygen content of an atmosphere
• Toxic gas detectors

It is now common to find ‘multigas’ meters on ships. These gas detectors detect
several different gases in one instrument.

Due to the variety of instruments and manufacturers it is important to read the

manufacturers instruction manual to ensure you understand how to use the
instrument correctly and what its limitations are.

Combustible Gas Indicators

Often known as ‘Explosimeters’ or catalytic filament gas detectors. The instrument
draws a sample of the atmosphere over a catalytic filament or ceramic pellet
(‘pellistor’) that is heated by an electrical current. The hydrocarbon gas oxidises
and raises the temperature of the filament, this results in an electrical resistance
change in the circuit that is
proportional to the
hydrocarbon gas concentration.

The meter must be zeroed in

fresh air before exposure to a
hydrocarbon atmosphere

Products of combustion can

contaminate the filament.
Regular calibration must be
carried out.

If the hydrocarbon content

being measured is over-rich
oxidation does not occur and it can damage the instrument. If the gas detector
uses this type of sensor it can only measure %LFL in air since air is required for the
oxidation. Therefore it could not measure %LFL in an inerted atmosphere. Check
the instruction manual to be sure whether this is an issue for the meter you have
on board.

Hydrocarbon meters
With the introduction of inert gas as a safety measure on tankers a means of
testing the tank atmosphere that did not rely on an oxidising process is required.
Essentially a cooling process is used for the measuring filament. Hydrocarbon gas
conducts heat more efficiently than air and as the sample is drawn across the
filament it becomes cooler than a reference filament. This changes the resistance.

87
A hydrocarbon meter (often termed a ‘Gascope’) can be used in an inerted
atmosphere and typically measures the percentage volume of hydrocarbon gas.
These meters will mathematically convert readings below the LFL to a %LFL
reading.

Infra-Red Analysers for Hydrocarbon gas detection

Hydrocarbon gases absorb infra-red light and so based on this principle a gas
analyser can be constructed. These instruments will measure hydrocarbon gases in
air or in inerted atmospheres to determine the % vol of gas present. For readings
below the LFL they will convert the value to a % LFL reading.

Oxygen Analysers
Various methods are used to measure oxygen content. One of the most common
types of instrument uses an electrochemical detection cell. When the cell is
exposed to oxygen an electrical current passes between 2 electrodes of different
metals. The more oxygen present, the more current that passes. The process eats
away one of the metal electrodes so eventually the cell will need to be replaced.
It is common to replace the Oxygen detection cells in these instruments every 12 to
18 months.

Toxic Gas Detectors

There is no single instrument that can test an atmosphere and detect all toxic
gases present. The user must decide which gases to test for. Multigas detectors will
typically measure Oxygen, hydrocarbon and one, perhaps two other gases. When
the detector is ordered the gases to be detected are chosen and the instrument
supplied with detection cells for those gases, which increases the price.

A cheaper and more flexible alternative is to use chemical indicator tubes, (often
called Draeger tubes after the largest manufacturer of tubes). These are
particularly useful when you may need to check for a large number of gases, such
as on a chemical tanker.

Most toxic gas

detectors tubes
consist of an
aspiration unit
(bellows type) into
which is inserted a
detector tube. The
tubes are made of
glass and contain
chemically treated crystals that only react to a particular substance. Instructions
contained with the tubes state how many aspirations of the unit are required. The
tubes have a shelf life, normally 24 months and can only be used once.

Calibration and Testing of Instruments

It is essential that all instruments used for measuring an atmosphere give accurate
measurements. They must be checked before use in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.

Most instruments require zeroing immediately prior to use. However oxygen

analysers are designed to measure oxygen in air, normally 21%. To zero these
instruments they must be calibrated with oxygen free gas such as pure nitrogen.

88
The nitrogen for calibration is supplied in pressurised cans. Calibration need not be
done prior to every use of the instrument but at regular intervals according to the
companies written procedures (say weekly).

Oxygen analysers also require spanning to check needle deflection to 21% oxygen.
Use fresh air.

Most instruments contain filters that require checking. If the filters become
blocked the gas cannot pass to the measuring cell readily.

Order of Testing
When dealing with potentially dangerous spaces the biggest killer is lack of oxygen,
it therefore makes sense for this to be the first test carried out. Anything less than
21% oxygen means the atmosphere is deficient. COSWP states the oxygen content
should be at least 20% for tank entry but you should consider what has displaced
the missing 1% of oxygen. Another reason for checking the oxygen content first is
that some combustible gas indicators may not work in an oxygen deficient
atmosphere.

Flammable gases should be tested for next. Less than 1% LFL is required for tank
entry purposes. (Do not get confused with 1% vol which would kill people entering
the tank).

Lastly, toxic gases are tested for. The safe level for a specific substance can be
referenced in publications issued by competent authorities such as the Health and
Safety Executive. For tanks which have contained inert gas carbon monoxide levels
should be checked.

Summary
Approximately 20 seafarers a year worldwide are killed by oxygen deficiency. It is
probably the most preventable cause of death on board ship. Correct entry
procedures and correct use of instruments ensures a safe outcome to entering
enclosed spaces such as cargo tanks.

89
Summary of Chapter 6
Tank Cleaning
• Tanks are cleaned for; quality control for next cargo, residue control, dry
dock preparation and tank entry and inspection purposes
• Tanks may be washed with clean sea water, crude oil or water/chemical
mixtures
• Most tank cleaning can be successfully carried out with clean sea water at
ambient temperatures
• Residues that solidify may require washing with heated water. Tank
cleaning heaters are fitted on most tankers for this purpose.
• Hot water washing should be carried out with a wash water temperature of
at least 60oC
• Tank cleaning chemicals should only be used in extreme cases for removing
persistent residues or in preparation for particularly sensitive ‘next’ cargoes
• Tank cleaning is one of the most hazardous operations carried out on
tankers due to vapour generation and the risk of electrostatic discharges
• Tank atmospheres may be inert or non-inert
• ISGOTT gives operational restrictions on each of the atmospheres defined
• Washing in an inerted atmosphere is preferred
• Tank cleaning machines may be portable or fixed
• Portable machines are lowered into the tank on flexible tank washing hoses
• The machines are driven by the pressure of the washing medium and rotate
about both axis to achieve full tank coverage by the jet
• Fixed machines are located on the end of steel pipes connected to the
washing main
• Many fixed machines are programmable to allow the user to control which
parts of the tank are washed
• Efficient tank draining is required. Stripping pumps or eductors are used for
this purpose
• Tankers over 20,000 dwt that carry crude oil are required to crude oil wash
(COW)
• Crude oil is drawn off from the main discharge of the cargo and directed
through the tank cleaning machines
• The pressure of the crude oil and its solvent effect achieve a high level of
tank cleanliness
• Some crude oils are not suitable for COW due to their high wax content
and/or viscosity or pour point
• MARPOL regulations dictate that all cargo tanks that will, or may, carry
ballast plus 25% of the remaining tanks for sludge control purposes must be
cleaned prior to departure from the last discharge port
• COW can only be carried out with cargo tanks inerted
• Fixed tank cleaning machines are required for COW
• The ship will have a COW Manual that details equipment and procedures to
be used
• Advantages of COW:
1. Reduced sea pollution
2. Improved cargo outturn
3. Reduced tank corrosion
4. More cargo deadweight available due to reduced residues
5. Less de-sludging time for dry dock preparation
• Disadvantages of COW:
1. Higher workload during cargo discharge
90
 2. Extended discharge time
3. Higher risk of pollution in port
4. More equipment and personnel required

Gas Freeing
• Gas freeing is required to create safe tank atmospheres for cleaning or
entry purposes
• Gas freeing can be carried out using portable fans, or directing fresh air
through the inert gas plant bowers
• Tanks can use the dilution or displacement method to change tank
atmospheres
• The dilution method relies on a high air input velocity to create mixing
• The displacement method relies on a low air input velocity to maintain the
interface between the incoming air and the displaced tank atmosphere
• Full length purge pipes are some times used, especially when using the
displacement method

Monitoring atmospheres
• Tank atmospheres must be monitored for oxygen content, hydrocarbon
levels and the presence of toxic gases
• Combustible gas indicators (‘Explosimeters’) are used to measure the
hydrocarbon content as a percentage of the lower flammable limit
• Hydrocarbon meters measure hydrocarbon contents above the LFL
• Some combustible gas indicators cannot be used in oxygen deficient
atmospheres
• A common type of oxygen analyser uses electrochemical detection cells
which must be replaced at intervals (usually 12 to 18 months)
• Toxic gas detectors rely on an aspiration unit into which is placed a glass
tube containing reactive crystals
• The crystals only react to the specific substance being tested for
• All instruments need to be calibrated at frequent intervals
• A tank atmosphere should be tested in the following order: oxygen content,
hydrocarbon level and finally for toxic gases

91
Chapter 7 Pollution
Introduction
Oil pollution is considered to be a major threat to the environment and strict
controls are placed on the discharge of oil/water mixtures. Penalties for
infringement are harsh, including imprisonment and heavy fines.

However, pollution has not always been considered a problem. Historically ships
only discharged a small quantity of oily water from their bilges, but when
dedicated tankers came along with their single hulls and ever increasing size the
amount of oil being discharged into the sea increased.

Tank cleaning was carried out by drawing the cleaning water direct from the sea
and stripping the washing residues directly overboard. Quite handy in some ways as
when the overboard discharge was sighted to be clean it was a good indication the
tank was as well. For line washing seawater was circulated through the lines and
out through the manifolds, again when the water was clean the lines were probably
clean. Tanks and lines may have been cleaned but large quantities of oil were
discharged into the oceans.

Before international oil pollution prevention conventions there was no

internationally accepted legislation against dumping oil. Some countries introduced
laws within their own territorial limits but these varied from country to country.

As the amount of oil being transported increased so did the levels of pollution -
there were no reception facilities in those days and no policing initiatives.

Concern was growing and the first international convention on pollution was held in
1954, this aimed to limit where pollution occurred - discharges less than 50 miles
from land were prohibited. The convention only applied to persistent oils (crude,
fuel oil, dirty diesels etc. ) and not the clean products. The Convention entered
into force in 1958 and was the forerunner to MARPOL as it is known.

Pollution falls into one of two categories:

• Operational (tank cleaning etc.)

• Accidental (casualty, faulty valves etc.)

The 1954 convention only addressed operational spills and not accidental. Some
countries didn’t even think pollution was a problem at all.

In 1964 amendments were made that further controlled the amount of permitted
pollution as it was realised that most of the oil entering the sea was as a result of
operational discharges and not accidental discharges.

Load On Top
The newer controls made it almost obligatory to use the Load on Top (ROB/LOT)
method of operating for crude oil ships. Instead of washing the oil/water residues
directly overboard they are stripped back to the vessel’s slop tanks. The oil/water
content is then allowed to settle out, oil floating on top of the water due to the
differences in density. The water part is then decanted to the sea under controlled
92
conditions. The remaining oil is then retained on board. The next cargo is loaded
on top of the slop tank contents.

Oil Discharge Monitoring Control System (ODMCS) is required to be used. This

equipment measures the oil content of oil/water mixtures as they are discharged
overboard.

The benefit to the environment is that the amount of oil going into the sea is
drastically reduced. For the cargo owner there is a commercial advantage in that
the LOT quantity is discharged ashore to aid the cargo outturn

In order to determine the amount of oil / water remaining in the slop tank(s) an
oil/water interface detector is used, commonly a portable electronic device.

Decanting of the slop tanks is a critical stage in the retention of oil onboard and
the timing of various steps is important.

The time required for sufficient settling out of the oil and water is variable and will
depend on a number of factors such as the type of oil, ambient temperatures and
vessel movement. Lighter oils will tend to separate quicker than heavier ones as
the density difference between the oil and water is greater, but some of the

93
residues will be denser than the stated density of the cargo and may contain a lot
of waxy residues. Heating of the slop tank contents may aid separation.

Under favourable conditions a few hours may be enough (light oil, warm
temperatures, calm sea) but typically 24 to 36 hours will be required.

Also the interface profile may vary in depth. There is rarely a clear-cut boundary
between the two. At best an emulsion layer will exist of varying depth - it is also
possible to get layering of the oil within the water. Discharge of the slop tank
content must cease well before the measured interface is reached. Every effort
should be made to remove as much water as possible consistent with the priority of
not letting any oil/water mixture entering the sea. In this context the latter stages
of pumping will have to be carried out at a slow rate with the stripping pump to
avoid a vortex dragging the oil through the water layer. The procedure to be
followed is:

• Use one main cargo pump at reduced speed until a tank sounding of about
20 percent of the tank capacity is reached
• Stop the main cargo pump , re-measure the interface. Recalculate
remaining water depth.
• Resume pumping using stripping pump until a predetermined level is
reached - based on experience & construction of tank, remember curvature
of slop tanks at low ullages means small volumes. As predetermined level is
reached slow pump down to a minimum
• If oil appears, or ODMCS shuts the overboard discharge valve stop discharge.

An entry in the oil record book must be made and ODMCS print outs kept for
inspection (they must be retained onboard for 3 years).

MARPOL Conventions
In 1973 IMO adopted the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships (MARPOL) which covers the different types of ship generated pollution.
They are contained in 6 annexes (dates they came into force are shown):
• Annex I 03/10/83 Oil
• Annex II 06/04/87 Noxious Liquid Substances in bulk (chemicals)
• Annex III 01/07/92 Packaged Harmful Substances
• Annex IV 27/09/03 Sewage
• Annex V 31/12/88 Garbage
• Annex VI 19/05/05 Air Pollution

The 1973 convention re-defined oil as “petroleum in any form including crude oil
and refined products”, thus bringing product tankers into the scope of MARPOL.

The concept of the IOPP Certificate - International Oil Pollution Prevention

Certificate - was bought in. Every tanker over 150 grt must be surveyed and issued
with a IOPP certificate. Every other type of vessel, (cruise ship, container ship,
etc.), over 400 grt must have an IOPP certificate to cover oily water discharges
from the engine room.

The IOPP certificate is valid for 5 years with yearly inspections. Any convention
country may check that the vessel complies and if not can be detained. No changes
may be made to the structure or equipment without the Flag states approval. Any
94
accidents or defects affecting the IOPP must be reported to the Flag State and
when in port to the Port State.

The 1973 Convention was modified by the 1978 protocol that addressed accidental
pollution resulting from casualties (stranding & collisions). The main effect is to
reduce the size of tankers to which the regulations applied and introduce the
concept of protectively locating cargo tanks by surrounding them with ballast
spaces.

Crude Oil Washing (COW) is required for crude oil tankers over 20,000 dwt and
improved stripping arrangements are required.

Shore reception facilities were also mandated - many countries seem to have
ignored this!

Further limits are placed on the amount of oil that can be discharged into the sea
during routine operations and for Special Areas, discharges are banned completely.

MARPOL Annex I Discharge Requirements

Special Areas
• Mediterranean
• Baltic
• Black sea
• Red sea
• Arabian gulf
• Gulf of Aden
• Antarctic
• Oman
• South Africa
• North West European Waters

Machinery Spaces – all ships

• Must be en-route
• Oil Filtering equipment in use
• >400 gt <10,000 gt
• Approved oil filtering equipment max oil content not > 15 ppm
• >10,00 gt
• Approved oil filtering equipment max oil content not > 15 ppm + an alarm
and a system to automatically stop discharge
• Residues not mixed with anything from cargo area

Inside a Special Area

As above but filtering equipment must have an alarm and an auto stop device

Oil Record Book Part I - Machinery Space Operations

Retained for 3 years on board

95
Cargo Areas of Tankers

Outside Special Areas

• More than 50 n miles from land
• Proceeding en-route
• Instantaneous rate of discharge < 30 litres per n mile
• Total quantity of oil discharged is < 1/30,000 if the previous cargo
• ODMCS working & slop tank arrangements

Inside Special Areas

No discharges allowed from cargo tanks or pump rooms

Oil Record Book Part II – Cargo/Ballast Operations

Retained for 3 years on board

MARPOL Annex I Amendments

The 1992 amendments to MARPOL 73/78 bought in the concept of the double hull,
mainly as a result of the Exxon Valdez grounding and the subsequent OPA 90 laws
of the USA. All new oil tankers over 5000 dwt to be double hulled. Single hull
tankers > 5000 dwt have now been phase out.

Summary
In summary then, Annex 1 to Marpol 73/78 is the main instrument for the control of
oil pollution from ships and contains design and operational measures to reduce the
amount of oil entering the sea from operational and accidental sources. The use of
LOT, COW and double hulls have all helped to reduce pollution along with more
effective design of oily water separators and monitors. Constructional
requirements including damage survival capability, tank size limitation, slop tank
capacity and overboard piping arrangements.

A modern, well run tanker should not need to put any oil overboard - just decanted
slop water. If every port had reception facilities even that would not be necessary.
Pollution is decreasing as a result. The majority of pollution incidents are of small
volume, but it’s the big ones that make the headlines. They are rare.

Oil Record Book part II Cargo Operations

Annex I requires a cargo record book. It must be completed on a tank by tank basis
whenever any of the following are carried out:

• loading cargo
• internal transfer of cargo
• unloading of cargo tanks
• cleaning of cargo tanks
• ballasting of cargo tanks (rarely done, for extreme weather conditions)
• discharge of ballast from cargo tanks
• discharge of water from slop tanks
• closing of all applicable valves or similar devices after slop tank discharge
operations
• disposal of residues

96
 • any accidental or intentional discharges

All entries are to be signed & dated by the officer in charge of the operation and
each page must be counter-signed by the master.

In front of the book a ship’s tank plan with capacities must be entered.

The Record Book is to be kept onboard for 3 years.

SOPEP
Regulation 37 of Annex 1 requires tankers of greater than 150 grt and every other
vessel >400 grt to carry onboard a Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan
(SOPEP).

The SOPEP will include:

• Procedures to be followed in the event of an oil pollution incident

• List of Authorities to be contacted
• Detailed description of the action to be taken to reduce or control the
discharge of oil following an incident
• Procedures to adopt with national & local authorities in combating pollution

Effective planning ensures that the necessary actions are taken in a logical and
timely fashion. For any plan to be effective it has to be:

• Familiar to those with key functions on the ship

• Reviewed & updated regularly
• Tested for effectiveness regularly. It is recommended that drills are
conducted but does not specify the frequency. Most companies specify
SOPEP drills every 3 months.

Any oil spill should be treated as an emergency and it is vitally important to

prevent any oil escaping overboard. The authorities are not that concerned if you
have an oil covered ship, notwithstanding any flammability or toxic hazard that
may be present. Once the oil has gone over the side there is not much the ship can
do about it beyond stopping any further oil going over the side. It’s a shore
problem from then on but at the end of the day the polluter is going to pay.

It is a requirement of MARPOL that the nearest coastal state be notified of actual

or probable discharges of oil into the sea in order for them to take appropriate
action and salvage measures.

There are a number of measures that can be taken in the event of a spill:

• Hydrostatic levelling or cargo transfer internally

• List or trim ship
• Reduce IG pressure to reduce outflow if hull breached
• Put water blanket under cargo by pump
• Ship to ship transfer

Preventative measures include:

97
 • Having all scupper plugs in
• Double checking valve & line settings - incl. over board valves
• Portable air-driven pump rigged to drain rain water or spilt oil to a slop tank
• Oil spill response equipment ready
• Keeping moorings well adjusted
• Vigilance!! - good deck watch etc.

Tankers are also required to have emergency towing equipment for use if the
vessel is adrift and in danger (SOLAS regulation). It is part of the ships anti-
pollution equipment.

Crude Oil Washing(COW)

Under Marpol 73/78 all crude oil tankers over 20,000 dwt must be fitted with a
COW system. It follows that it is a pre-requisite to also have an inert gas plant
because of the safety implications in using an oil as a washing medium.

COW was initially developed as a means to reduce pollution and also for
commercial reasons. If cargo tanks are cleaned with an efficient washing medium
during the discharge more oil will be pumped ashore and will not be onboard when
the ship is at sea, then there is consequently less oil to cause pollution.

COW is described more fully in Chapter 6.

98
MARPOL ANNEX II

Introduction
Marpol Annex II concerns the discharge of noxious liquid substances in bulk - i.e.
chemicals and details the discharge criteria & measures for control of pollution by
them.

Assessment of Pollution Categories

The pollution categories are determined on the basis of:

• Accumulative effect of biological hazard on the environment

• Tainting effect on fish
• Acute toxic effect on sea life
• Acute & chronic toxicity to humans
• Effect on amenities such as beaches etc.

The pollution category is decided by GESAMP – Group Of Experts On The Scientific

Aspects Of Marine Pollution. They generate a Hazard Profile.

GESAMP is a United Nations body that draws on expertise from other UN

organisations such as the WHO, IMO, IAEA etc

Categorisation of NLS

• Category X – Major hazard, discharge prohibited

• Category Y – A hazard, discharge quality & quantity limited
• Category Z – Minor hazard, less stringent restrictions on quality & quantity
discharged
• OS (Other Substances) – No harm no restrictions on discharge

It is not possible to have an analyser which can measure hundreds of different

chemicals, so rather than prescribe the number of ltrs per mile or ppm that can be
discharged for each chemical Annex II specifies how much liquid residue can be left
in the tank at the end of discharge. For chemical ships built from 2007 on it is a
maximum of 75ltrs.

Special Areas
Each annex to MARPOL has its own Special Areas. For Annex II however the only
special Area is:

The Antarctic

The allowable discharge criteria for each category of substance follows:

Outside Special Areas
All Categories:

• en route, min speed 7 knots

• discharge is below waterline
• more than 12 miles from land
• water depth >25 metres
99
Cat. X
Substances must undergo pre-washing in port prior to sailing from the discharge
port.
Cat. Y & Z
As per ‘All Categories’ except high viscosity & solidifying substances of Cat. Y
require a pre-wash.
OS’s
Are not subject to Annex II discharge restrictions

It is a requirement that the vessel can strip efficiently and this will have to be
proved to a Class Surveyor before issuing an International Oil Pollution Prevention
Certificate for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances In Bulk (valid for 5 years
with annual and intermediate surveys).

Procedure and Arrangements Manual (P & A Manual)

It is a requirement under MARPOL Annex II that chemical tankers have a ship
specific Procedures and Arrangements manual, the main purpose of which is to
identify for the ships officers the physical arrangements and all the operational
procedures with respect to cargo handling, tank cleaning, slops handling, and cargo
tank ballasting and deballasting which must be followed in order to comply with
the requirements of AnnexII.

Cargo Record Book for Ships Carrying Noxious Liquid in Bulk

Chemical tankers have their own separate oil record book when carrying chemicals,
if they are also carrying oil they need an oil record book too. The format is
essentially the same as the oil record book required for oil tankers.

100
Summary of Chapter 7

• Pollution from ships can be from operational or accidental causes

• The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973
is incorporated into State law to control shipboard pollution from ships. It is
known as MARPOL 73/78 following further amendments in 1978.
• The MARPOL Convention is divided into a number of Annexes, each dealing
with a different aspect of potential shipboard pollution sources.
• The Annexes are: Annex I Oil pollution, Annex II Noxious Liquid Substances,
Annex III Packaged Dangerous Goods, Annex IV Sewage, Annex V Garbage,
Annex VI Air Pollution
• MARPOL Annex I restricts the amount of oil that can be discharged legally and
restrictions are stated in terms of distance from the shore and litres
discharged per mile
• Annex I has rules for oily water discharges from engine rooms of all
vessels>400 gt and all oil tankers >150 gt
• Certain special areas further restrict discharges
• Annex I applies to all types of oil
• The use of ROB/LOT procedures reduces the quantity of oil discharged
• Oil discharge monitoring and control equipment is required for discharges
from cargo areas of tankers
• Oil filtering equipment is required for discharges from machinery spaces,
(engine rooms)
• An oil record book is required to be maintained, part I for machinery spaces
and part II for cargo operations on tankers
• If the vessel complies with MARPOL 73/78 an International Oil Pollution
Prevention Certificate (IOPP) will be issued. It is valid for 5 years with annual
and intermediate surveys
• Crude Oil Washing(COW) is required for all crude oil tankers over 20,000 dwt
• Ships required to COW must be inerted
• COW is carried out during the cargo discharge with some of the cargo being
directed through tank cleaning machines. The solvent effect of the oil and
the pressure remove residues. The washing oil and recovered residue is
discharged ashore from the vessel’s slop tank
• All tanks that are to carry ballast must be crude oil washed plus
approximately 25% of the remainder for residue control purposes
• Some crude oils are not suitable for crude oil washing
• Tankers >150 gt and all ships >400 gt are required to have a Shipboard Oil
Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP)
• The SOPEP is ship specific and gives details of procedures to be followed in
the event of pollution occurring, authorities to be contacted and detailed
descriptions of action to be taken.
• Annex II controls pollution from chemical tankers
• Pollutant chemicals are put into one of four categories; X, Y, Z and OS.
Category X are the worst pollutants
• Some substances do not present any significant pollution hazard and are
listed as OS or other substances
• Category X residues must be pre-washed and discharged ashore for disposal
prior to sailing from the discharge port
• Special Area for Annex II is the Antarctic
• A chemical tanker must have a procedures and arrangements manual giving
the operational procedures to be followed to ensure compliance with Annex II
101
• A chemical tanker that is constructed in compliance with Annex II
requirements will be issued with a certificate of fitness. Valid for 5 years
with annual and intermediate surveys

102
Chapter 8 Gauging Equipment & Cargo Calculations
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to give an understanding of the equipment used for
measuring.

When a cargo is loaded the official quantity loaded is determined by the shore
terminal and presented to the vessel on a ‘Bill of Lading’ which the master is
required to sign. This is a legal document and the master must not sign it unless he
is sure that the quantity stated matches what the vessel received. Therefore, the
ship calculates the quantity loaded to compare. For a variety of reasons the ship’s
calculation will never match the Bill of Lading figure exactly but provided it is
within 0.5% of the Bill of Lading figure it is acceptable for the master to sign the
BoL document.

Gauging Equipment
In order to calculate the volume and weight of cargo onboard it is necessary to
accurately gauge the oil level in the cargo tanks and obtain the cargo temperature.

There are three types of gauging equipment used:

Open
A calibrated sounding tape with a brass ‘bob’ on the end. The tape is lowered
through the tank ullage port (usually located on the tank lid). This involves
exposing the tank contents to the open atmosphere and hence personnel may be
affected, and is not used if the ship is inerted or contains particularly toxic cargoes
such as some chemicals

Open gauging device – Manual dip tape

103
Restricted
This equipment is usually a portable electronic device and comprises a calibrated
tape terminating in a probe. The device is attached to a vapour lock on the tank.
When the probe contacts the cargo a tone is generated and the level can be read
on the tape. It is termed a restricted device because when the vapour lock is
opened to allow the tape into the tank a small quantity of the tank atmosphere is
released through the device.

Restricted gauging device - MMC

Closed
So called because when in use there is no release of the tank atmosphere to the
deck. There are many types of device available, ranging from float type units to
radar systems. Closed gauging systems are required for ships operating with inert
gas.

Closed gauging device – radar gauge

104
 Comparison of types of gauging devices

Measurement References
The level in a tank can be measured in two ways:

• Sounding – measured from the bottom of the tank to the top of the liquid
• Ullage – from the gauging point to the top of the liquid

Ullaging is more commonly used on tankers except when the tank is almost empty.

There are some important reference points that need to be identified on a tanker
because the tank calibration tables use them as datum points for determining the
volume for a given ullage or sounding. These are:

• Tank reference height - this is the height measured from the official gauging
point to the tank bottom. Ideally measurement should be made from the
official gauging point but this may not always be possible. Correction must be
made for any height differences between the actual and official gauging
point. If the full reference height is not reached when sounding a tank
residue may be present
• Distance of gauging point to after bulkhead of the tank – this is required
when calculating wedge volumes remaining in a tank
• Distance of gauging point in relation to the tank’s centre of area – this is
required for trim corrections to observed ullages

105
Tank Calibration Tables
The vessel will be supplied with calibration tables for each tank on board (cargo,
ballast, fuel, freshwater etc.). The shipyard will calculate the volume of the tank
for typically 1cm intervals of ullage or sounding. As cargo tanks will contain
pipelines, they will occupy a physical volume in the bottom of the tank. The
volume of oil they contain within that tank is usually accounted for in the
calibration tables. Occasionally pipeline volumes are excluded and a statement to
this effect is given. The pipeline volume must therefore be added when calculating
quantities.

Trim Corrections
Liquid finds its own level. When a vessel is trimmed the oil level at one end of the
tank will be higher than at the other end. Unless the gauging point is at the
geometric centre of area then a correction must be made to correct the observed
level to an equivalent even keel level.

Tank calibration tables show corrected volumes for different trims. An

approximation for trim corrections to soundings in rectangular shaped tanks can be
found by the following formula:

Correction to sounding = d x trim

LBP

Where: d = distance of gauging point from the tank centre of area

LBP = vessel’s length between perpendiculars

Similar corrections are given for angles of list.

106
Temperature Measurement
It is essential accurate temperature measurements are taken. A one-degree Celsius
error on a 300,000-m3 crude oil cargo will result in a 240-m3 error in volume.

Usually temperature measurement is made by electronic thermoprobes. These

sensors are usually incorporated into portable gauging devices (MMC, UTI), but may
be fixed probes installed in a tank providing a direct read-out in the cargo control
room.

Whichever method is employed it is essential to take temperatures on an individual

tank basis and at top, middle and bottom levels within the cargo. This is especially
important with heated cargoes as temperature stratification can occur.

Density Measurement
When a cargo is loaded the terminal generally provides the ship with the cargo
density and anticipated loading temperature. It must be established whether the
stated density is in air or vacuo and at what temperature the given density is.
Normally stated densities are at the standard temperature and in vacuum.

The prudent ship’s officer will check the density of the received cargo as any
density error will affect both volumetric and weight calculations. Hydrometers are
used and a number will be carried on board to cover the normal range of densities
for the cargoes to be carried. Hydrometers should be of laboratory standard and
referenced to a standard temperature.

107
Water Measurement
Certain cargoes may contain water i.e. crude oil. This volume of water needs to be
quantified. The simplest method to obtain the sounding of any free water
underneath a cargo is by means of water-finding paste. This is a water reactive
paste that changes colour when it comes into contact with water; other liquids do
not affect its colour. The paste is thinly spread on a sounding tape or rod.

Alternatively an interface detector may be used. These are electronic devices that
emit a tone when contact with water is made. Restricted gauging devices often
have an interface detector built in.

Volumetric Units
Vessel calibration tables give volumes in cubic metres and/or US Barrels. The latter
is derived from how oil was first transported, literally in wooden barrels. The US
Barrel is equivalent to 42 US gallons (approximately 159 litres) and is the standard
unit at which crude oil is traded on the petroleum markets.

Cubic metres are also used, especially in non-USA influenced areas such as Europe.

Problems with Calculations

Like all liquids the volume of oil changes with temperature. This could create a
problem when comparing the shore figure with the ship’s figure because they could
be at 2 different temperatures. To get over this issue all volume measurements
are converted to a volume at a standard temperature. In metric units, when
working with cubic metres the temperature is 15°C. In imperial units, when
working in with volumes in barrels the standard temperature is 60°F.

Considering metric units, the density of the cargo is always quoted at 15°C. This
means that once the volume has been converted to 15°C it can be multiplied by
the density to obtain the weight

Volume Correction Tables

To convert the volume of oil in the tank from the observed temperature to the
standard temperature volume correction tables are used.

In Barrels (Bbls)
Table 6 Corrects Temperature to 60°F
• For Crude oil Table 6A
• For Products Table 6B

In Cubic Metres
Table 54 Corrects Temperature to 15°C
• For Crude oil Table 54A
• For Products Table 54B

Note the same method applies to ship’s bunker calculations and for these table B is
used.

Volume correction tables are entered with density and observed temperature to
obtain the volume correction factor. When the observed volume of oil in the tank
is multiplied by this factor the volume is converted to the volume it would occupy
at 15°C.
108
Example
Your tank has been measured as follows:
Volume of oil = 2136.5 m3
Temperature of oil = 28.0°C
The density at 15°C = 874.0 kg/m3

Extract from a Volume Correction Table

Note you should not interpolate in these tables, simply use the nearest density and
temperature values.

VCF = 0.9895

The corrected volume is

2136.5 x 0.9895
= 2114.07 m3 at 15°C

To convert cubic meters to barrels x 6.28981

2114.07 x 6.28981 = 13297 Bbls

To convert the volume to a weight (mass)

Mass = Volume x Density

The volume and density have to be at the same temperature. It is normal practice
for density to always be quoted at 15°C which matches the standard volume at
15°C.

= 2114.07 x 874.0
= 1,847,697 kg
= 1,847.70 tonnes

109
Wedge Formula
When there is only a small wedge of liquid left in a tank, (technically once the
liquid no longer touches the forward bulkhead it is considered a wedge), the tank
calibration table cannot be used to calculate the volume and special ‘wedge
formula’ must be used.

Wedge of liquid remaining in a tank

There are a number of wedge formulas in use. A common one is:

Wedge volume = LBP x W x (P)2

2 x trim

Where W = tank width P = corrected sounding at after bulkhead

The corrected sounding ‘P’ can be found by the formula:

P = P1 + U x trim
LBP

Where P1 = observed sounding

U = distance from gauging point to after bulkhead

The wedge formula is only applicable for free flowing liquid whose leading edge
does not reach the forward bulkhead and is suited to rectangular shaped tanks
only.

110
Chapter 9 General Precautions on Tankers at a Petroleum
Berth
The following general precautions are taken from ISGOTT and should be considered
when carrying out a cargo watch.

Compliance with Terminal & Local Regulations

When a tanker is alongside a petroleum berth she must comply with the terminals
safety regulations as well as the ships own regulations and procedures. As terminal
regulations vary depending on local needs there must be clear guidance available.
This is achieved through the Ship / Shore Safety checklist. In addition there may be
local Port Authority requirements that have to be followed.

Manning Requirements
There must be enough officers and crew on board at all times to deal with normal
operations and emergency situations. As a rule of thumb no more than 50% of any
department should be ashore at any one time.

Management of Moorings
Ships’ personnel are responsible for frequent monitoring checks. The type of
moorings found at tanker berths varies, from a conventional berth type mooring
pattern, to offshore ship-to-ship lighterings or buoy moorings. Each will have their
own specific requirements. Good mooring practice should be adhered to at all
times. This will include turning up ropes on bitts and not leaving then on drum
ends, ensuring there are a minimum number of turns of wire on the working drum
and ensuring moorings are correctly adjusted. It is especially important that spring
lines are kept tight at all times when loading arms are used because of the limited
fore and aft envelope of the arms.

Gangways & Accommodation Ladders

Many tanker berths are ‘T’ jetties (see picture below) and this often makes rigging
the accommodation ladder difficult. Portable gangways rigged near the manifold
(but as far away as possible from it) are used. More modern berths provide ‘shore’
gangways, but this does not remove from the ship the duty to ensure there is safe
access to the vessel.

111
Buoy Moorings
There are two types: Conventional (CBM’s) and Single Buoy Moorings (SBM’s).
A typical SBM mooring layout is shown in Fig.1.

The former involve anchoring forward & tying up down aft to up to 6 buoys, a time
consuming process. Cargo hoses are lifted by means of the ships’ crane. SBM’s are
single buoys to which the ship ties up to forward by picking up a chafing chain
secured to the buoy rope mooring. The chain is secured onboard by a bow chock on
the forecastle (see fig.2); the ship is free to rotate about the buoy with the wind &
tide. Good communications & regular checks on mooring condition (especially
chaffing of ropes) should be made. Proximity of the vessel to an SBM must also be
monitored closely. The vessel must not over-ride the buoy under any
circumstances. Engines are usually on stand-by throughout.

112
Emergency Towing Off Wires
In order for tugs to attach themselves to the tanker rapidly in an emergency most
berths require emergency towing off wires to be rigged forward and aft on the
offshore side from the berth. These should be wires of adequate length and
strength, (6 x 36 construction, 28-mm diameter & 45 metres long for ships over
20000 dwt).

The eye of the wire should be kept approximately 1 metre above the waterline
forward & aft. This can be achieved by means of a light lashing on the wire and
secured on the ships’ rail. Sufficient slack should be maintained between the bitts
and the fairlead to enable a tug to make fast and tow effectively.

HOWEVER, THE LATEST INDUSTRY GUIDANCE IS THAT THEY SHOULD NOT BE USED
UNLESS THE TERMINAL INSIST ON IT.

There have been far more injury to crews rigging them than them actually being
used to pull the ship of a berth in an emergency.

Tanker & Terminal Liaison on Safety Procedures

Following berthing and before starting cargo operations a ‘Key’ meeting will be
held between (usually) the chief officer of the tanker and the terminal
representative. The following will be agreed:
• Designated smoking areas
• Local safety and pollution regulations
• Information on the availability of fire fighting & emergency equipment on
board & in the terminal
• Action to be taken in an emergency
• Evacuation procedures – muster points ashore and escape routes
• Communications
• Cargo transfer procedures
• Vapour venting procedures
• Inert Gas requirements

113
The Ship / Shore Safety checklist will indicate this & other relevant information.
ISGOTT contains a pro-forma checklist, which is commonly used. It consists of 4
parts:
Part A – Buld Liquid, (i.e. all tankers), physical check
Part B – Bulk Liquid, verbal verification
Part C – Additional questions for chemical tankers
Part D – Additional questions for liquefied gas tankers

Each part contains questions which must be answered (tick box) by both the ship
and the terminal. Provision is made for additional remarks to be made.

Extract from ISGOTT 5th Edition, Ship to Shore Safety Checklist

Some questions are marked as:

A any procedures & agreements should be in writing in the remarks column

and must be signed by both parties

P in the case of a negative answer, the operation should not be carried out
without permission of the port authority

R items so marked are to be re-checked at mutually agreed intervals

114
State of Readiness
Fire-fighting equipment should be available for instant use. Prior to cargo transfer
operations fire hoses should be connected to the fire main, one forward and one
aft of the manifold. Monitors should be pointed at the manifold area. Portable fire
extinguishers, preferably dry-powder or foam should be placed near the manifold.

The International Shore Connection should be made available & confirmation

sought that transfer of water for fire-fighting purposes is available.

It is essential that the main engine and all critical auxiliary machinery required for
manoeuvring the vessel are ready for immediate use. Repairs and other work that
may immobilise the tanker should not be carried out at the berth without Port
Authority permission.

Security
Most oil refineries are secure places with access restricted. However, access to the
vessel should also be restricted to essential visitors, such as port officials, terminal
staff that have a valid reason for being on board, ships’ agents, chandlers and
cargo surveyors etc. It should not be assumed that visitors are aware of the
inherent dangers onboard tankers. Warning signs against smoking and use of non-
approved electrical equipment should be placed near the gangway.

The deck watch should be organised such that all visitors are challenged on
boarding.

The manifold area should be continuously manned during cargo transfer operations
as this is a potential weak area in the ship/shore interface. The watchman should
be instructed to report any significant change in manifold pressure and should be in
contact via portable radio to the cargo control room.

Fire and security rounds should be carried out regularly to ensure compliance with
smoking regulations. All outside doors and ports should be kept closed except for
access.

As many terminals use Chiksan loading arms, that have a very limited forward and
aft movement, the vessel should monitor moorings carefully to stop movement
along the jetty. In addition the vessel should display the two flag signal Romeo
Yankee (pass at slow speed) to warn passing vessels. During daylight hours
International Code Flag Bravo should be flown to indicate the vessel is carrying,
loading or discharging dangerous goods. At night an all round red light should be
shown on the main mast – some countries require a flashing red light.

115
Summary of Chapter 9

General Precautions at a Tanker Berth

• Ship must comply with terminal regulations whilst alongside – achieved
through ship to shore safety checklist
• There must be sufficient officers and crew on board at all times to handle
emergencies – rule of thumb is not less than 50% of each department on
board
• Good mooring practice is essential: ropes turned up correctly on bitts, spring
lines well tended at all times as hard loading arms have limited fore and aft
travel
• Gangways & accommodation ladders must be correctly rigged and safe access
to the ship ensured at all times

Buoy Moorings
• Conventional buoy moorings comprise up to 6 buoys in a semi-circular
arrangement around the ships stern. Anchors used forward
• Single buoy moorings (also known as single point moorings) consist of a buoy
connected to an undersea pipeline to shore. The tanker ties up to the buoy
and is free to rotate around the buoy. Vessel must not be allowed to over-
ride the buoy at any time

Ship to Ship transfer

• Used when large vessels cannot get into port due to available depth of water
• Ship to be lightered (STBL) is off-loaded by lightering vessel’s
• Guidance given in ‘OCIMF Ship to Ship Transfer Guide’
• Particular problems with moorings due to vessel movement

Emergency Towing off Wires

• Required in some ports to facilitate rapid un-berthing of tankers in an
emergency
• Rigged forward and aft on the outboard side
• Eyes to be kept approximately 1 metre above waterline
• Sufficient slack on deck(unless port regulations require otherwise)
• Industry guidance is that they should not be used unless the terminal insists

Tanker & Terminal Liaison

• Procedures to be agreed before operations start
• Key meeting held between ship and shore staff – safety checklist completed
• Items marked ‘A’ to be agreed (i.e. loading rates, shut down procedures)
• Items marked ‘R’ to be re-checked at specified intervals (i.e. smoking
regulations)
• Items marked ‘P’ indicate permission to be obtained from port authority (i.e.
engine repairs alongside)

State Of Readiness
• Fire fighting equipment laid out forward and aft of manifold
• Dry powder extinguishers & foam available at manifold
• SOPEP equipment available
• Main engine available at short notice
• International shore connection in accessible place

116
Security
• All visitors challenged
• Warning signs in place
• Manifold area & access to ship continuously manned
• Fire & security rounds carried out regularly
• Outer doors & ports kept closed except for access
• Appropriate day & night signals flown when alongside – RomeoYankee & fixed
or flashing red light

117
Chapter 10 Chemical Tankers and Gas Carriers
Chemical Tankers
Chemicals are essential in modern day life for use in paints, plastics, fertilisers,
solvent cleaners etc. There are about 20,000 chemicals in existence with new ones
being added every day and over 500 organic chemicals, (those that are carbon
based), are regularly transported by sea in bulk with additional products such as
acids, alkalis and vegetable oils being carried. There are specific hazards
associated with some chemicals and these will be looked at in this section of
chapter 10.

There are about 11 chemicals known as commodity chemicals (styrene, toluene,

xylenes etc). These are the main building blocks of the chemical manufacturing
industries and are generally carried in larger parcels of on long haul routes. The
other organic chemicals are generally carried in smaller parcel sizes.

The first chemical tankers were essentially oil tankers cleaned sufficiently well to
carry chemicals and then used in that trade. Today’s chemical tanker is a very
sophisticated vessel and is able to deal with the stringent safety and commercial
quality demands required of the industry

Today chemical tankers are amongst the most sophisticated vessels afloat, they are
also amongst the safest. As it is a newer industry than the oil industry it has learnt
from the mishaps suffered i.e. the problems of static charges during tank cleaning,
amidships accommodation hazards etc. The construction, equipment and operation
of these vessels is strictly controlled and we will look at this in some detail as we
progress.

Definition of a chemical cargo

In order to be classified as a chemical the cargo must be listed in Chapter 17 of the
International Code for the construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous
chemicals in bulk (commonly known as the IBC Code).

All chemicals offered for carriage are evaluated by a committee of experts

(GESAMP – Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental
Protection) in order to assess the hazard posed. If the cargo is not listed in Chapter
17 it cannot be carried although there are special procedures for new chemicals
that are not included to be quickly evaluated and carried.

Generally speaking chemicals can be grouped into a number of chemical families.

It is important to know what chemical family a cargo belongs to, especially as some
are not compatible with others.

Ship operators are not expected to know the hazards of every one of the 500 or so
chemicals normally carried. But they must know where to find information relating
to them.

Some of the chemical groups are:

• Acrylates – used to manufacture various plastic products
• Alcohols – paint strippers etc.
• Isocyanates – make polyurethane
• Ketones – adhesives, nail polish remover (acetone)
• Acids
118
 • Alkalis

The Main Hazards

Oil cargoes have three main hazards:
• Flammability
• Toxicity
• Pollution

Chemical cargoes may exhibit all, some or none of the above. They may also have
two additional hazards:
• Corrosivity
• Reactivity

Flammability
Much the same end result as oils but chemicals may have varying flammable
ranges. For example:
• Hydrocarbons 1 – 10%
• Methanol 6 – 36 %
• Carbon Disulphide – 2 – 48%
• Ethylene oxide – 2 – 100%

Most also need the same amount of oxygen, i.e. 11 – 21 percent for combustion to
be possible. There are some that can ignite at low levels of oxygen. Ethylene oxide
must be inerted to less than 2% for carriage due to its ability to ignite at low
oxygen levels.

Toxicity
Falls into acute (short term) and chronic (long term) poisons

Certain chemical cargoes pose a far greater toxic effect than oil. For example the
Occupational Exposure Limit of petroleum is 300 ppm. phenol 5ppm and allyl
chloride 1 ppm.

There is also the problem with two incompatible chemicals mixing, or mixing with
something else that can produce an enhanced reaction. For example Acetone
Cyanohydrin forms cyanide gas when it becomes heated.

A number of cargoes carried are known carcinogens, (approximately 10 percent of

the 500 listed), substances which may cause cancer.

Material Hazard Data Sheets must be consulted for details of toxicity hazards and
precautions to be taken. First aid measures are also given.

The IBC Code will give details of any extra precautions to be taken (i.e. extra
protective equipment that is required to be carried)

Pollution
The threat to the environment from chemicals can be far greater than that from
oil. This is mainly due to the toxic effect to sea life and the clean-up problems.

Marpol Annex II is concerned with the control of pollution from noxious liquid
substances in bulk; this is described in chapter 7.

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Essentially chemicals are placed into one of four categories X, Y and Z and what
are known as ‘Other Substances’ cargoes to which the provisions of Annex II do not
apply.

Category X cargoes carry the most environmental hazard, category Z the least.
Strict controls are placed on the disposal of residues, tank washings and slops.

Corrosivity
This covers two aspects – the corrosive effect on the ship and her construction and
the corrosive effect on human skin.

The materials of construction must be considered.

Steel used – stainless steel may be needed in pipes and tanks especially for acids

Most modern chemical tankers are built with stainless steel clad tanks. This is
expensive but the value and sensitivity of cargoes allied with cargo owners quality
control expectations makes this almost compulsory.

Acids, or cargoes with a high acid content, will attack mild steel. There are a
number of cases of sulphuric acid eating through shell plating in the past. Stainless
steel is not affected by acids, is easier to clean than coated tanks (cargo not
absorbed, especially in broken down coatings).

The tanks can either be clad in SS or constructed of SS. There are different
qualities used.

In service the SS should be chemically PASSIVE (i.e. a layer of chromium oxide

formed on the surface). If this layer is removed then the SS can be attacked, i.e.
become ACTIVE by reaction with cargo or especially salt or dock water. Only fresh
water should be used for tank cleaning. Chemical tankers typically have the after
peak filled with fresh water for this purpose.

Spraying with a weak solution of nitric acid, or exposing to air for a number of days
can passivate tanks.

Reactivity
If two oil cargoes are mixed together the cargo may be put off specification, but
that’s about all in the way of a reaction.

Certain chemical cargoes are REACTIVE. They may react with themselves, with air,
with water or other cargoes.

The nature of the reaction may be a fire or explosion, release of toxic vapours,
produce heat, cause rapidly increasing pressure, change the nature of the cargo or
affect its quality.

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Reaction with self
Certain cargoes can have a self-reaction; this is usually set off by heat. For
example styrene polymerises if it is heated sufficiently. The chemical reaction
turns it from a liquid to a solid – polystyrene

Such cargoes can be inhibited and must not be heated or placed next to adjacent
heat (keep less than 35oC).

Reaction with air

A small number of cargoes will react with air. It is therefore essential to avoid
contact with air. This can be achieved by either inerting or, if the cargo is denser
than, and immiscible in water, putting under a water pad (IBC requires not less
than 760mm). Phosphorous is one such cargo. If it meets air it spontaneously
ignites.

Reaction with water

Cargoes that react with water must avoid contact with water, moisture or vapour.
This is achieved by draining & drying the entire cargo system. The cargo is loaded
into the tanks with a moisture free atmosphere. This is best achieved by inerting
with low dew point IG (nitrogen).

Water reactive cargoes should not be stowed adjacent to ballast tanks containing
ballast, slops or cargoes containing water (caustic soda is 50% water). Heating coils
should be drained or oil used instead of steam.

Reaction with other cargoes

This is one of the most critical areas, especially at the planning stage. Two non-
compatible cargoes if mixed can cause a severe reaction as described earlier.
Guidance is given in compatibility charts -–the USCG one is the most popular and
most ships have a separate line & pump for each tank

The IBC Code & Ship Types

This is the International Code For The Construction And Equipment Of Ships
Carrying Dangerous Chemicals In Bulk. It is an IMO publication and is incorporated
into UK law through a Statutory Instrument (Merchant Shipping (Chemical Tankers)
Act 1986)

The Code aims to provide an International standard for chemical tankers and
applies to all tankers, irrespective of size, carrying noxious liquid substances in
bulk. It applies to ships built after 1/7/86 and the current edition was introduced
1/1/07

It is based on assigning each chemical tanker to one of three ship types depending
on the degree of hazard presented by the cargoes carried. It recommends design
criteria, construction standards and equipment provisions as well as operational
procedures. In itself it is not concerned with pollution but provides pollution
categories of MARPOL against the cargoes listed.

Damage to a chemical tanker could lead to a release of hazardous cargo and so,
depending on the cargoes carried, the cargo is protectively located. Under the IBC
Code assumed limits of damage are taken and are in terms of head on collision,
side penetration, stranding and minor damage from tugs, jetties etc.

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Under the IBC Code one of three ship types is designated:

• Ship Type I. Can carry the most hazardous (safety & environment) cargoes
which require maximum protection
• Ship Type II. Can carry appreciably hazardous cargoes which require
significant protection
• Ship Type III. Can carry products with sufficiently severe hazards which
requires moderate protection.

Accordingly the Type I ship should be able to withstand the greatest degree of
damage.

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There is a vast amount of detail into requirements for specific cargoes. This
information is made more readily available by referencing against a cargo name in
Chapter 17. A tabular format is given for ease of reference in the book.

Column Contains
a Product name Proper shipping name not trade name

b UN Number No longer used

c Pollution category As per Marpol Annex II

d Hazard S = safety, P = pollution

e Ship type 1,2,3. Type 1 ships can carry type 2 or 3 cargoes, type
2 ships can carry cargoes allowed in type 2 or 3 ships
f Tank type 1 = independent, 2 = integral, G = gravity, P = pressure
most cargoes are type 2, some acids are 1G, none P
g Vents Open, controlled, SR = safety relief device

Inert – tanks, lines & possibly surrounding spaces

h Tank environment Pad – fill tank & lines with liquid or gas to avoid air
Dry – tanks & pipes moisture free gas
Ventilation – forced or natural
i Electrical Temperature class
equipment Apparatus (gas) group – depends on ignition energy
required to ignite
Flash point – NF = non-flammable
j Gauging Open, restricted, closed
Indirect = flow meter, weigh bridge. None listed
No = gauging not allowed, applies to a few acids
k Vapour detection F = flammable, T = toxic. Must have correct tubes on
board
No = no requirement
l Fire protection A = alcohol resistant foam or multi-purpose
B = regular foam (i.e. non alcohol resistant) includes
fluro –protein, aqueous film forming. Must have correct
type onboard
C = water - spray
D = Dry foam (may also need water spray for boundary
cooling)
No = no special requirements under the code
m Materials of No longer used
construction

n Respiratory & E = extra equipment, i.e. beyond SOLAS requirements,

eye protection may be required
No = no special requirements
o Special Must be consulted within the body of the book as some
requirements are cargo specific

Chapter 18 of the Code lists cargoes that have no recognisable hazard other than a
pollution one. They are therefore outside the scope of the code but included as a
guide for planning
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An index of chemicals carried is given. This is useful for establishing the correct
chemical name. Synonyms, (alternative names), are given.

The IBC Code is the main source of reference at the planning stage. Its
requirements must be followed

Other Sources of Information

Additional sources of information to consult include:
• ICS Chemical Tanker Safety Guide
• ISGOTT
• MARPOL
• Hazard Data sheets
• Ships Procedures & Arrangements (P & A) manual
• Coating compatibility guide
• USCG cargo compatibility guide

The P & A Manual

The P & A manual is required under MARPOL and is concerned with the
environmental aspects of the cleaning of tanks and disposal of residues & mixtures.
It is not a safety guide.

It identifies the equipment and arrangements on board for complying with MARPOL.
It is therefore ship specific and gives operational procedures for:

• Cargo handling
• Tank cleaning
• Slop handling
• Residue discharges
• Ballasting & deballasting

The manual must be approved by the Administration

Certification
In addition to normal ship certificates a chemical tanker must be issued with a
Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk.
Commonly known as the COF. It is valid for 5 years with intermediate and yearly
surveys. An attachment to the certificate states the cargoes the ship can carry. If a
cargo is not on this list then it cannot be carried.

Remember also that a chemical tanker could carry oil products in which case she
must comply with oil tanker construction and operation regulations and have an
IOPP Certificate with form B attached for a tanker.

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Inert Gas
The rules for Inert Gas on chemical tankers are different to oil tankers.

IG is not required:
• On chemical tankers constructed before 1/7/86 OR:

• If constructed after 1/7/86 provided:

1. Individual tank capacities are <3000m3
2. Individual nozzle capacities are not > 17.5 m3/hour
3. Total throughput for all machines in a tank is not > 110m3/hour

• From 01 Jan 2016 all chemical tankers > 8,000 dwt must have an inert gas
system

In practice modern chemical tankers either use compressed nitrogen in cylinders or

have nitrogen generators on board.

Tank Coatings
There is not an all-purpose tank coating (other than possibly stainless steel) that is
suitable for all chemical cargoes. Some coatings have better resistance to certain
cargoes than others. A modern chemical tanker with coated tanks will have a
variety of coatings to achieve flexibility as to the cargoes able to be carried.

It is essential the coating manufacturers guide is consulted when planning a load to

check compatibility and/or any restrictions imposed. The main coating types found
are:

Zinc Silicate
Poor resistance to acids or alkalis (even Fatty acids in vegetable oils, <2.5%
required) and sea water. Most suitable for the carriage of solvents (toluene,
benzene), but the cargo may pick up traces of zinc. Cargoes must be in the Ph
range 5.5 - 11

Epoxy
Resistant to Alkalis, amines (by products of ammonia), weak acids, vegetable oils,
sea water

Not suitable for alcohols (methanol, ethanol) and ketones. Limited resistance to
aromatics (benzene & toluene) – time limits for carriage usually imposed as these
cargoes can cause softening of the coating, which will increase the chance of
absorption.

Epoxy – Phenolic
These are modified epoxys which give better resistance to solvents. More expensive
than basic epoxy.

Polyurethane
Gives a similar level of protection to epoxy tanks but the high gloss finish makes for
easier tank cleaning. Therein lies its advantage.

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IT IS ESSENTIAL THAT WHEN LOADING A CARGO THE COATING MANAFACTURERS
COMPATABILITY GUIDE IS CONSULTED. Failure to do this can cause severe damage
to the coatings (and your career!)

126
Gas Carriers

Introduction
A gas carrier is a tanker designed to carry cargoes that exist as a gas at ambient
pressures and / or temperatures. In order to transport them economically the gas
must be converted to a liquid. This is achieved by pressurising the substance or
cooling it sufficiently so that it condenses. A gas that is liquefied occupies a volume
of between 250 and 600 times less than in the gaseous state at atmospheric
pressure.

There are a number of gases regularly transported by sea ranging from methane (or
Liquefied Natural Gas), propane and butane (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) to chemical
gases such as vinyl chloride and ammonia.

The design of gas carriers is very sophisticated and their construction costs are far
greater than an equivalent sized oil tanker. Much of the extra cost is put into the
design and construction of the cargo containment system and safety devices.

This section of Chapter 10 gives an overview of the main hazards and operational
procedures.

The main source of reference for the safe operation of gas carriers is the Tanker
Safety Guide (Liquefied Gas) and Liquefied Gas Handling Principle in Ships and
Terminals.

There is an industry body called the Society of International Gas Tanker and
Terminal Operators, (SIGTTO), who are a non profit organisation made up of
representatives from all the companies who operate gas ships and terminals. Their
objective is to maintain and improve safety by sharing experience and conducting
research into specific issues. They produce a lot of publications and have a web
site, www.sigtto.org.

Cargo Properties
The majority of gases carried by sea are hydrocarbon based. The simplest
hydrocarbon is methane and consists of a single carbon atom to which is bonded
four carbon atoms. Methane exists as a gas at ambient temperature . If further
carbon atoms are added the substance will remain a gas at atmospheric pressure
and temperature until there are five carbon atoms in a chain (C5). This is pentane
which can exist as a gas or liquid in ambient pressure conditions depending upon
the temperature.

• Methane CH4
• Ethane C2H6
• Propane C3H8
• Butane C4H10
• Pentane C5H12

Methane is known as Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), the other gases listed above are
Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG).

The remaining gases carried are chemical gases and consist of substances such as
ammonia, chlorine, vinyl chloride etc.

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If a substance has a saturated vapour pressure (SVP) above atmospheric pressure it
will boil. Saturation occurs when the rate of evaporation equals the rate of
condensation and is a function of liquid temperature. Further evaporation can only
take place by increasing the temperature. The SVP can be plotted against a range
of temperatures.

An alternative way of relating SVP to temperature for a particular substance is to

quote the temperature at which the saturated vapour pressure is equal to
atmospheric pressure. This is the atmospheric boiling point.

By varying the pressure above the liquid the boiling point can be adjusted –
increasing the pressure raises the boiling point, decreasing the pressure reduces
the boiling point.

Pressure can be applied to a containment system but above a certain temperature

the substance cannot be liquefied by pressure alone. This is the critical
temperature.

The critical pressure is that required to liquefy a substance at its critical

temperature.

The following table correlates atmospheric boiling point, critical temperature and
critical pressure.

Gas Atmospheric Boiling Critical Critical

Point (oC) Temperature (oC) pressure (Bar)
Methane - 161.5 -82.5 44.7
Ethane - 88.6 32.1 48.9
Ethylene - 103.9 9.9 50.5
Butane - 0.5 153.0 38.1
Propane - 42.3 96.8 42.6

Gas cargoes may be refrigerated, pressurised or a combination of both (known as

semi-refrigerated or semi-pressurised / fully refrigerated). For example methane is
only carried refrigerated to below its atmospheric boiling point. Otherwise the
containment system would have to be able to withstand 44.7 bar pressure, which is
very high, and would still have to be cooled to below minus 82.5oC. It is more
practicable and economic to refrigerate.

Provided a gas is below its critical temperature it may be liquefied by pressure

alone. From the above it can be seen that ethane and ethylene cannot be liquefied
by pressure alone as it cannot be guaranteed that the cargo will be carried below
the critical temperature. Some refrigeration will be required. Butane and Propane
can be pressurised only but must be able to withstand high pressures, this normally
makes the tanks very heavy, cylindrical in shape and wasteful of hold space. Fully
pressurised ships are usually small coastal type vessels.

Gas Carrier Codes

As in the case of chemical tankers IMO has developed a series of Codes dealing with
the design and equipment of gas carriers. Depending upon the year of building a
different Code will apply. The latest edition is the International Code for the

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Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (the IGC
Code) and applies to ships constructed after January 2016.

Cargo Containment Systems

The IGC Code specifies the design criteria for different tank types. Pressure vessel
configurations are required if the design pressure exceeds 0.7 bar g. The choice of
system depends on cargoes carried & trading pattern.

The IMO codes identify five different cargo containment systems:

• Independent tanks
• Membrane tanks
• Semi-membrane tanks
• Integral tanks
• Internal insulation tanks

The independent and membrane type tanks are by far the most common found in
service, in fact there are very few vessels that use semi-membrane, integral or
internal insulation tanks.

Independent Tanks
So called because they are completely self-supporting and do not form part of the
hull and so do not contribute to the strength of the hull.

Depending on the design pressure there are three types of independent tanks;
types A, B and C

Type A (Fig.1)
Have plane surfaces and can withstand pressures up to 0.7 bar. Secondary
containment is required in case of leakage if the carriage temperature is below –
10oC. Generally used for fully refrigerated ships.

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Type B (Fig.2)
May be plane or spherical construction. Partial secondary containment (splash
barrier). Pressures up to 0.7 bar. The design and construction is more stringent
than type A and so are far less likely to ever leak during their life which is why on a
partial secondary barrier is required.

Type C (Fig.3)
Spherical or cylindrical. Able to withstand pressures from < 2 bar to 18 bar. Used
for semi-refrigerated or fully pressurised cargoes. Can be used for fully refrigerated
ships if suitable steels used.

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No secondary containment is required as pressure vessels are very robust and easy
to test. The tank is constructed of special carbon steels that can withstand cold
temperatures.

Membrane Tanks (Fig.4)

This type of tank consists of very thin membranes and insulation layers that are
supported by the ships hull. Membrane systems must always have full secondary
barriers. The thin secondary barrier sits approximately half way through the
insulation in case there is a leak of the primary membrane. Such systems are
mainly used for the carriage of LNG.

Semi-Membrane Tanks
Primary barriers are significantly thicker than on full membrane ships. The tanks
are self supporting when empty but non-self supporting when full as the vapour
pressure and liquid head loads are transmitted through the hull via the primary
barrier and insulation. Originally designed for LNG but developed for LPG carriage
as well.

Integral Tanks
This type of tank forms a structural part of the ships hull. Not normally allowed for
cargoes carried below –10oC. Not very common.

Internal Insulation Tank

The insulation is attached to the inner hull of the ship and capable of carrying
cargoes at low temperatures. Again not very common.

Materials of Construction
The minimum cargo temperatures expected and also compatibility with those
cargoes to be carried affect materials used.

Ordinary mild steel becomes brittle at low temperatures. Consider a slice of bread
at room temperature, it’s pretty flexible. Take a slice of bread from the freezer
131
and try to bend it and it will snap. This is brittle fracture. Fine grain carbon
manganese steels are used extensively as they can withstand brittle fractures
induced by cold temperatures. For temperatures below –55oC alloy steels such as
carbon manganese with additional nickel are used.

For fully refrigerated cargoes such as ethylene, (-104°C), or LNG, (-161°C),

stainless steel or aluminium are used.

Piping, pumps, valves and gaskets must be of suitable materials.

Tank Insulation
Serves two purposes:
• reduces heat leakage and evaporation of cargo
• prevents excessive temperature reduction of hull steelwork

Greater thickness of insulation will reduce ‘boil off’ gas (the gas produced as the
liquid temperature rises) but reduce cargo carrying capacity.

Self-supporting tanks have insulation on the outside of the tank. The insulation is
sometimes in pellet form in the space between the hull and free-standing prismatic
tank.

Insulation must be able to withstand mechanical damage, be of light weight and

not be affected by the cargo or vapour. Polyurethane, mineral wool, balsa wood
and polystyrene are commonly used.

Boil Off Gas (BOG)

Since no insulation system is perfect heat will always penetrate into the cargo
tanks when they are refrigerated. As the liquid warms it evaporates producing
more gas and raises the tank pressure. Since the tanks can only withstand a
limited amount of pressure this must be released. The act of dropping the pressure
causes the liquid to boil and evaporate which cools the liquid back down.

In the earliest gas carriers the boil off gas was vented to atmosphere but this is
wasteful and is no longer permitted. There are 2 ways to deal with boil off gas
released from the tank:
Reliquefaction
Burn it as a fuel

Reliquefaction
Boil off gas is taken from the tanks to the cargo compressor room, located on deck,
where it is compressed and cooled until it condenses back into a liquid. Once this
has been achieved the liquid can be returned to the tank so no cargo is lost and the
liquid in the tank is kept at a constant temperature. This is normal practice on
refrigerated and semi refrigerated LPG ships. Because of the low temperature of
LNG, (-161°C), it is more difficult and expensive to do this on LNG vessels. Some
vessels have been built with a Reliquefaction system for LNG but generally it has
been considered not economic and is not common on LNG vessels

Burn BOG as fuel

Because of the problems associated with reliquefying natural gas LNG vessels have
adopted the practice of burning the BOG as a fuel for the main engine. This means
that the quantity of cargo delivered is always less than what was loaded however it
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saves on bunker fuel. Historically LNG ship were always steam powered vessels as
it is relatively easy to burn natural gas alongside bunker fuel burners in a boiler.
However in recent years as insulation systems have reduced the amount of BOG
produced coupled with the inefficiency of boilers and steam propulsion diesel
engines have been produced with will burn natural gas.

There are currently 2 types: Duel Fuel Diesel Electric, (DFDE), and slow speed
diesels. DFDE ships burn the gas in diesel engines which are used to produce
electrical power and the propellers are driven by electric motors. Slow speed
diesels are more like conventional ships’ engines which directly drive the propeller
but these engines can run on gas or bunker fuel.

Ship Equipment and Instrumentation

Cargo Piping and Valves

Gas carriers must be able to deal with liquid cargo and vapour. Separate liquid and
vapour lines and manifolds are fitted. Liquid lines lead to the bottom of each tank
and vapour lines from the top. On semi and fully refrigerated ships vapour
connections lead to the compressor room where the reliquefaction plant is located
or in the case of LNG ships where the BOG is processed before sending to the
engine room as fuel.

All pipe work is located above main deck level. Pipelines must be able to cope with
thermal expansion and contraction. Bellows units are fitted to allow for this.
Vapour relief valves are located on the tank domes.

Emergency shut down (ESD) devices are located at the liquid and vapour
crossovers. They will shut down a loading or discharging operation and close the
manifolds in an emergency simply by pressing a button. They must be tested
regularly.

Spray Rails
These are located in the cargo tanks and are used when cooling down cargo tanks
in preparation for loading. By vapourising the cooling liquid through the spray rail
nozzles even cooling of the entire tank surface is achieved.

Cargo Pumps
Most gas carriers use deep well or submerged centrifugal pumps in each tank. Fully
pressurised ships may discharge by the use of pressure alone, in which case booster
pumps ashore assist.
Reliquefaction Plant
Cargo vapour pressures must be controlled during loading and on passage. The
reliquefaction plant is used for this purpose and carries out the following functions:
Cools down the tanks and lines prior to loading
Reliquefies cargo vapour generated during loading
Maintains or reduces cargo temperature on passage

The reliquefaction plant is essentially a large-scale refrigerator

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 Typical arrangement of pipelines on a gas carrier

Inert Gas System

Inert gas is used to inert for primary inerting of cargo tanks which have been gas
freed. On ships with independent type A tanks the hold spaces are also inerted.
Cold cargo cannot be mixed with inert gas since the water vapour in inert gas will
condense into water and freeze. Once cargo tanks have been inerted the inert gas
is replaced with ambient temperature cargo vapour before the tank is cooled down
ready to load a cargo.

Gauging Equipment
IMO Gas Codes require every cargo tank to be fitted with certain types of gauging
equipment depending on the cargo to be carried. Restricted or closed equipment is
used. High level alarms are required that give an audible and visual alarm and have
automatic shut down of cargo loading. The alarm may be incorporated in the
gauging device.

Pressure and Temperature Monitoring

Pressure monitoring is required throughout the cargo system including cargo tanks,
discharge lines, liquid and vapour crossovers.

Cargo tanks must have at least two temperature sensors, one at the top and one at
the bottom of the tank. For Type A tanks below –55oC temperature sensors within
the insulation or on the hull structure are required.

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Gas Detection
It is vital that any gas leakage is immediately detected. A fixed gas detection
system is required with audible and visual alarms on the bridge, and cargo control
room. Sensors must service the following spaces:
• Cargo compressor room
• Cargo control room
• Enclosed spaces such as hold and inter-barrier spaces
• Air locks
• Gas supply to engine room (LNG ships only)

Certification
In order to operate as a Gas Carrier the vessel must be constructed and equipped in
accordance with the IGC Code. Once the vessel has been surveyed and found to
comply with the Code a Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied Gases
in Bulk.

The Certificate of Fitness is valid for 5 years and is subject to intermediate (30
months), periodical (5 years) and annual surveys.

Cargo Handling Operations

A voyage cycle on a gas carrier coming out of dry dock will involve the following
stages:
• Drying. The cargo tanks coming out of dry dock will contain 21% oxygen that
will have a varying degree of humidity. The air must be dried and any free
moisture / water in the tank and lines removed to prevent icing problems
with refrigerated cargoes. Air is passed through a dryer prior to introduction
to the containment system to dry the entire cargo system and reduce dew
point to about -20°C

• Inerting. Cargo tanks are inerted with inert gas to reduce the oxygen content
to prevent flammable atmospheres. Hold spaces may also be inerted.

• Purging (‘gassing up’). Displaces the inert gas with ambient temperature
cargo vapour

• Cooldown. Reduces the temperature of the cargo tank before loading.

Cooldown reduces thermal stresses and excessive cargo vaporisation. Spray
rails are used to spray liquid into the tank which cools the atmosphere.

• Loading. Cargo must be loaded into tanks that are at or below the delivered
temperature ashore. Excessive vapour is returned to shore for reliquefaction
via a vapour return line or the ships own reliquefaction plant may be used.

• Loaded Passage. Temperatures and pressures must be monitored. Excess boil

off gas is reliquefied using the reliquefaction plant or sent to the engines as
fuel on a LNG carrier.

• Discharge. Cargo tank pressures and temperatures must be at values

acceptable to the terminal. Cargo may be discharged by pressure alone in the
case of small fully pressurised ships or more normally by ships pumps.
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 • Ballast passage. Cargo tanks must be prepared for the next cargo. For
refrigerated cargoes the tanks must be cooled down. This is achieved by
retaining a small amount of cargo (known as a ‘heel’) in each tank at the
discharge port and passing it through the reliquefaction plant and spray rails.

• Changing cargo. If an incompatible cargo is to be carried next voyage then

the tanks must be purged of all previous cargo. Chemical gases are
particularly sensitive to contamination.

• Boil off and warm up. If the previous cargo is to be removed the first stage
is to warm the tanks which will cause any remaining liquid to boil off into
vapour. The tank is warmed until it is ambient temperature. During this
phase excess pressure may be vented to atmosphere. This is the only time a
gas carrier will vent cargo vapours. There are no restrictions in MARPOL on
this. There is no tank washing required as all cargo traces will have
evaporated.

• Purge with inert gas. Once the tank is full of ambient temperature cargo
vapour it is purged with inert gas until the hydrocarbon content is less than
2% vol, the same process as an oil tanker.

• Ventilate with air. Once the tank is full of IG with a hydrocarbon content
less than 2% vol it is safe to ventilate with air. This ensures the tank
atmosphere never enters the flammable range.

Gas Cargo Hazards

Gas carriers are designed so that personnel do not come into contact with the
cargo or cargo vapour during normal operations. The hazards associated with gas
cargoes are similar to those on oil or chemical tankers with one addition:

Flammability
All the gases carried are flammable with the exception of chlorine. The degree of
flammability of the remainder is similar to oil cargoes with the exception of
ammonia which requires much higher ignition energy. Due to high vapour pressures
involved the spread of flammable vapours is greater than with oil cargoes.

Toxicity
The toxicity hazard of gas carrier cargoes is much the same as with other
hydrocarbon cargoes. The chemical gases have lower occupational exposure limits

Cold & Chemical Burns

Skin contact with extremely cold vapour or material can cause severe burns.
Protective equipment should be worn if contact is likely. Ammonia, chlorine,
ethylene oxide and propylene oxide can cause chemical burns which can be
difficult to treat. They are especially hazardous to the eyes.

Summary
Gas carriers are extremely safe vessels due to their design and operational
procedures. Officers serving on them should understand the hazards involved and

136
the cargo handling requirements of this ship type. This section of Chapter 10 has
aimed to give an overview of the systems and procedures used.

137
Summary of Chapter 10

Chemical Tankers

• The five main hazards of chemical cargoes are; flammability, toxicity,

pollution, corrosivity and reactivity
• Flammability ranges of certain chemicals may be wider than oil cargoes.
• Some chemicals are non-flammable.
• Some chemicals can be ignited at very low oxygen levels
• The toxicity of some chemicals is high
• A toxicity hazard can occur when two incompatible substances are mixed.
This may be another chemical or heat or water
• Material hazard data sheets are carried for each cargo carried
• The hazards from pollution vary; some chemicals pose little hazard, others
are extremely hazardous
• Some chemicals (acids and alkalis) carried are corrosive to materials of
construction and to human skin
• Stainless steel is used in cargo tanks and for pipelines and pumps,
alternatively resistant coatings may be applied
• Certain substances may react if they come into contact with each other. A
severe reaction can occur, usually involving the generation of heat and
possible release of toxic gas. Compatibility charts give guidance on
incompatible cargo groups
• Certain cargoes can react with air or water. Inert gas is used and contact
with water or moisture avoided
• The International Code for the Construction and Equipment of ships Carrying
Dangerous Chemicals in bulk (the IBC Code) sets the standard to which
chemical tankers are built
• Three ship types are designated in the IBC Code 1,2 & 3. Type 1 ships can
carry the most hazardous cargoes
• Specific requirements for individual cargoes are listed in Chapter 17 of the
IBC Code
• Chemical tankers must have a Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of
Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk. It is valid for five years
• MARPOL Annex II controls pollution from noxious liquid substances in bulk
• Cargoes are placed into one of 4 categories; X, Y Z and O/S. Category X
substances are the most environmentally hazardous
• Annex II requires chemical tankers to have a Procedures and arrangements (P
& A) manual on board
• The P & A manual is ship specific and gives operational procedures to be
carried out to ensure compliance with MARPOL Annex II
• Special areas under Annex II are the Antarctic
• Category X substance residues must be pre-washed and then discharged
ashore before the vessel leaves the loading port
• For other categories limits are imposed in relation to quantity, distance from
land, speed of ship and depth of water
• A cargo record book for ships carrying noxious liquid substances in bulk must
be kept

138
Gas Carriers
• Gas cargoes are those that exist as a gas at atmospheric pressure and normal
ambient temperatures
• Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is mostly methane
• Other gases are either Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) or Chemical Gases
• Gases are carried in a liquefied state by either cooling or pressurising the
cargo
• If the saturated vapour pressure (SVP) is greater than atmospheric pressure
the substance will exist as a gas
• The temperature at which the SVP is equal to atmospheric pressure is the
atmospheric boiling point
• The critical temperature is that above which a gas cannot be liquefied by
pressure alone
• The critical pressure is that pressure required to liquefy a gas at the critical
temperature
• Depending upon the atmospheric boiling point, critical temperature and
critical pressure gases will be fully refrigerated, fully pressurised or a
combination of the two
• The IGC Code sets an international standard for the construction and
equipment of gas carriers
• Five different containment systems are identified in the IGC Code. The most
common are independent tanks and membrane tanks
• Independent tanks are self supporting and do not form part of the hull
• Type A and B independent tanks can withstand pressures up to 0.7 bar. Type
C can withstand pressures up to 18 bar
• Membrane tanks consist of thin primary barriers and insulation layers that are
supported by the hull. Mainly used for LNG
• Materials of construction must be able to withstand low temperatures (LNG is
carried at minus 161oC)
• Secondary barriers prevent leaked cargoes contacting the mild steel of the
hull
• Tank insulation must reduce evaporation of cargo and prevent excessive
temperature reduction of steelwork of the hull
• Separate piping is provided for dealing with liquid and vapour
• Individual tank cargo pumps are used
• Boil off gas can be reliquefuied or, for LNG only, used as fuel for main
propulsion machinery
• Emergency shut down devices are fitted
• Pressure and temperature monitoring is fitted
• Fixed gas detection is required
• Gas carrier Voyage cycle:
o Drying – removes moisture of the inert gas which would otherwise
freeze
o Inerting – reduces oxygen content to prevent a flammable
atmosphere.
o Purging (‘gassing up’) – displaces the gas atmosphere with cargo
vapour
o Cooldown – reduces the tank temperature to the incoming cargo
temperature. Cargo heel retained for this purpose and reliquefaction
plant and spray rails used

139
 o Loading – tank and incoming cargo must be at the same
temperature. Excess vapour returned ashore via vapour line or
reliquefied on board
o Loaded passage – temperatures and pressures monitored. Boil off
safely reliquefied, or used for propulsion (LNG only)
o Discharge – cargo at suitable temperature and pressure for terminal
o Ballast passage - Preparation for next cargo. Tanks cooled
o To gas free a tank it must be warmed to boil off remaining liquid,
purged with inert gas until the hydrocarbon content is less than 2%
vol and then ventilated with fresh air
• Gas cargo hazards are:
o Flammability
o Toxicity
o cold or chemical burns

140
Appendix 1 – Definitions (from ISGOTT)
For the purpose of this safety guide the following definitions apply:

Administration
Means the Government of the State whose flag the ship is entitled to fly.

Antistatic additive
A substance added to a petroleum product to raise its electrical conductivity above
100 pico Siemens/metre (pS/m) to prevent accumulation of static electricity.

Approved equipment
Equipment of a design that has been tested and approved by an appropriate
authority such as a government department or classification society. The authority
should have certified the equipment as safe for use in a specified hazardous
atmosphere.

Auto-ignition
The ignition of a combustible material without initiation by a spark or flame, when
the material has been raised to a temperature at which self-sustaining combustion
occurs.

Bonding
The connecting together of metal parts to ensure electrical continuity.

Cathodic protection
The prevention of corrosion by electrochemical techniques. On tankers it may be
applied either externally to the hull or internally to the surfaces of tanks. At
terminals, it is frequently applied to steel piles and fender panels.

Clingage
Oil remaining on the walls of a pipe or on the internal surfaces of tanks after the
bulk of the oil has been removed.

Cold work
Work which cannot create a source of ignition.

Combination carrier
A ship which is designed to carry either petroleum cargoes or dry bulk cargoes.

Combustible gas indicator

An instrument for measuring the composition of hydrocarbon gas/air mixtures,
usually giving the result as a percentage of the lower flammable limit (LFL).

Combustible (also referred to as 'Flammable’)

Capable of being ignited and of burning. For the purposes of this guide the terms
'combustible' and, 'flammable' are synonymous.

Dangerous area
An area on a tanker which for the purposes of the installation and use of electrical
equipment is regarded as dangerous.

141
Dry chemical powder
A flame inhibiting powder used in fire fighting.

Earthing (also referred to as 'Grounding’)

The electrical connection of equipment to the main body of the earth to ensure
that it is at earth potential. On board ship, the connection is made to the main
metallic structure of the ship which is at earth potential because of the
conductivity of the sea.

Entry permit
A document issued by a responsible person permitting entry to a space or
compartment during a specific time interval.

Explosimeter
See 'Combustible gas indicator'.

Explosion-proof ('Flame-proof’)
Electrical equipment is defined and certified as explosion- (flame-) proof when it is
enclosed in a case which is capable of withstanding the explosion within it of a
hydrocarbon gas/air mixture or other specified flammable gas mixture. It must also
prevent the ignition of such a mixture outside the case either by spark or flame
from the internal explosion or as a result of the temperature rise of the case
following the internal explosion. The equipment must operate at such an external
temperature that a surrounding flammable atmosphere will not be ignited.

Explosive range
See 'Flammable range'.

Flame arrester
A permeable matrix of metal, ceramic or other heat resisting materials which can
cool a deflagration flame, and any following combustion products, below the
temperature required for the ignition of the flammable gas on the other side of the
arrester.

Flame screen
A portable or fitted device incorporating one or more corrosion resistant wire
woven fabrics of very small mesh which is used for preventing sparks from entering
a tank or vent opening or, for a short time, preventing the passage of flame. (Not
to be confused with flame arrester.)

Flammable (also referred to as ‘Combustible’)

Capable of being ignited and of burning. For the purposes of this guide the terms
'flammable' and 'combustible' are synonymous.

Flammable range (also referred to as ‘Explosive range’)

The range of hydrocarbon gas concentrations in air between the lower and upper
flammable (explosive) limits. Mixtures within this range are capable' of being
ignited and of burning.

Flashlight (also referred to as ‘torch’)

A battery operated hand lamp. An approved flashlight is one which is approved by a
competent authority for use in a flammable atmosphere.

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Flashpoint
The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient gas to form a
flammable gas mixture near the surface of the liquid. It is measured in a laboratory
in standard apparatus using a prescribed procedure.

Foam (also referred to as ‘Froth’)

An aerated solution which is used for fire prevention and fire fighting.

Foam concentrate (also referred to as ‘Foam compound’)

The full strength liquid received from the supplier which is diluted and processed
to produce foam.

Foam solution
The mixture produced by diluting foam concentrate with water before processing
to make foam.

Free fall
The unrestricted fall of liquid into a tank.

Froth
See 'Foam'.

Gas free
A tank, compartment or container is gas free when sufficient fresh air has been
introduced into it to lower the level of any flammable, toxic, or inert gas to that
required for a specific purpose, e.g. hot work, entry, etc.

Gas free certificate

A certificate issued by an authorised responsible person confirming that, at the
time of testing, a tank, compartment or container was gas free for a specific
purpose.

Grounding
See 'Earthing'.

Halon
A halogenated hydrocarbon used in fire fighting which inhibits flame propagation.

Hazardous area
An area on shore which for the purposes of the installation and use of electrical
equipment is regarded as dangerous. Such hazardous areas are graded into
hazardous zones depending upon the probability of the presence of a flammable
gas mixture.

Hazardous zone
See 'Hazardous area'.

Hot work
Work involving sources of ignition or temperatures sufficiently high to cause the
ignition of a flammable gas mixture. This includes any work requiring the use of
welding, burning or soldering equipment, blow torches, some power driven tools,

143
portable electrical equipment which is not intrinsically safe or contained within an
approved explosion-proof housing, and internal combustion engines.

Hot work permit

A document issued by a responsible person permitting specific hot work to be done
during a specific time interval in a defined area.

Hydrocarbon gas
A gas composed entirely of hydrocarbons.

Inert condition
A condition in which the oxygen content throughout the atmosphere of a tank has
been reduced to 8 per cent or less by volume by the addition of inert gas.

Inert gas
A gas or a mixture of gases, such as flue gas, containing insufficient oxygen to
support the combustion of hydrocarbons.

Inert gas distribution system

All piping, valves, and associated fittings to distribute inert gas from the inert gas
plant to the cargo tanks, to vent gases to atmosphere and to protect tanks against
excessive pressure or vacuum.

Inert gas plant

All equipment fitted to supply, cool, clean, pressurise, monitor and control the
delivery of inert gas to the cargo tank systems. .

Inert gas system (IGS)

An inert gas plant and inert gas distribution system together with means for
preventing backflow of. cargo gases to the machinery spaces, fixed and portable
measuring instruments and control devices.

Inerting
The introduction of inert gas into a tank with the object of attaining the inert
condition.

Insulating flange
A flanged joint incorporating an insulating gasket, sleeves and washers to prevent
electrical continuity between pipelines, hose strings or loading arms.

Interface detector
An electrical instrument for detecting the boundary between oil and water.

Intrinsically safe
An electrical circuit or part of a circuit is intrinsically safe if any spark or thermal
effect produced normally (ie, by breaking or closing the circuit) or accidentally
(e.g. by short circuit or earth fault) is incapable, under prescribed test conditions,
of igniting a prescribed gas mixture.

Loading overall
The loading of cargo or ballast 'over the top' through an open ended pipe or by
means of an open ended hose entering a tank through a hatch or other deck
opening, resulting in the free fall of liquid.

144
Lower flammable limit (LFL)
The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air below which there is insufficient
hydrocarbon to support
and propagate combustion. Sometimes referred to as lower explosive limit (LEL).

Mooring winch brake design capacity

The percentage of the minimum breaking load (MBL) of a new mooring rope or wire
it carries, at which the winch brake is designed to render. Winch brakes will
normally be designed to hold 80% of the line's MBL and will be set in service to hold
60% of the mooring line's MBL. Brake holding capacity may be expressed either in
tonnes or as a percentage of a line's MBL.

Mooring winch design heaving capacity

The power of a mooring winch to heave in or put a load on its mooring rope or
wire. Usually expressed in tonnes.

Naked lights
Open flames or fires, lighted cigarettes, cigars, pipes or similar smoking materials,
any other unconfined sources of ignition, electrical and other equipment liable to
cause sparking while in use, and unprotected light bulbs.

Non-volatile petroleum
Petroleum having a flash point of 60cC or above as determined by the closed cup
method of test.

OBO, OIL/ORE
See 'Combination Carrier'.

Oxygen analyser / meter

An instrument for determining the percentage of oxygen in a sample of the
atmosphere drawn from a tank, pipe or compartment.

Packaged cargo
Petroleum or other cargo in drums, packages or other containers.

Petroleum
Crude oil and liquid hydrocarbon products derived from it.

Petroleum gas
A gas evolved from petroleum. The main constituents of petroleum gases are
hydrocarbons, but they may also contain other substances, such as hydrogen
sulphide or lead alkyls, as minor constituents.

Pour point
The lowest temperature at which petroleum oil will remain fluid.

Pressure surge
A sudden increase in the pressure of the liquid in a pipeline brought about by an
abrupt change in flow velocity.

145
Pressure/vacuum relief valve (P/V valve)
A device which provides for the flow of the small volumes of vapour, air or inert
gas mixtures caused by thermal variations in a cargo tank.

Purging
The introduction of inert gas into a tank already in the inert condition with the
object of:
(1) Further reducing the existing oxygen content; and/or
(2) Reducing the existing hydrocarbon gas content to a level below which
combustion cannot be supported if air is subsequently introduced into the tank.

Pyrophoric iron sulphide

Iron sulphide capable of a rapid exothermic oxidation causing incandescence when
exposed to air and potential ignition of flammable hydrocarbon gas/air mixtures.

Reid vapour pressure (RVP)

The vapour pressure of a liquid determined in a standard manner in the Reid
apparatus at a temperature of 37.Soe and with a ratio of gas to liquid volume of
4:1. Used for comparison purposes only. See 'True Vapour Pressure'.

Responsible officer (or person)

A person appointed by the employer or the master of the ship and empowered to
take all decisions relating to a specific task, having the necessary knowledge and
experience for that purpose.

Resuscitator
Equipment to assist or restore the breathing of personnel overcome by gas or lack
of oxygen.

Self stowing mooring winch

A mooring winch fitted with a drum on which a wire or rope is made fast and
automatically stowed.

SOLAS
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea.

Sour crude oil

A crude oil containing appreciable amounts of hydrogen sulphide and/or
mercaptans.

Spontaneous combustion
The ignition of material brought about by a heat producing (exothermic) chemical
reaction within the material itself without exposure to an external source of
ignition.

Static accumulator oil

An oil with an electrical conductivity less than 50 picoSiemens/metre (pS/m), so
that it is capable of retaining a significant electrostatic charge.

Static electricity
The electricity produced by dissimilar materials through physical contact and
separation.

146
Static non-accumulator oil
An oil with an electrical conductivity greater than 50 picoSiemens/metre (pS/m),
which renders it incapable of retaining a significant electrostatic charge.

Stripping
The final operation in pumping bulk liquid from a tank or pipeline.

Tanker
A ship designed to carry liquid petroleum cargo in bulk, including a combination
carrier when being used for this purpose.

Tank Cleaning
The process of removing hydrocarbon vapours, liquid or residue. Usually carried out
so that tanks can be entered for inspection or hot work. .

Tension winch (automated or self tensioning mooring system)

A mooring winch fitted with a device which may be set to automatically maintain
the tension on a mooring line.

Terminal
A place where tankers are berthed or moored for the purpose of loading or
discharging petroleum cargo.

Terminal representative
A person designated by the terminal to take responsibility for an operation or duty.

Threshold limit value (TLV)

The time-weighted average concentration of a substance to which workers may be
repeatedly exposed, for a normal 8-hour workday or 40-hour workweek, day after
day, without adverse effect.

Topping off
The operation of completing the loading of a tank to a required ullage.

Topping up
The introduction of inert gas into a tank which is already in the inert condition with
the object of rising the tank pressure to prevent any ingress of air.

Torch
See 'Flashlight'.

Toxic
Poisonous to human life.

True vapour pressure (TVP)

The true vapour pressure of a liquid is the absolute pressure exerted by the gas
produced by evaporation from a liquid when gas and liquid are in equilibrium at the
prevailing temperature and the gas/liquid ratio is effectively zero.

Ullage
The depth of the space above the liquid in a tank.

147
Upper flammable limit (UFL)
The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air above which there is insufficient
oxygen to support and propagate combustion. Sometimes referred to as upper
explosive limit (UEL).

Vapour
A gas below its critical temperature.

Vapour emission control system

An arrangement of piping and equipment used to control vapour emissions during
tanker operations, including ship and shore vapour collection systems, monitoring
and control devices and vapour processing arrangements.

Vapour lock system

Equipment fitted to a tank to enable the measuring and sampling of cargoes
without release of vapour/inert gas pressure.

Volatile petroleum
Petroleum, having a flash point below 60"C as determined by the closed cup
method of testing.

Water fog
A suspension in the atmosphere of very fine droplets of water usually delivered at a
high pressure through a fog nozzle for use in fire fighting.

Water spray
A suspension in the atmosphere of water divided into coarse drops by delivery
through a special nozzle for use in fire fighting.

Work Permit
A document issued by a responsible person permitting specific work to be done
during a specific period in a defined area.

148
Appendix 2 Reading list
Suggested reading list for Tanker related matters:

Manual of Oil Tanker Operations

Solly, Cox, Onslow
Brown, Son & Fergueson
ISBN 978-1-84927-015-1

Towards Safer Ships & Cleaner Seas

Dudley, Scott & Gold
Gard
ISBN 82-90344-06-6

Tanker Operations- a handbook for the ships officer, 3rd Edition

Marton
Cornell Maritime Press
ISBN 0-87033-432-8

Shipboard Operations, 2nd Edition

Lavery
Butterworth Heinemann
ISBN 0-7506-1857-4

International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers & Terminal, 5th Edition
ICS/OCIMF/IAPH
Witherby & Co.
ISBN 10-1856092917

Tanker Safety Guide Chemicals, 3rd edition 2002

International Chamber of Shipping
International Chamber of Shipping
ISBN 0-906270-04-9

Inert Gas Systems, 1990 Edition

IMO
IMO
ISBN 978-92-801-1262-7

International Code for the Construction & Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous
Chemicals in Bulk, 2007 Edition
IMO
IMO
ISBN 978-92-801-4226-6

International Code for the Construction & Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied
Gases in Bulk, 1993 Edition, or 2016 edition once available
IMO
ISBN 92-801-1277-5

Liquefied Gas Handling Principles on Ships & in Terminals, 3nd Edition (4th edition
published mid 2016)
McGuire & White, Witherby
149
Marpol

Ship to ship Transfer Guide for Petroleum, Chemicals and Liquefied Gases

SOLAS

STCW

COSWP

150