EARTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

MOD 7 CLIMATE SCIENCE

Natural Processes of Variations in Climate

- use modelling to explain the causes of the natural greenhouse effect and examine the
timescales in which changes occur

Climate is a description, statistic, of the system that generates weather

Wind is a product of atmospheric circulation and depends on latitude
Moving air masses carry moisture and effect rainfall
Ocean currents carry heat or bring cool water to coasts → moderates
ocean temp

The NATURAL process which warms the earth is called the natural greenhouse effect. It is
caused by the interaction of heat being absorbed and then re-radiated from the earth surface
into the atmosphere. With natural greenhouse effect, atmospheric gas traps heat from the Earth,
keeping it warm.

The greenhouse effect is the tendency of certain atmospheric gasses to trap heat that would
otherwise be radiated into space. An increase in the greenhouse effect resulting from the
activities of humans is referred to as the enhanced greenhouse effect. With enhanced
greenhouse effect results from human activity and is likely to cause global warming

Although local daily temperatures can be large, average global temperatures variation is small.
The timescale of natural greenhouse effect is hundreds to millions of years.
Verbal description of greenhouse gases from figures
The greenhouse effect is the way in which heat is trapped into the Earth surface by greenhouse
gases. The natural greenhouse effect shown in Figure 1 highlights how greenhouse gases keep
the planet at a stable warm temperature by retaining and absorbing the “moderating heat” in the
atmosphere on the Earth. An increase in the greenhouse effects due to human activity causes
an enhanced greenhouse effect, in which (seen in Figure 2) the atmosphere contains more
greenhouse gases and therefore more heat is trapped inside the atmosphere. This increase of
heat in the atmosphere can cause the average temperature of Earth to rise, likely causing global
warming.

- using secondary sources, assess the different causes of natural climate variation and
the timescales in which changes occur, including:
- the plate tectonic supercycle
- massive volcanic eruptions, in the Deccan and Siberian Traps
- changes in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun
- changes in ocean currents and ocean circulation

The position of the supercontinents also influences icehouse conditions. If the landmass is in
polar regions, larger ice caps are formed.
Event Cause Effect on Climate Timescale Example

Plate Convection Position of the Ice Ages Earth's current icehouse state
superc supercontinent can last is known as the Quaternary
ycle Slab pull determines the magnitude from 20 to Ice Age and began
of influence. Eg: if land 215 million approximately 2.58 million
Changes in mass in polar regions → years years ago. Earth is now in an
paleoclimate influences Icehouse interglacial period that started
- Formation of supercontinent Tectonic approximately 11,800 years
Concentration results in tall young supercycle ago.
of mountains which are takes 500-
atmospheric weathered and eroded 700 million
carbon years
dioxide - Calcium from weathered
minerals combines with
Changes in carbonate in oceans to form
earth's orbit limestone
(POE)
- Traps carbon dioxide →
lowers CO2 in
atmosphere → reducing
carbon effect

Greenhouse
- Rifting renewed volcanic
activity releasing CO2 into
atmosphere → increase
heat retention and the
climate begins to arm
 - Warming melts ice caps The Breakup of Australia
→ decreasing albedo from South America 35Ma
enabled the development
of the Australian climate
change from dense wet
rainforests → cooling ice
age → dry warm

grasslands

Volcani magma LIP- Large Igneous Provinces Majority of Deccan Trap

c plumes are a large accumulation of LIPs- less 66 million years ago at the
eruptio processes igneous rocks caused by the than 1 end of the Cretaceous period
ns associated convection driving tectonic million Lasted for 350 000 years
with plate plate motion. years - Released volcanic
tectonics or glasses
meteorite LIPS can cause short term Volcanic - Sulphur Dioxide +
impacts global cooling and long term eruptions dust covering
global warming length: 1 causes high
pressure of Sulphate gas + ash day- over albedo → drop in
gas blocking sunlight + 30 years temp of about 2 °C
oxidation reactions with - CO2 →
breakup of metal in seawater → hyperthermal
supercontine global cooling warming, mercury
nts Carbon dioxide and toxicity, ocean
Greenhouse gases → acidification and
global warming acid rain
- Evidence reveals pK
extinction may have
started 25 000 years
ago with Deccan
Trap

Siberian Traps
250 million years ago at the
Lasted for 2 million years
Permian-Triassic boundary
- Great Dying,
extinction to 81% of
all marine species ad
70% of terrestrial
 vertebrates living at
the time
- Large volumes of
greenhouse gas into
the atmosphere and
increased global
temp
- Disruption to carbon
cycle, high air temp,
high ocean temp,
pacific ocean

Smaller Volcanic eruptions

Short term global cooling
→ longer term global
warming
- Mt Pinatubo 1991: -
0.5°C for 2 years

Earth's - Eccentricity: → changes in climate

Orbit Yearly motion (beginning and end of ice .
of the sun ages)
along the → small but climatically
ecliptic. Over important changes in the
time, the pull strength of the seasons
of gravity over tens of thousands of
from Jupiter years
and Saturn OVERALL
causes the
shape to vary - Orbital eccentricity is
from circular extreme (departs from a
to elliptical perfect circle the most) → Eccentricit
aphelion seasons y- 100 000
(winter/autumn in NH) can years
be substantially longer in
duration.
- Cooling effects in one
hemisphere is balanced by
warming in other
- When most elliptic, 23%
more radiation reaches
Earth's closest point than its
farthest point from the sun
LONGER SEASONS

- The greater the obliquity

(Earth's axial tilt angle), the
- Obliquity:
Theia more extreme seasons are at
(hypothesised higher latitudes (they receive
ancient larger change opposed to
planet) equator) Obliquity-
collided with - Lower obliquity → milder 40 000
 early earth seasons years
4.5 Bya - Large tilt angles favour
periods of glaciation
EXTREME SEASONS IN
HIGHER LAT

- Precession: - As earth rotates, it wobbles

Tidal forces on an axis relative to the fixed
caused by the positions of the stars
gravitational
-Axial precession makes
influences of
seasonal variation extreme
the sun and Precession
between the SH and NH
moon that : 25 000
during perihelion. (SH
causes the years
summers are extreme and NH
Earth to bulge
winter moderate). This swaps
at the
every 13 000 years.
equator,
- Apsidal precession changes
affecting its
the orientation of Earth's orbit
rotation
relative to the ecliptic plane
Changes due
due to Jupiters and Saturn's
to the pull of
pull. 13 000 flip
Jupiter and
EXTREME HEMISPHERE
Saturn
(one) SEASONS AND
MODERATIE HEMISPHERE
SEASONS (other)
These effects become active
once other tipping point(s) are
reached e.g. reduction in
greenhouse gases or global
cooling below a certain
average temp due to plate
tectonic supercycle effects

Ocean Result of Ocean currents carry heat or hundreds Gulf Stream keeps Britain
Current solar input, bring cool water to coastal of millions and Europe ice-free,
s orbital spin, areas and this moderates the of years bringing warm waters
temperature temperature close to the coast due to northwards from Gulf of
differences, plate Mexico; however with
prevailing tectonic climate change, melting
winds, salinity Helps to counteract the supercycle glaciers from the Arctic
differences, uneven distribution of solar sea is overwhelming the
position of the radiation reaching Earth's -single system with fresh water →
continents surface. Without currents, years due less dense → less water
and regional temperatures would to sinks → less warm water
underwater be extreme variations is moved around
topography in winds
e.g. Trade
Solar Winds /
radiation ENSO

continental 1000 years

drift for water to
 complete
the journey
around the
conveyor
belt

Evidence for Climate variations

- describe and discuss ancient evidence of variations in global temperature, including but
not limited to:
Span; how long the record goes back
Resolution: the smallest amount of time to record change (eg coral rings take 1 year to grow but
lives for million years)

- pollen grains in sedimentary rocks

Pollen distributed by winds → fossilised at bottom of lakes/bogs
Shows evidence for climate and environment around lake changes → composition of
pollen changes for different temp/climates → looking at differences in pollen to
identify plant species, communities and past climates
- Myrtaceae (gum trees) and Poaceae (grasses) - are evidence of a long-term drying
trend over the last 36 million years.
- Modern plant species are restricted in areas by temperature constraints →
hence pollen grains can be used as a proxy for climate
Pollen grains do not provide global temperature → only LOCAL

- changes in rock types

Composition and structure of rocks provides record of climate change → subject to
environmental conditions
Eg. silica forms under warm arid conditions → common in australia
Most older sediments (100 000 +) have been subducted beneath overriding plates

Cold climate Warm climate

-sand and gravel are dropped by Hot desert environments often colored
glaciers, as they melt they become with red iron deposits rocks
TILL → if TILL is found, glaciers were High temp → seawater evaporates
present quicker → layer of salt in rocks
 - fossils and microfossils
Microfossils are found in rock cores (ocean sediments) and outcrops, they are sensitive to
climate (biodiversity) and global in distribution
Pollen
- Rainforest species → warm or wet
- Grass species → arid
Calcareous microfossils → composed of CaCO3
- Provide oxygen isotopes → past climates
- Eg. Foraminifera (Forams), coccoliths and dinoflagellates
- Absolute age can be verified by comparison of oldest fossils with
radiometric date of underlying basalt
Siliceous microfossils → composed of SiO2
- Oxygen isotope data → conditions in the surface of oceans
- Eg. Diatoms
- Photosynthetic organisms which are sensitive to changes
- Nutrience can cause diatoms to rapidly produce → large
numbers in ocean and lake sediments
- Affected by wind strength, upwelling and light availability
18
TEMP PROXIES - O in carbonate
- H isotope in carbonate
Why do Scientists use two proxies? → to Cross check accuracies between them
MACROFOSSILS
Some groups of organisms are sensitive to climate changes and indicate past climate
EG
- Nothofagus are found in places with cool and high rainfall.
- The appearance and disappearance of Nothofagus fossils over time reflects
changing temperature and rainfall conditions through parts of Australia
- Corals make their skeletons from CaCO3
- CaCO3 provide oxygen proxy
- Additionally, growth rings provide annual basis of oxygen isotopes
- Riversleigh (QLD) fauna
- 25Ma to recent
- Shows the warming and drying of climate
 - Animal evolution changes: possums → kangaroos
- Vegetation changes: forests → arid grasslands

Characteristics of living conditions for the animals and plants in the environment
Plants → temp, moisture
Aquatic organisms → Ph, salinity, temp
Fossils in Sediment → abundance through time, change
slow/fast
Shape → warm climate = large leaves, smoother edges; cool climate = small leaves,
jagged edges
Eg. fossil plants from PETM shows that ecosystems shifted due to global temperature
increase

- changing isotope ratios in rocks and deep sea sediments

Delta-O-18 ratio - measure the contrast of 16O and 18O→ determines glacial/interglacial
periods
18
O is heavier than 16O
18
O = more likely to precipitate (except in high lat)
16
O = more likely to evaporate

Interglacial period

Oceans: Low ratio Ice Caps: High ratio

(less 18O) (More equal amount of 18O/16O)

Ice cap melt→ more 16O in oceans Ice sheets melt → 16O returned to
Less 18O (diluted in meltwater) ocean = less 16O concentration in ice =
more equal amount of O18 and O16 in
Warmer temp = more movement of molecules ice
18O moves faster → evaporated more

Glacial Period
 Oceans: high ratio Ice Caps: low ratio
(More equal amount of 18O/16O) (more 16O)
18 18
O in the water heavier (higher mass + O in rainwater precipitates before
cold climate = requires more energy to reaching high lat → more H2O16 reaches
get out of ocean) → evaporates less high lat → stores in ice

However H218O falls back to ocean during

precipitation

Extends 100 million years extends 1 million years

Delta-O-18 reflects local evaporation, freshwater input. Temp of precipitation and measure of
groundwater interactions

Bio mineralised tissue locked in ice sheets ( calcium carbonate object (shells, teeth)) can
determine temp of surrounding water, salinity and volume of water

Negative = equal amount of 18O/16O in oceans

INTERGLACIAL
As warm temp spreads, ice caps melt,
diluting the oceans. Additionally, as warmer
temps rise, H2O18 water molecules require
less energy to evaporate → more
evaporations

Positive = more 18O in oceans

GLACIAL
As temperatures drop, 18O requires more
energy to get out of the ocean →
evaporates less. The H218O molecules
which do evaporate immediately precipitate
back down in low lats because they are
heavier → trapping of O16 in ice sheets
The foram record (for delta-O-18) in deep sea sediments extends back millions of years - but
limited by the maximum age of the ocean crust (180 My).
However, marine limestones older than 180 Ma but now found on land can be used to extend
the record back much further.

identify and explain more recent evidence of climate variation, including but not limited to:
- ice cores containing gas bubbles and oxygen isotopes
Snow compresses traces of frozen stuff → analysis from ice cores
Seasonal variances cause visible bands to form and variation in size and abundance of gas
space

Ice Traps
- Bubbles of gas
- Windblown ust
- Ashes from fires
- pollen/microorganisms
- Salt from oceans
- Volcanic gas

Ice cores are analyses for content of Delta-O-18

More 18O in ice caps → a lot of energy → warm climate
Less 18O in ice caps → not much energy → cold climate
Most ice core records come from Antarctica and Greenland, and the longest ice cores extend to
3 km in depth. The oldest continuous ice core records to date extend
123,000 years in Greenland and 800,000 years in Antarctica.

Comparing
temp from Highlights how Carbon Dioxide
oceans with emissions lags behind
temps derived temperature
from ice cores
→ good
indicator

- Dendrochronology

Trees grow rapidly in the

spring/summer → as seen in thick
light coloured ring
Variation in thickness and colour can
determine tree growth and rainfall

Dendrochronology can trace history for over 13 000 years from over 4 000 sites
Overlapping of successful older cores can extend record beyond the age of current timbers

Tree rings provides ages in years while thickness indicated the climate
- If scale is temperature → COLD ENVIRONMENT
- If scale is precipitation → ARID ENVIRONMENT

- Aboriginal art sites showing now-extinct species and environments

Aboriginal people have inhabited the land for 50 000 years → therefore they must
know about megafauna 30 000 years ago
Reflected in their artworks which records the present of megafauna
- Eg. Aboriginal rock art in Arnhem Land shows Mihirung (emu) coexistence
with traditional land owners → disappearance may be evidence for climate
change
- Cooling and drying associated with glacial periods reduced food sources of megafauna

Modern techniques measures the age of thin films of dirt over the artwork to find proxy age

- human instrumental records

Reliable temperature records have only been kept record since 1800
To reconstruct climate change, indirect indication of historical data
- Logs
- Diaries
- Wine harvesting dates
- Reports of ice breaking in NH
- Cherry tree blossoming dates
Thermostats, Barometers, Rain gauges

To calculate a large-scale surface temperature, a sufficient number of instrumental sites are

needed
Many NH tide gauges records are not reliable due to rising lands after melting of ice caps
(isostatic uplift). However, corrections can be applied to make accurate historical sea levels
records
Corrected measurements show reliable trends of greenhouse gasses, temp, sea
level, rainfall and ice area coverage
isotope ratios shown in stalagmites, stalactites and corals
SPELEOTHEMS
Water saturated with carbon dioxide precipitated calcium carbonate that drips, creating
speleothems are mineral deposits form by groundwater within underwater caves; stalactites
(ceiling) and stalagmites (floor)
Speleothems are protected from the weathering and large scale erosion which affects other
land-based climate records
- Evidence for changes in precipitation and temperature from ½ million years ago
- Scientists can date layers by measuring uranium-thorium ratios (decaying)
- Oxygen isotope ratios can determine temp and land temp
 - Carbon isotopes can provide evidence of growth of plants above caves
- Fast growing speleothems provide seasonal evidence, slow growing speleothems
provide slow growth evidence- years
- Rings can indicate yearly or ENSO wet-dry periods → thicker rings = wetter

CORALS
Corals provide information about the climate of shallow oceans
glacial vs interglacial cycles causes sea level fluctuations → interrupting coral
growth → growth rings
The chemical composition of individual coral skeletons reflect changes in environmental factors
such as seawater temp, salinity and pH over a timescale of months to centuries.
Corals expel algae during environmental stress periods → identified within banding

Scientist do this by:

- X-RAY: Skeletons of coral can show annual density bands → seasonal
variation related to cloud cover and temperature
- UV light: bright luminescent lines shown provides evidence for occurrence and intensity
of freshwater flooding and rainfall variations
- Delta-O-18 ratio shows ocean surface temperature when coral was growing
- Density of CaCo3 skeletons changes as water temperature, light and
nutrients conditions changes → visible skeleton changes in summer vs winter

Distinguish between the natural greenhouse effect and any anthropogenic greenhouse effects

The NATURAL process which warms the earth is called the natural greenhouse effect. It is
caused by the interaction of heat being absorbed and then radiated from the earth surface with
the atmosphere. With natural greenhouse effect, atmospheric gas traps heat from the Earth,
keeping it warm.

The Anthropogenic greenhouse effect are gasses generated by human activity

which capture and re-radiate infrared radiation and promote the enhanced
greenhouse effect. → climate forcing and changing natural equilibrium.
The evidence shows that Earth's temperature is increasing today at a rate not previously seen
before during the last 1000 years [Figure 1]. The Keeling curve [Figure 2] demonstrates the
steady rise of Co2 levels since the industrial revolution

Investigate any influence

that human activities may
have had on the environment since the Industrial Revolution, for example:
- increases in greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases: water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, industrial gases

Burning fossil fuels (coral, petroleum/oil, natural gas)

 Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons - substances made of carbon and hydrogen
Hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
∴ Increase in GHG
Carbon dioxide → dissolves in seawater → lowers pH (acidic)

Agriculture (fertilisers, agricultural waste, decay of native vegetation)

Land clearing reduces large scale CO2 absorption from trees
Nitrous fertilisers → nitrate oxide gas in atmosphere
Decay of agricultural waste → carbon dioxide + methane
∴ Increase in GHG

Mining
Land clearing reduced CO2 absorption
Drainage of toxic metals → contaminate food chains → decay of bodies →
methane
CO2 release from fossil fuel powered machinery and ore transport
∴ Increase in GHG

Urbanization
Increase use of fossil fuels to power transport, heating and industry
Increased air pollution from transport, power and industry (GHG, smog, particles)
Urban heat effect
Decay of urban organic waste → carbon dioxide + methane
∴ Increase in GHG

- ocean

acidification
 So much carbon dioxide is
dissolving into oceans that pH is
rapidly dropping in surface waters
→ eventually mixed by global
conveyor belt
Rapid changes in ocean chemistry does not allow marine animes chances to adapt
→ loss of biodiversity
Acidification makes it difficult for life with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons to survive as
acid dissolves calcium carbonate

Carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid

Surface waters are now 30% more acidic than they were at the start of the industrial era. It is
estimated that by 2100, the ocean’s acidity will increase by 150%.

investigate flow-on effects of changes to climate

ASSESS
Logic structure
A= B
B= C
A= C
1. General principal → standards to base judgements
on
2. Description of given examples → causes of climate change
- Causes of climate change
- timescales
3. Conclusion: The example fits/does not fit the rule → Judgement of the cause
- How important
- How long it operated
- brief/medium
term/long term in
years

- investigate possible human-induced causes for the enhanced greenhouse effect,

including:
mitigation: reducing the total amount of GHGs (CO2, methane CH4, nitrous oxide NO2) in the
atmosphere
- includes: reducing - the input of GHGs
- the total amount in the atmosphere i.e removal of GHGs

adaptation: strategies to adjust to the changes due to global warming / climate change

- the burning of fossil fuels for energy

Australian live in an energy intensive society that relies on
burning greenhouse gases producing fossil fuels for its energy
Non-renewable source
Change from coal → oil

Burning fossil fields releases cabrona that was trapped

underneath the Earth million of years ago and turn into CO2

Less than 10% of the energy in the original natural gas used
in power stations is converted into the useful light energy we
use.

- land use and land cover change

 - deforestation - reduced absorption of atmospheric CO2 by forests, often
compounded by burning of forests adding CO2
- cattle grazing - ruminant digestion produces methane
- use of nitrogenous fertilisers - soil bacteria convert fertilisers to nitrous
oxide
- mining / drilling of fossil fuels - creates fugitive emissions of methane
- rice paddies - anaerobic decay of organic matter underwater produces
methane
- anaerobic decay of organic matter in landfill produce methane (25% of
food is wasted)
- urbanisation - decreases land cover
- investigate scientific evidence suggesting ways in which humans may assist to
minimise any human contribution to the greenhouse effect in their daily lives
Carbon emission from fossil fuels burning are projected to double in the next 50 years

Stabilisation triangle
The singular wedge is what individuals and governments need to reduce emissions by 2055
WHAT CAN KNOCK OFF A WEDGE?
- doubling the current fuel efficiency
- Doubling the average number of passengers in cars
- Upgrading public transportation systems
- employing the best energy efficiency practises in all residential and commercial buildings
- LED light bulb and turning off lights during night
- Air sealing homes so less use of air conditioning and heating
- Energy efficient equipment
- Doubling the efficiency of the world coal burning power stations
- Coal burning power stations stored underground
- Converting from coal to natural gas
- Replaying coal burning power stations with nuclear power
- 150-fold increase in the worlds capacity to generate electricity from wind turbines
- A 1700 fold increase in the worlds capacity to generate electricity from solar panels
- (increased coverage and increased efficiency)
- Multiplying the world's current ethanol production by 12 times (reacquiring ⅙ of the
world's croplands)
- Decreasing tropical deforestation to zero and doubling the current rate of planting new
forests
 - evaluate scientific evidence for the usefulness of a range of mitigation and adaptation
strategies, including but not limited to:
- alternative energy sources
Type Energy Source Examples

Biomass Unwanted plant matter Small farms

Ethanol photosynthesis Brazil main fuel source

Geothermal power Hot rocks converts water into steam Two experimental geothermal
plants in central Australia

Hydroelectric power Water falling from a height Snowy Hydro

nuclear Large atoms split and converted to chernobyl

energy

solar Light hitting solar cells Residential and commercial

buildings in developed
countries

wave Movement of waves CETO

wind wind
- urban design
The world's rapid urbanisation has meant the introduction of the urban heat effect. A cities
ambient temperature can be 6-10 degrees warmer due to the heat absorption of low albedo
roadways and buildings

Most homes have been built assuming that cheap fuel is used for cooling/heating

MITIGATION
- Control the movement of warm/cold air within a home
- Insulation
- Tree coverage
- Window eaves

ADAPTATION
- Storm surges/Floods
- Building away from coastal land
- Seawalls
- Raising houses above flood levels
- Water resistant materials
 - geo-engineering strategies
Artificially interfere with the earth's climate systems
- Carbon dioxide removal
Storing carbon underground or in the oceans
- controlling solar radiation
Stopping solar radiation from entering our atmosphere by forming clouds or
injecting sun blocking particles
- using or changing agricultural practices of a range of cultural groups, including
those of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
Agriculture generated 118% of all GHG

MITIGATION
- Cropland management
- Grazing management
- Restoration of organic soils

ADAPTATION
- Tillage changing to no tillage farming (preparing the land for farming)
- Not destroy the soil structure in case of flooding
- Retain organic matter within the soil
- Helps prevent soil erosion

Torres strait islander peoples

- Use local natural material to build houses, rock walls and wind breaks
- Revegetate low lying land with native vegetation to combat erosion
- Maintain community gardens with past practices
- Aquaculture farms