Use of English 301 Course Outline

1. Sentence.

a. Types of sentence

b. Parts of sentence

2. Tenses

a. Definition of a Tense

b. Types of tense

c. Concord

d. Types of concord

e. Application of the rules of concord in sentence construction

3. Definition of Logic

a. The Basic Principles of Logic via Form, Validity and Argument

b. The Principles of Logic to distinguish facts from opinion

4. Definition of Reasoning

a. Types of Reasoning

b. Application of the Principles of Logic in Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

c. Definition of Premise as a step towards Conclusion

5. Define Essay

a. Types of Essay

b. Characteristics of each Type of Essay

c. Explain the Logical order of Presentation (chronological, spatial, general to specific,

specific to general, alteration, inductive deductive etc.)

6. Definition of Literature
a. The Genres of Literature

b. Definition of the Terminologies of Poetry (Rhythm, Enjambment etc.)

c. Analysing give Poems (“Strange Meeting” by Wilfred Owen, “Homeless But Not

Hopeless” by Sola Owonibi)

SENTENCE
A sentence is the largest independent unit of grammar. It begins with a capital letter and ends
with a period, question mark, or exclamation point. The word "sentence" is from the Latin for "to
feel." The adjective form of the word is "sentential." The sentence is defined as a word or group
of words that expresses a complete idea and that includes a “subject” and a “verb”. These words
are grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command, or
suggestion.
A sentence can be formed only with these elements: a subject and a verb.
“Subject” is the noun/pronoun that occupies the first/initial position in a sentence. It is the
“something” or “someone” the sentence is about. It is what the sentence focuses on. It is either a
person who performs the action or a person or a thing that the sentence gives information about
(descriptive information).
Examples:
 Rahul sings.
 Jon lives in Canada.
 Tom is working.
 I teach English.
In all the above examples, the subject (italicized and bolded) is the part (person) performing the
action in the sentence. A sentence doesn’t always indicate an action that the subject performs. It
also gives information about the subject.
Examples:
 Rahul is my English teacher. (Telling what the subject is)
 Jon is talented. (Describing the subject with an adjective).
 Tom is under pressure. (describing the subject with adjectival phrase)
 I am your boss. (telling what the subject is)
Types of subjects in English
There are three types of subjects in English:
1. Simple subject
2. Compound subject
3. Complete subject
Simple subject
A simple subject is a one-word subject. It does not include any modifiers.
  India is the biggest democratic country in the world.
 Jacob loves pancakes.
 The man in the white coat is a doctor.
 Rahul called me after the meeting.
NOTE: a simple subject does not have to be a single word. It can be a group of words, but it
won’t have any modifiers.
 The Taj Mahal is one of the seven wonders of the world.
 Justin Bieber is my sister’s favourite singer.
Here, the subject is a proper noun. It does not have any modifiers.
Complete subject
A complete subject is a combination of a simple subject and the words that modify it.
Examples:
1. Some people just make excuses for their failures.
Simple subject = people
Modifier = some
Complete subject = some people
2. People living in this area are very poor.
Simple subject = people
Modifier = living in this area (present participle phrase)
Complete subject = people living in this area
3. A wise man once said that money is an illusion.
Simple subject = man
Modifiers = a, wise
Complete subject = a wise man
A complete subject is formed using a simple subject and one or more modifiers. Here are the
ways to form a complete subject:
1. Pre-modifier/s + simple subject
2. Simple subject + modifier/s
3. Pre-modifier/s + simple subject + post-modifier/s
Pre-modifier + simple subject
 My friends love me. (Premodifier = my)
  A school is being built here. (Premodifier = a)
Simple subject + post-modifier
 People in my village support each other. (post-modifier = in my village)
 Events of such nature kept happening. (post-modifier = of such nature)
Pre-modifier + simple subject + post-modifier
 The man looking at us looks strange. (premodifier = the, post-modifier = looking at us)
 The goal of this gathering is to raise money for some poor kids. (premodifier = the, post-
modifier = of this gathering)
Compound subject
A compound subject is a combination of two or more (generally two) simple subjects or
complete subjects. It is joined by a coordinating conjunction, usually with ‘and’, ‘nor’, and ‘or’.
Examples:
 Jon and Max came to see me the other day.
 Susan or I can go there and talk to the mangement about this.
A compound subject can also be joined with correlative conjunctions such as ‘not only…but
also‘, ‘Both…and‘, and ‘neither…not’.
 Neither the doctors nor the patients were happy with the ongoing protests.
 Both the police and the protestors are working together.
 Not only my parents but I am also in support of this rule.
What can be a subject?
A subject is generally a noun or a noun phrase but can be any of these:
 Noun
 Noun phrase
 Pronoun
 Noun clause
 Gerund
 Infinitive
Noun as a subject
A noun is a name given to something or someone. It’s generally a name of a person, place, thing,
animal, emotion, concept, subject, activity, etc.
Examples:
 Mohit loves chocolates.
 Dubai is a beautiful city.
 Love overpowers hate.
 Honestly is the best policy.
Noun phrase as a subject
A noun phrase is a group of words headed by a noun. It has a noun and a word or words that
modify it.
Examples:
 A man can do anything.
 A motivated man can achieve anything.
 Your house looks amazing.
 A tall girl came to my house yesterday.
 The man in the blue coat is waving at you.
Click here to study noun phrases in detail.
Pronoun as a subject
 You are amazing.
 She is studying right now.
 Everyone loves Ashish.
 There are 15 students in the classroom. All are studying.
 That is my house.
Noun clause as a subject
A subject can be a clause. Here are some examples:
 What he is eating is pancakes.
 What he wants is uncertain.
 Who you are hanging out with is a criminal.
 How she did this is shocking to us.
Gerund as a subject
A gerund is a progressive form of a verb that functions as a noun.
Examples:
 Dancing is my passion. (We are talking about an action: dancing. This action is not
happening right now.
 Smoking can kill you.
 Teaching English is my passion.
 Talking to kids makes me happy.
The last examples of subjects are gerund phrases.
Study these topics in detail by clicking on them:
 Gerunds
 Gerund phrases
Infinitive as a subject
An infinitive is the ‘TO + V1’ form of a verb that functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
Examples:
 To go home is what I want right now.
 To start an NGO is my dream.
 To bring her back is difficult.
PREDICATE
A predicate is a part of the sentence that gives information about the subject. It either indicates
what the subject is doing or gives information about the subject in terms of giving it a name
(using a noun) or modifying it (using an adjective).
Examples:
 She slept.
 She is working.
 You are a great human being.
 She is extremely talented.
Types of predicates in English
There are three types of predicates in English:
1. Simple predicate
2. Compound predicate
 3. Complete predicate
Simple predicate
A simple predicate is a verb or a verb phrase (a combination of an auxiliary verb and the main
verb). It does not include ant objects or modifiers.
Examples:
 She works.
Here, ‘she’ is the simple subject, and ‘works‘ is the simple predicate.
 You can go.
In the sentence, ‘can go’ is the simple predicate. It is a combination of the auxiliary verb (can)
and the main verb (go). You is the simple subject here.
 Jon has been sleeping.
Here, ‘Jon’ is the simple subject, and ‘has been sleeping‘ is the simple predicate.
 My mother is cooking my favorite dish.
In this sentence, the simple predicate is ‘is cooking’. The complete predicate is ‘is cooking my
favorite dish’. The complete predicate is a combination of a simple predicate and the object of
the verb.
 She called me right after the meeting ended.
‘Called’ is the simple predicate here. It is the main verb. Notice that the verb called has its object
and modifier after it, but a simple predicate does not include anything other than a verb (main
verb) and a verb phrase (auxiliary verb + main verb).
More examples of simple predicates
 She cries.
 It works.
 He finished the work.
 You have done this beautifully.
 Some of you may get a call in the evening.
 Some people never learn from their mistakes.
Compound predicate
A compound predicate is a combination of two verbs or verb phrases. The verbs of a compound
predicate share the same subject. The verbs are joined with coordinating conjunctions such as
‘and‘, ‘or‘, or ‘but‘. Forming a compound predicate is a way to avoid repeating the subject.
Study the following example to see how a predicate fits into a sentence.
Rahul calls me every day. He tells me everything.
These are two sentences where the doer of both the actions is the same: Rahul. Calls and tells.
These are two simple predicates. When a subject performs two or more actions, we can bring
them together and avoid mentioning the subject again in a new clause.
Rahul calls me every day and tells me everything.
Now, we have brought these two predicates using the coordinating conjunction ‘and’.
More examples:
 They will hire you or let you go.
 The company has changed their policy and opened 5 new posts.
 I wanted to help you but didn’t have money.
 Joanna fell off the roof and broke her foot.
 Some of my friends moved to Dubai and bought houses there.
 I will call your parents and tell them everything you did.
 The movie was long but had an amazing storyline.
Complete predicate
A complete predicate is a combination of a simple predicate (verb) and the others parts of the
sentence: objects, complements, and modifiers.
Examples:
 Jon Jones finished his career at the top.
Simple predicate = finished
Complete predicate = finished his career at the top
 You owe me 500 dollars.
Simple predicate = owe
Complete predicate = owe me 500 dollars
 You have been working hard lately.
Simple predicate = have been working
Complete predicate = have been working hard lately
I should have listened to my father that day.
Simple predicate = should have listened
Complete predicate = should have listened to my father that day
  They are sleeping.
‘Are sleeping’ is the simple predicate here. It does not have a complete sentence.
NOTE: a complete predicate must have more than a verb. It must include objects, complements,
or modifiers. A verb or a verb phrase can’t be a complete predicate.
Parts of a predicate
Here are the things we have in a predicate:
 Verb or verb phrase
 Object
 Complement
 Adverb or adverbial
NOTE: A sentence can be formed using a subject and a verb or verb phrase, at minimum.
 Ron dances.
 She sings.
 We are working.
But sometimes, with the other information we want to render, that’s not enough.
 We are having dinner.
 Your sister wants some money.
 She has finished the assignment.
It is important to note that we need only two elements to form a subject: a subject and a verb.
Types of Sentence
It is important to note that English sentences can be classified into different types based on both
their functions (meaning) and structures (forms). Now, let’s discuss these five functional types
and four structural varieties of English sentences in detail with relevant examples. Let’s start
with the functional category of the sentences and then move to the structural category.
When you describe a sentence based on its function, you are describing it based on what it does.
Types of Sentence Based on Functions
Based on functions, there are five types of sentences: Assertive, Interrogative, Imperative,
Optative and Exclamatory:
1. Assertive Sentence
2. Interrogative Sentence
3. Imperative Sentence
 4. Optative Sentence
5. Exclamatory Sentence

Sentence Types Examples

Assertive Sentences (Statement) Rishita is a good singer.

Interrogative Sentences (Question) Are you a student?

Imperative Sentences (Command, request, proposal, encouragement) Please open the door.

Optative Sentences (Desire, wish) May God bless you.

Exclamatory Sentences (Sudden feeling, strong emotion) How cute the baby is!

1. What is an Assertive Sentence?

Assertive sentences are used to make statements or comments. It describes a state of affairs,
action, feeling, or belief. As assertive sentences make statements by declaration, they are also
called declarative sentences.
Example:
 This is a fascinating game.
This is not an exciting game at all.
Note: Assertive sentences end with a full stop/period (.).
If you observe the above examples closely, you will notice that both of them are statements. But
did you notice that the first example is different from the second one according to its meaning or
function? The first one gives us an affirmative statement, while the second example gives us a
negative comment.
There are two kinds of assertive sentences: affirmative and negative.
Affirmative Sentences
Sentences that give neutral or affirmative statements are called affirmative sentences. This kind
of sentence says or means “yes” and doesn’t contain any negator.
Example:
 He always helps me.
 I am eager to play cricket.
Negative Sentences
Sentences that give negative statements or information are called negative sentences. This kind
of sentence says or means “no” or “none” and always contains negators: no, not, never, hardly,
seldom, nothing, neither, etc.
Example:
 He never helps me.
 I’m not eager to play cricket.
Let’s look at some examples of affirmative and negative sentences to make the idea clearer.
Assertive sentences (declaration/statement) Examples

Rohan is a good player.

The coffee is too sweet.
Affirmative sentences
She is beautiful.
[Gives neutral or affirmative statements]
He is a brilliant student.
My friend, Rajiv, is sincere about his study.

Rohan is not a good player.

The coffee is not that sweet.
Negative sentences
She is not beautiful.
[Gives negative statements]
He is not a brilliant student.
My friend, Rajiv, is not sincere about his study.

2. What Is an Interrogative Sentence or a Question?

Sentences that are usually used to ask questions are called interrogative sentences. Interrogative
sentences are always followed by a question mark (?) or note of interrogation.
Example:
 Is it a good idea?
 Are you not a member of the club?
The above examples confirm that, like assertive sentences, interrogatives also can be of two
types according to their function—affirmative and negative. Example 1 is an affirmative
question, whereas example 2 is a negative question.
The main difference between affirmative and negative questions is in the use of negators. An
affirmative question doesn’t contain any negator, while a negative question must have a negator.
3. What Is an Imperative Sentence?
Sentences that are used to ask someone to do something are called imperative sentences. We can
express commands, requests, proposals, and encouragement with imperative sentences. In such
sentences, the subject remains understood or invisible.
Example:
 Please shut the window. (Request)
 Sit down right here. (Command)
 Come on, kick the ball! (Encouragement)
*Remember! An imperative sentence usually ends with a full stop/period (.), but it often ends
with an exclamation mark when it expresses encouragement.
4. What Is an Optative Sentence?
Optative sentences are used to express formal desire or wish. This kind of sentence usually
begins with the word “May,” and a full stop (.) or exclamatory sign (!) is used at the end of the
sentence.
Example:
 May God bless you!
 May you enjoy a happy life!
*Remember! In modern grammar, optatives are not considered individual sentence types.
Instead, many modern grammarians consider optative sentences as part of imperatives.
5. What Is an Exclamatory Sentence?
Sentences that express a sudden feeling or strong emotion of the speaker are known as
exclamatory sentences. This kind of sentence usually starts with “what” or “how” and ends with
a note of exclamation (!). They are also called exclamative sentences.
Example:
 How beautiful the garden is!
 What a tragic play Shakespeare’s Hamlet is!
Remember! Some exclamatory sentences may not have a complete sentence structure, but they
are still considered sentences.
Example:
 Oh my God!
 How strange!
Types of Sentence Based on Structures
But before we begin to understand different types of sentences based on their structures, we need
to know about clauses. Here is a quick guide on clauses.
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. Sometimes a clause is a complete
sentence on its own.
Independent clause: An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a subject
and a verb and is a complete idea.
 I like spaghetti.
 He reads many books.
Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be attached to an
independent clause to become complete. This is also known as a subordinate clause.
 Although I like spaghetti,…
 Because he reads many books,…
Structurally, sentences are of four types:
1. Simple sentence
2. Compound sentence
3. Complex sentence, and
4. Compound-complex sentence.
1. Simple sentence
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers.
However, it contains only one independent clause (a single verb), and it cannot take another
clause. Sometimes a simple sentence can be referred to as a clause.

Example:

 I always wanted to become a writer. (One clause – one verb)

 She wrote.
 She completed her literature review.
 He organized his sources by theme.

2. Compound sentence
A compound sentence must have more than one independent clause with no dependent clauses.
These two independent clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction
or with a semicolon.
Example:
 Always wanted to become a writer, and she wanted to become a doctor. (Two
independent clauses – two verbs)
 She completed her literature review, and she created her reference list.
 He organized his sources by theme; then, he updated his reference list.
 They studied APA rules for many hours, but they realized there was still much to learn.
 3. Complex sentence
A complex sentence also has more than one clause but one of them must be an independent
clause and the other/others must be (a) dependent clause(es). Dependent clauses can refer to the
subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the
independent clause.
If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, it is followed by (e.g. If, on the other hand,) but if
the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is no comma separating the two clauses.
Example:
 Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her methods
section.
*Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
 Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to follow.
*Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
 They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting.
*Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an
independent clause.
4. Compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence (or complex–compound sentence) contains at least two
independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. It is a mixture of the features of
compound and complex sentences in one sentence.
Example:
 I know that you always wanted to become a writer, but I always wanted to become a
doctor. (Here, one dependent clause is followed by a complex connector and two
independent clauses with a compound conjunction between them.)
 She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her methods section
even though she finished her methods course last semester.
 Although he organized his sources by theme, he decided to arrange them
chronologically, and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization.
 With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many hours, and they decided
that writing in APA made sense because it was clear, concise, and objective.
Structures (Elements/Parts) of a Sentence
The knowledge of permissible structures and word order is crucial for anyone who desires to
speak and write a language confidently. Words are not arbitrarily arranged; they follow specific
orders and are grouped within sentence elements. The knowledge of these sentence elements, as
well as the basic sentence types they can generate, is quite essential to language use, especially in
written form.
Sentence structure is a grammatical component that tells you exactly where and how each
component of a sentence should be placed in order to blend and make sense. The Collins
Dictionary defines sentence structure as “the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences.”
In other words, the sentence structure is what defines the way a sentence will look and sound.
Basic Structures of a Sentence
Before we look into how sentence structure works, we will have to first learn about the basic
structure of a sentence. A sentence, in the English language, must consists of these basic
structures or Elements; subject and a predicate. In other words, a sentence should have a subject
and a verb then followed by other the components that make up a sentence which can be
optional.

Subject
The subject can be a noun or a pronoun that does the action.
For example:
 The sun is shining.
 The sky is clear.
 Today is Wednesday.
Predicate
The verb is the action performed by the particular subject in the sentence.
For example:
 I love macaroni and cheese.
 Merin has a pet.
 Anusha can draw.
Components of a Sentence
Though, it is not always possible to form a sentence with these two elements (parts). Sometimes,
you need other parts like objects, subject complements, and object complements too. The
selection of the elements you need to form a sentence is decided by the information you want to
render. A sentence has two parts, and five main components that make up its structure, and they
are,
  Subject
 Verb
 Object
 Complement
 Adjunct
Now, let us look at each of these components in detail.
Subject
A noun that performs the action in a sentence is considered as the subject. It answers the question
‘who’ or in other words, a subject can be identified by asking the question ‘who’. A subject takes
the first place in most cases, especially in declarative or assertive sentences.
For example:
 The child kept crying.
 Our school team won the match.
 My son is in the eighth grade.
 Hard work pays.
 No one came to the wedding.
Verb
In every sentence the most important word can be said to be the verb. A verb shows action or
activity or work done by the subject. Remember that all verbs including main verbs, helping
verbs, stative verbs and action verbs come under this category. Most often, verbs appear
immediately after the subject.
For example:
 Neena is writing a letter.
 It was too dark.
 I feel tired.
 My phone is not working.
 Tarun’s dog ran away.
Object
An object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action done by the subject. Objects are of two
types and they are,
  Direct Object
 Indirect Object
Direct Object
A noun or pronoun that receives the action directly is the direct object in the sentence. It answers
the question ‘what’. Direct objects mostly appear immediately after the verb and are the primary
objects in the sentence.
For example:
 Harry bought a new car.
 My mom made a cake.
 I met my friend.
 She knows all the songs.
 We watched a movie.
Indirect Object
An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that is a secondary object. It can be identified by asking
the question ‘whom’. When there is an indirect object in a sentence, it is mostly placed after the
verb and before the direct object.
For example:
 Vandhana gave Keerthana a cake.
 My mom bought me a new dress.
 I gave him a chocolate.
 They gave us coffee with breakfast.
 He lent his friend a pen.
Complement
The words required to complete the meaning of a sentence can be referred to as the complement
of the sentence. A complement can be an adjective, a name, a position or a profession.
For example:
 It grew dark.
 He is a dentist.
 That’s her dog, Bruno.
Complements are further divided into two types based on which component it speaks about. The
two types of complement are,
 Subject Complement
 Object Complement
Subject Complement
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of the subject is called
Subject Complement.
For example:
 She is a doctor.
 I am Sindhu.
 Nandhu is clever.
 The students are very excited.
 My brother is a teacher.
Object Complement
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of an object is called Object
Complement.
For example:
 They made her angry.
 The students elected Sreya the class leader.
 They named their daughter, Thara.
 Marley met her friend, Ryan.
 Nobody found the movie interesting.
Adjunct
An adjunct is a word or a phrase that gives more information about an action, an event, a quality
and so on. In short, it can be said that these words can include adverbs and adverb clauses.
Adjuncts can be identified by asking questions ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘why’, ‘how’, ‘how often’ and
‘to what extent’. When using adjuncts, keep in mind that adjuncts can be used at the beginning,
middle or end of a sentence, and that, there can be more than one adjunct in a sentence.
Take a look at the following examples to understand how adjuncts can be used.
 Yesterday, we met at the park.
 He is very tired.
  Due to his ill-health, he could not come home for Christmas.
 My father reads the newspaper everyday.
 This workout routine is extremely exhausting.
The Different Types of Sentence Structures in English Grammar
In English Grammar, there are a number of sentence structures that you can use to make your
speech or writing sound or look a lot more organised, interesting and professional. Some of the
commonly used sentence structures are as follows.
 Subject + Verb (SV)
 Subject + Verb + Object (SVO)
 Subject + Verb + Complement (SVC)
 Subject + Verb + Adjunct (SVA)
 Subject + Verb + Object + Complement (SVOC)
 Subject + Verb + Object + Adjunct (SVOA)
 Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (SVIODO)
 Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Complement (ASVC)
 Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Object (ASVO)
 Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (ASVIODO)
 Subject + Verb + Adjunct + Adjunct (SVAA)
 Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Adjunct + Adjunct (ASVAA)
Tense
Learning tenses is one of the most essential skills that is required while studying the English
language. It is important while communicating both verbally and in written form because it helps
us clearly indicate the time at which something has happened.
So, if you wish to convey your message accurately in the English language, then learning about
tenses becomes important
In English grammar, verbs are often used in a way that it indicates or denotes the time when an
event occurred. These verbs that take up different forms to indicate the time of an action, event
or condition by changing its form are called as tenses. Tenses can be broadly classified into three
broad categories:
1. Past Tense
2. Present Tense
 3. Future Tense

Past Tense
This tense is used to refer to something that happened in the past. Sometimes, past tense is also
called as ‘simple past tense.’
Structural formula:
Subject + verb (-ed) + object.
Examples:
 We met yesterday.
 He bought a new laptop last week.
Present tense
The simple present tense or present tense is one of the most basic tenses in English. We use
present tense to talk about something that is currently going on, something that is habitually
performed, or a state that generally or currently exists.
Structural formula:
Subject + verb (s/es) + object.
Examples:
 She lives in Spain.
 Bob drives a taxi.
Future tense
The future tense is a verb tense used to describe an event or action that has not yet happened and
is expected to happen in the future.
Structural formula:
Subject + shall/will+ verb (s/es) + object.
Example:
 He will be here soon.
Now that we have understood the three main types of tenses, communicating in English with a
native English speaker will become easier. But to make communication in English easier and
simpler, we need to learn more about tenses.
Apart from the three main types of tenses - present, past, and future - there are different subtypes
of tenses which are mentioned below.
What are the subtypes of tenses?
Past continuous tense
The past continuous tense is used to describe events or actions that have already occurred in the
past. It's employed to describe any action which has happened in the past.
Structural formula:
Subject + helping verb (was/were) + verb (ing) + object.
Examples:
 I was watching TV.
 We were sleeping.
 She wasn’t eating her lunch.
Past perfect tense
The past perfect tense is used to describe an event that occurred before a completed action in the
past.
Structural formula:
Subject + had + verb (ed) + object.
Examples:
 He had gone when she became ill.
 She had not lived in New York.
 They had not been married long when I was born.
Past perfect continuous tense
The past perfect continuous tense represents any action or event that started in the past and
sometimes continued into another action or another time.
Structural formula:
Subject + had been + Verb (ing) + object (optional) + time of action.
Examples:
 We had been playing games for 6 hours when Dad came home.
 She had been reading magazines for 1 month before she decided to apply for the job.
 Had she been washing dishes all day?
Present continuous tense
The present continuous tense is used to talk about the ongoing actions, events, or conditions that
are still not finished.
Structural formula:
Subject
+ helping verb (is / am/ are) + main verb (ing) + object.
Examples:
 She is playing basketball.
 Birds are flying in the sky.
 I’m learning English.
Present perfect tense
The present perfect tense is used to describe a situation or event that has already occurred but has
immediate ramifications. The present perfect tense can be used to describe experiences, and
situations that occurred in the past but still have an influence on the present. We don't use it with
time markers.
Structural formula:
Subject + helping verb (have/has) + verb (ed) + object.
Examples:
 She has not finished her work yet.
 I have seen that movie twice.
 We have visited LA several times.
Present perfect continuous tense
The present perfect continuous tense shows a situation that has started in the past and continues
in the present.
Structural formula:
Subject + helping verb (have/has) + been + verb (ing) + object (optional) + since / for + time
duration + object.
Examples:
 I have been learning English for many years.
 He has been working here since 2010.
  We have been saving money.
Future continuous tense
The future continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action that will occur or occur in the
future.
Structural formula:
Subject + shall/will be + verb (ing) + object.
Example:
 He will be coming to visit us next week.
 She will be watching TV.
 He will be writing a letter to Mary.
Future perfect tense
The future perfect is used to describe an action that will be completed between now and a certain
point in the future.
Structural formula:
Subject + shall/will + have + verb (3rd form) + object.
Examples:
 They will have finished the film before we get home.
 She will have cleaned the house by 9pm.
Future perfect continuous tense
We use the future perfect continuous to focus on the duration of an action before a specific time
in the future.
Structural formula:
Subject + shall/will + have been + verb (ing) + object (optional) + time instant.
Examples:
 He will have been studying hard for 2 weeks before the exam.
 By the time the alarm goes off, we will have been sleeping for 8 hours.
Examples of tenses in English

Tense Present Past Future

Simple He rides a bike He rode a bike He will ride a bike

Continuous He is riding a bike He was riding a bike He will be riding a bike

Perfect He has ridden a bike He had ridden a bike He will have ridden a bike

Perfect He has been riding a bike He had been riding a He will have been riding a
continuous since the morning bike since 8 am bike at 8 am tomorrow

Past Present Future

will/shall play
Simple Played (verb+ed) Plays (verb+s)
(will/shall+verb)

will/shall have
had played (had+past has/have played
Perfect played(will/shall+past
participle) (has/have+past participle)
participle)

will/shall be
was/were is/am/are
Continuous playing(will/shall
playing(was/were+verb+ing) playing(is/am/are+verb+ing)
be+verb+ing)

has/have been will/shall have been

Perfect had been playing (had
playing(has/have playing(will/shall have
Continuous been+verb+ing)
been+verb+ing) been+verb+ing)

Concord/Agreement
The word concord is derived from the Latin for agreement. When applied to English grammar,
the term is defined as the grammatical agreement between two words in a sentence. Some
linguists use the terms concord and agreement interchangeably, although traditionally, concord is
used in reference to the proper relationship between adjectives and the nouns they modify, while
agreement refers to the proper relationship between verbs and their subjects or objects.
A sentence consists of a subject and predicate ( verb, object, complement). All these components
of a sentence must agree with each other. If there is no agreement, then the sentence is
grammatically incorrect. Here, Concord comes in.
Concord in grammar is the agreement of all the components of a sentence. Furthermore, concord
could also be defined as the relationship between two grammatical items whereby a certain
feature in the form of one of them requires a corresponding feature in the firm of the other.
Concord is relatively limited in modern English. Noun-pronoun concord calls for agreement
between a pronoun and its antecedent in terms of number, person, and gender. Subject-verb
concord, as it relates to numbers, is conventionally marked by inflections at the end of a word.
 Study the following sentences and notice how verbs in the predicate part change according to
the number (Singular and Plural) and the person (1st person, 2nd Person, 3rd Person) of the
nouns in the subject part.
 Dog barks. (Singular Subject)
 Dogs bark. (Plural Subject)
 I eat. (1st person singular subject)
 He/ She eats. (3rd Person singular subject)
Mixed concord, also known as discord, is the combination of a singular verb and a plural
pronoun. This structure happens when there's a substantial distance between a noun and its
modifier and shows up most frequently in informal or spoken language. Discord is motivated
when the abstract preference for a phrase's meaning to be in agreement outweighs the desire for
the formal subject noun phrase to agree.

Types of Concord in English grammar

There are several different types of concord in English grammar.
1. Grammatical concord:
Grammatical concord is the easiest type of subject-verb agreement to grasp, and it is always the
one we learn first. Put simply, it means that if the sentence has a singular subject, it must also
have a singular verb. If the subject of the sentence is plural, the verb must be plural, too.
In subject-verb concord, if the subject of the sentence is singular, the verb must also be singular.
If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural as well.
 The window is open.
 The windows are open.
In the first sentence, the subject (the window) is singular, so the sentence uses the singular verb
‘is’. In the second sentence, there is more than one window, so the plural verb ‘are’ is used.
Of course, these are easy examples but where people tend to get confused is when a phrase is
containing another noun is inserted between the subject and the modifying verb and that noun
has a different numeric value (singular or plural) than the subject noun. In this example, the first
sentence is incorrect:
 The crates in the warehouse is ready to be loaded.
 The crates in the warehouse are ready to be loaded.
While "warehouse" is singular, it is not the subject of the sentence. The second sentence is
correct. The word "crates" is the subject of the sentence, so must take the plural form of the
vowel (in this case, "are") to be in agreement.

Grammatical Concord with more than one subject

What happens if there are multiple subjects in a sentence? If there’s more than one subject, these
work together as a plural subject, so the verb is plural, like this:
 Jack and Ali were caught in the rain.

Because there are two subjects (Jack and Ali) we use the plural verb ‘were’ instead of the
singular ‘was’.
However, there are a couple of exception to this rule.
The first exception is when both subjects are the same person or thing. For example:
 The largest animal and loudest sea creature is the Blue Whale.
 The singer and songwriter is Harry Styles.
In both of these cases, the subjects are the same person or animal, so we use the singular verb
‘is’ in both sentences.

2. Proximity concord
Proximity means “nearness” or “closeness” of two things. In the case of sentences, we often
show proximity between two subjects by using the using the correlating conjunctions
“either……. or” or “neither…..nor”.

If both subjects are singular, the verb takes the singular form, as in these examples:
 Either the Prime Minister or the chancellor is attending the meeting.
 Neither Mary nor her mother eats meat.
But, what happens when one subject is singular and the other is plural? In this case, the verb
takes the form of the subject nearest to it in the sentence, for example:
 If Sandra fails her exams, either her parents, her friends or her sister is to blame (not
are).
 Neither Kinsley’s friends nor his wife likes him (not like).
 Neither Mary nor her parents eat meat .(not eats).
 Either the Prime Minister or the other Government Ministers are attending the
meeting( not is).
The principle of proximity concord says that if two or more subjects are coordinated (joined) by
the correlative coordinators “either……. or” or “neither…..nor”, the subject that is closest to
the verb determines the concord- the rest (first one (s)) are ignored.
3. Notional Concord
The principle of notional concord holds with collective nouns. Collective nouns are words like
“committee”, “club”, “choir”, “audience”, “congregation” etc. These words mean a group of
people, and they can take either singular or plural verbs depending on how they are used.
The rule is that, if the collective noun performs an action, it takes a plural verb, but if no action is
involved, it takes a singular verb.
Examples:
 The choir sing very well (not sings, since an action is involved, the verb will be plural).
 The Choir is very disciplined (not are).
 The audience is quite large (not are).
 The audience were clapping their hands (not is).

4. Categorization concord.
There are adjectives that denote a group or category of people. Such words include The poor,
the rich, the lame, the blind, the helpless, etc. When these words are used as the subject of a
sentence, two things happen. The first is that these words are not pluralized, though they mean a
group of people (the poor means everybody that is poor, so does the rich, the lame, the blind etc).
So we do not have the forms *the poors, *the blinds etc Secondly, they take plural verbs.
Examples
 The poor need our help (not needs).
 The rich also cry (not cries).
 The blind see with their inner eyes (not sees).

5. Concord of Indefinite Pronouns.

They are pronouns that refer to things are vaguely rather than specifically. They give us ways to
talk about people, things an quantities in abstract terms,
Indefinite pronouns are those pronouns that end in “body”, “thing” and “one”. They include the
words somebody, everybody, nobody, anybody, something, everything, nothings, anything etc.
They have a plural connotation, but they take singular verbs.
Example:
 Everybody in this class is hungry (not are).
 Nobody likes to be disrespected (not like).
 Anything is better than nothing (not are).

6. Concord of Quasi Coordinated Subjects.

There are words we call quasi coordinators in English. They include words like “as well as”,
“with”, “together with”, “in conjunction with”, “along with”.
When these words are used to join two subjects, only the first subject controls the verb and
determines the concord, the second subject is ignored.
Examples:
 The president together with his ministers has arrived (not have).
 The principal as well as all the teachers and students is in the hall right now (not are).
 The man with his wife was killed in the earthquake.(not were)

7. More than concord

When “more than” is used to qualify the subject of a sentence, it can take either a singular or a
plural verb depending on what come after it. If a singular noun comes after it, then it takes a
singular verb, but if a plural noun comes after it, then it takes a plural verb.
Examples:
 More than one man lives here (not live).
 More than five boys attend this school.
* More than one carries the idea of plurality, and you might then think that it should take a
plural verb. No. in this case, we look at the word that comes after the one, which will be a
singular noun. Because of the presence of this singular noun, the sentence cannot take a plural
verb.
8. Concord of Money, Measurement, Distance and Time
When a word that denotes money (e.g. five dollars, twenty naira, fifteen pounds etc),
measurement (e.g three litres, five kilograms etc), distance (twenty kilometers, five miles etc)
and time (e.g four hours, eleven minutes etc) is used as the subject of a sentence, the verb will be
singular.
Example:
 Twenty thousand naira is too small for me to spend.
 Five hundred thousand dollars was spent on the project (not were).
 Five cups of water is all he needs (not are).
 Five days is not enough for the police to complete their investigation (not are).

9. Concord of Fraction and percentages.

When a word that denotes fraction and percentage is used with the subject of a sentence, it can
take either singular or plural verbs depending on what comes after it. If a singular noun comes
after it, it takes a singular verb and if a plural noun comes after it, it takes a plural verb.
Examples:
  Three-quarters of the hostel has been painted and three quarters of the students have
moved in.
 Fifty percent of the boys have arrived and fifty percent of the food has been eaten.
 Ninety percent of dogs like bones.

Logic
Logic originated from the ancient Greek, meaning ‘logos’, originally meaning ‘the word; or
‘what is spoken’. Overtime, the term logic acquired more meaning. It now means ‘thought’ or
‘reason’. Traditionally, logic is studied as a branch of philosophy, dealing with formal
description of natural language. It consists of the systematic study of argument.
What is Logic?
The study of the methods and techniques used to differentiate good or correct reasoning from
bad or incorrect reasoning (Osasona & Onejewu, 2003).
It is the process of a clear and organised thinking that leads to a reasonable conclusion (Strong et
al, 2002). In other words, it is a method of reasoning correctly and convincingly towards
reaching a reasonable and acceptable conclusion.
Aim of Logic
The aim of logic is to advance an account of a valid and fallacious inference, which allows one
to distinguish between good and bad arguments. This ability to distinguish between good and
bad arguments helps one to become effective in argument and oratory, and also to become a
better person with capacity for critical reasoning.
Uses of Logic
Logic can be used to assess, analyse and improve the informal reasoning that occurs in the
course of personal exchange, advertising, political debate, legal argument, and in all types of
social commentary found in newspapers, worldwide web (the internet) and other form of mass
media.
In composition, logic helps writers to employ stronger arguments in persuasive or argumentative
essays since a sound, well-reasoned and compelling argument is one of the most persuasive
communicative acts humans can create. Familiarity with logic and structure of well-informed
arguments and reasoning can thus help writers to:
a. Construct valid arguments in support of their propositions
b. Evaluate and refute invalid arguments used to support the proposition propositions of
other persons
Why Study Logic?
The study of logic helps the user of English language to present his composition, whether it is an
essay, a letter, a report or an advertisement in a manner that will make his presentation more
persuasive, and his ideas communicated to his readers and listeners more effectively.
Basic Parts of a Logical Argument
A logical argument is made up of four basic parts, discussed below:
1. Proposition is a statement which is either true or false. In using proposition, we
either assert the truth of a statement or provide evidence that the proposition is
false. Propositions are usually statements that can be in the form of commands or
rhetorical questions. E.g., Nigeria is in West Africa. Propositions serve as the
foundational elements to the premises, the inferences and the conclusions of an
argument.
2. Premise or Assertion is the ground or reason for accepting the argument and its
conclusions. A premise is indicated by such words as because, since, obviously,
certainly, and surely. E.g., the student won the competition because he worked
hard.
3. Inference is a process by which a proposition is arrived at and affirmed based on
one or more other accepted propositions at the beginning of the process. Words or
phrase such as implies that, thus, leads us to, or then are indicative of inferences.
E.g., “if you miss this examination, then you will have to repeat”.
4. Argument is any group of propositions that are arranged sequentially in such a
way that they provide the necessary support or basis for the conclusion arrived at.
An argument can have a premise and conclusion.
5. Conclusion is derive from the premise and the inference together, and its validity
rests on the validity of the underlying premises and inferences. Words or phrase
such as therefore, in sum, it follows that, in conclusion, are indicative of
conclusions.
Types of Logic
Inductive Logic
An inductive argument is any argument that aims to show its conclusion is probably true though
not certainly true. An inductive argument claims that if the premises are true, the conclusion is
likely or reasonable but not certain. The inductive process moves from the particular to the
general. An inductive argument that succeeds in showing that its conclusion is probably true if
the premises are true is called a strong inductive argument. An inductive argument that fails to
show that its conclusion is probably true if its premises are true is called a weak inductive
argument. The following inductive arguments aim to show that their conclusions are probably
true. The first is strong while the second is weak.
Example: 1
1. In all of recorded history, the students have never written examinations in
December.
 2. Therefore, the students would probably not write examination in Decembers.
Examples: 2
1. Ogah is a member of People’s Democratic Party (PDP).
2. Some members of Alliance People’s Congress (APC) have been members of the
PDP.
3. Therefore, Ogah is probably a member of APC.
This shows again that not all reasoning is equal. Some acts of reasoning are better than others.
An inductive argument can be strong even though it has false premises and conclusion. For
example:
1. For the past two weeks, it has been raining heavily in Akwanga, it has not been
sunny because the sky is full of cloud.
2. Therefore, it will probably rain in Akwanga today.
The premises are false and conclusion false. The argument is strong because the premises were
true. Strength is however not the only thing needed in inductive argument. Truth is also needed.
If an argument is strong and its premises are all true, the argument is called a cogent argument.
To have a cogent inductive, all the premises must be true and they must also be strong. Since
truth is the ultimate goal of reasoning, cogency is the ultimate goal of inductive argument. For
example:
1. Most Nigerian car use petrol.
2. Tim drives a Nigerian car.
3. Therefore, Tim’s car probably uses petrol.
To examine any kind of logical reasoning, one must be able to distinguish facts from opinions.
Facts are statements that can be proven to be true or false. Opinions are statements that represent
a person’s point of view.
Deductive Arguments
A deductive argument is any argument that aims to show that its conclusion must be true. In
other words, deductive argument aims to establish its conclusion. It holds that if the premises are
true, then the conclusion is completely certain to be true as well. If a deductive arguments
succeeds in showing that its conclusion must be true if the premises are true is called a valid
deductive argument. On the other hand, a deductive argument that fails to show that its
conclusion must be true if its premises are true is called an invalid deductive argument.
A valid argumentation can be defined as a deductive argument if the premises are true and then
the conclusion must be true. For example, the following arguments are deductive because each
obviously aims to show that its conclusion must be true if its premises all are true. Only the first
is valid while the second invalid.
Example 1:
1. All human beings are mammals.
 2. All mammals are warm-blooded.
3. Therefore, it must be that all human beings are warm-blooded.
Example 2:
1. All human beings are mammals.
2. All dogs are mammals.
3. Therefore, it must be that all human beings are dogs.
Ther is difference between these two arguments. It means that not all reasoning is equal. Some
reasoning is equal. Some reasoning is better than other reasoning. There are instances where an
argument has false premises and false conclusions but still be regarded as valid.
For examples:
1. All students are millionaires.
2. All millionaires are proud.
3. Therefore, all students must be proud.
Though the premises and conclusion are false, the argument is valid, because the premises are
true. This shows that true premises are not required for validity and in logic. Valid does no mean
true. Validity is not all that is needed, if the argument is valid and its premises all true, then the
argument is called a sound argument. A sound argument has to have all the premises that are true
and it also has to be valid.
It means that truth and reality are the ultimate goal for reasoning. Soundness not mere validity is
the ultimate goal of deductive argument. The following arguments are neither valid nor sound:
1. All whales are mammals.
2. All mammals are animals.
3. Therefore, it must be that all whales are mammals.

LITREATURE IN ENGLISH

Development of Literature

Literature is as old as man. In his primitive stage, man lived in caves and trunk of tress
where ideas are transmitted orally. Even when he developed a form of technology, literature was
carried out through oral performances, particularly during festivals, naming ceremonies and
funerals.
Man developed a form of civilization. wise saying and other important events were recorded in
chronicles as important documents. These documents were later made available to late writers.

The ancient Egyptians and Sumatra civilization made available certain writing materials
were literature of their early civilization were recorded. The Greeks advanced on this work.
Specialized writing in rhetoric was thought in specialized schools. This age saw poetry and
theatrical performance developed.

Literature can be classified according to whether it is fiction or non-fiction, and whether

it is poetry or prose. It can be further distinguished according to major forms such as the novel,
short story or drama; and works are often categorized according to historical periods or their
adherence to certain aesthetic features or expectations.

The Meaning of Literature

Literature is language in action. Its a form of human expression. Literature is perceived

differently in different quarters. Some may see as a general collection of ideas which has great
value. Others see it as a form of writing which established facts about the different field of
human endeavor. This could be in form of poetry, story, history, religion etc.

Literature is aimed at dissecting the society and exposing it to the public in order to see
itself in this creative world of imagination.

Genres of Literature
There are genres of literature:
Prose: prose can be fiction, non-fiction and letter
Poetry: poetry can be narrative, dramatic or lyric
Drama: It can be tragedy, comedy, or comic drama or tragicomedy
PROSE
A prose is a written or spoken language that is not in verse form. In most cases, people
refer to it as a novel. It is a long narrative with a wide range of characters, events and
experiences written in a straight forward language.

POETRY
Poetry is a form of writing stimulated by emotion and expressing a deep feeling, that may
be very difficult to explain in literary form. It is the act of uniting pleasure with truth by the help
of imagination and reasoning. Poetry is verse and rhythmic writing with imagery that evokes an
emotional response from the reader. The art of poetry is rhythmical in composition, written or
spoken. This genre of literature is for exciting pleasure by beautiful, imaginative, or elevated
thoughts
DRAMA
 Drama is the genre of literature that’s subject for compositions is dramatic art in the way
it is represented. This genre is stories composed in verse or prose, usually for theatrical
performance, where conflicts and emotion are expressed through dialogue and action. Drama in
real life involves action, which is one of the important methods of seeing life. It is a situation in
which happenings in a story are narrated but acted out on stage by casts. Drama is a play meant
for theatre, television or radio, which is written in forms of scripts.

Functions of Literature

1. The various functions performed by Literature are well summarized by Mayhead [].
These functions are elaborately explained below:
2. It provides entertainment: literature keeps us entertained by making laugh either at the
characters or the situations presented.
3. It helps to enlarge our experiences by giving us insight into the lives of others either dead
or living.
4. It aids the learning of language in which the literary work is composed.
5. It helps us to appreciate our own culture and those of others.
6. It promotes in us clear communication of thoughts. This means that since literature helps
us to learn language easily.
7. It serves as a means of social control. This means that it correctly exposes, ridicules,
praises as well as reflects many socio-political activities of people in power.
8. It teaches moral through its presentation of situations, interactions and suggestions of a
wide range of valued and attitudes.
9. It helps to enlarge our knowledge and understanding of human behavior. Through our
knowledge of literature, we can easily predict how people will behave in a given situation
and why they behave the way they do.
10. It helps in developing in the learner creative ability.

Literary Devices
When analyzing literature whether a prose, drama or poetry. It is important to note certain
procedures which are helpful in reaching a more appropriate interpretation of the work. The need
to be more familiar with this literary can not be overemphasized.
The Theme: is the central idea or message of the writer. It can also be said to be the
controlling idea. One does not start writing without having something in mind to tell his
audience. The message of the work is the feelings the writer has for the subject which he intends
to pass to the reader.
The Setting: Is the location or point and time at which a particular event is taking place or where
the events occur. These include the geographical area, time, occupation.
The Plot: Is the arrangement of events in sequential or narrative order. It is the novel’s story and
its underlying meaning. The events begin from a particular point and ends at a point. This
suggests that the plot must have a beginning, middle and the end. Therefore, when one is asked
to describe the plot of a given novel, one is expected to describe both what happens to the
characters and the meaning of these events.
Characterization: another important element of the novel is the character. Characters are the
fictional figures who move through the plot. They are invented by the author and made of words
rather than of flesh and blood. We have the main or major character who is also called the
protagonist. All the events of the story revolve around him. He is also known as the hero and
heroine, if is a female. Minor characters are all other characters in the text who also contribute to
the development of the text. An Antagonist is the character that struggles with or opposes the
main character. A villain is a character who functions as an evil antagonist in the plot of a
literary work. He is a harmful person. A foil is a person or thing that contrasts with and sets off
the qualities of another. That is, a person or thing that emphasizes the good qualities of another
person or that emphasizes the good qualities of another person or thing being very different from
them. A character is said to be dynamic when time and different experiences in the novel change
him with the result that a new personality emerges. While a static character is one who does not
change in the course of the story. The character is said to be round or realistic when his many
sides both good and bad, strengths and weaknesses are presented in the text. That is, everything
about him is revealed. A flat character or caricature is one whose only one side is maintained
throughout the text. A stock character is one who re-enacts familiar experiences which is easily
noticed or identified with.
Theme: This is another element of the novel. A novel’s theme is the main idea that the writer
expresses. It can also be defined as the under-lying meaning of the story. Rarely can a novel’s
theme be interpreted in only one way.
Conflict: The novelist makes the reader care about the story by introducing some sort of conflict.
The conflict can be physical, emotional or ethical, but it always creates some sort of tension that
the characters must resolve. It provides the elements of interest and suspense.
POETRY
This is a literary phenomenon that constantly reflects unknown and unseen world. It involves
emotions, passions, imaginations and sentiments. Charactically, poetry is very symbolic and
imaginative. Poetry has no meaning if it does not have interplay of symbols and images. Poetry
expresses the emotion and feelings of the poet. It is expected to be read aloud to convey
emotions or ideas to the listener’s mind. It was employed as a means of recording oral history,
genealogy and other forms of knowledge.
Types of Poetry
Sonnet: this is a short rhyming poem
Strange Meeting” was written by the British poet Wilfred Owen. A soldier in the First
World War, Owen wrote “Strange Meeting” sometime during 1918 while serving on
the Western Front (though the poem was not published until 1919, after Owen had been
killed in battle).

'Strange Meeting' is a poem about reconciliation. Two soldiers meet up in an imagined

Hell, the first having killed the second in battle.

It seemed that out of battle I escaped

Down some profound dull tunnel, long since scooped
Through granites which titanic wars had groined.

Yet also there encumbered sleepers groaned,

Too fast in thought or death to be bestirred.
Then, as I probed them, one sprang up, and stared
With piteous recognition in fixed eyes,
Lifting distressful hands, as if to bless.

And by his smile, I knew that sullen hall,—

By his dead smile I knew we stood in Hell.

With a thousand fears that vision's face was grained;

Yet no blood reached there from the upper ground,
And no guns thumped, or down the flues made moan.

With a thousand fears that vision's face was grained;

Yet no blood reached there from the upper ground,
And no guns thumped, or down the flues made moan.

“Strange friend,” I said, “here is no cause to mourn.”

“None,” said that other, “save the undone years,
The hopelessness.
Whatever hope is yours,
Was my life also;

I went hunting wild

After the wildest beauty in the world,
Which lies not calm in eyes, or braided hair,
But mocks the steady running of the hour,
And if it grieves, grieves richlier than here.

For by my glee might many men have laughed,

And of my weeping something had been left,
Which must die now. I mean the truth untold,
The pity of war, the pity war distilled.

Now men will go content with what we spoiled.

Or, discontent, boil bloody, and be spilled.
They will be swift with swiftness of the tigress.
None will break ranks, though nations trek from progress.

Courage was mine, and I had mystery;

Wisdom was mine, and I had mastery:
To miss the march of this retreating world
Into vain citadels that are not walled.
Then, when much blood had clogged their chariot-wheels,
I would go up and wash them from sweet wells,
Even with truths that lie too deep for taint.

I would have poured my spirit without stint

But not through wounds; not on the cess of war.
Foreheads of men have bled where no wounds were.

“I am the enemy you killed, my friend.

I knew you in this dark: for so you frowned
Yesterday through me as you jabbed and killed.
I parried; but my hands were loath and cold.
Let us sleep now. . . .”