Dept.

of Data Science
B.Tech III Yr I Sem
Computer Networks
Unit I Notes
UNIT - I:
Network Models: Layered Tasks, OSI model, Layers in the OSI model, TCP/IP protocol Suite,
Addressing.
Data Link Control: Error detection and Correction- Introduction, Hamming Distance, CRC, Checksum.

Introduction to Networks: Physical Structures

Data Communications:
 When we communicate, we are sharing information.
 This sharing can be local or remote. between individuals, local communication usually occurs face
to face, while remote communication takes place over distance.
 The term Telecommunication, which includes Telephony, Telegraphy, and television, means
communication at a distance.
 The data refers to facts, concepts and instruction presented in whatever form is agreed upon by
the parties creating and using the data.
 Data Communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
 For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication
system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs)
The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on the three fundamental characteristics:
1. Delivery:
 The System must deliver data to the correct destination.
 Data must be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user
2. Accuracy:
 The system must deliver data accurately.
 Data that have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are rustles
3.Timeliness:
 The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
 Data delivered late are useless.
 In the case of video, audio, and voice data, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay.
 this kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter:
 Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
 It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio and video packets.
 For eg., let us assume that video packets are sent every 30ms.
 If some of the packets arrive with 30ms delay and others with 40ms delay, an uneven quality in
the video is the result.

Components of Data Communication:

 A data communication system has five components as shown in the following diagram:
  The five components of Data Communication are:
1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission Medium
5. Protocol
1. Message:
 The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
 Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio and video.
2. Sender:
 The sender is the device that sends the data message
 It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television and so on.
3.Receiver:
 The sender is the device that receives the data message
 It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television and so on.
4. Transmission Medium:
 The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
 Some examples of transmission media include Twisted Pair Wire, Coaxial Cable, Fiber-Optic
cable and Radio Waves.
5. Protocol:
 A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
 It represents an agreement between the communicating devices
 Without a protocol, two devices may be connected, but not communicating, just as a person
speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
 Both sender and receiver follow the same protocol to communicate with each other.
Line Configuration:
 Line configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attached to a link.
 Line configuration is also referred to as connection.
 A Link is the physical communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
 Two or more devices connected through a link is a network.
 A link is a transmission path through which data is transferred between two or more devices
either physically or through a wireless connection.
 A device can be a computer, printer or any other device capable of sending or receiving data from
the other node/device through the network.
 There are two possible line configurations.
1. Point-to-Point.
2. Multipoint.
1.Point-to-Point:
 A Point to Point Line Configuration provides dedicated links between two devices.
 The devices can use a wire or cable to connect the two ends including microwave and satellite link
  The entire capacity of the channel is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Examples:
 Point-to-Point connection between remote control and Television for changing the channels.
 point to point network topology as two phones connected end to end for a two way communication

2. MultiPoint Line Configuration:

 Multipoint Configuration also known as Multidrop line configuration
 In this connection, more than two computers are connected through a single link.
 ATM is an example of a Multi point connection.
 Another Example is a Video Conference.
 It allows broadcasting packets over the network.
 Here, each device is able to communicate with each other.
 There are two types of Multi-Point Line Configuration. They are:
1. Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, it is called Spatial Sharing
line configuration.
2. Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link, then it is called Temporarily
shared or time shared line configuration.
Topologies (or) Network Topologies:
 A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other.
 Topologies are either physical (the physical layout of devices on a network) or logical (the way
that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes through the network
from one device to the next).
 The different types of Network Topologies are:

1. Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Tree Topology
5. Mesh Topology
6. Hybrid Topology

1. Bus Topology:
 Also known as backbone network topology, this configuration connects all devices to a main cable
via drop lines.

 In this topology, all computers connect through a single continuous coaxial cable. This cable is
known as the backbone cable.
 Both ends of the backbone cable are terminated through the terminators. To connect a computer
to the backbone cable, a drop cable is used.
 To connect the drop cable to the computer and backbone cable, the BNC plug and BNC T
connector are used respectively.

 When a computer transmits data in this topology, all computers see that data over the wire, but
only that computer accepts the data to which it is addressed.
 It is just like an announcement that is heard by all but answered only by the person to whom the
announcement is made.
 For example, if in the above network, PC-A sends data to the PC-C then all computers of the
network receive this data but only the PC-C accepts it. The following image shows this process.

 If PC-C replies, only the PC-A accepts the return data. The following image shows this process.
Advantages of Bus topology :
 If N devices are connected to each other in bus topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is 1, which is known as backbone cable and N drop lines are required.
 Bus topologies are a good, cost-effective choice for smaller networks because the layout is simple,
allowing all devices to be connected via a single cable.
 If needed, more nodes can be easily added to the network by joining additional cables.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology :
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down, which can be time – consuming
and expensive .
 However, because bus topologies use a single cable to transmit data, they’re somewhat vulnerable.
If the cable experiences a failure, the whole network goes down, which can be time-consuming and
expensive to restore, which can be less of an issue with smaller networks.
 every additional node will slow transmission speeds.
 Furthermore, data is “half-duplex,” which means it can’t be sent in two opposite directions at the
same time, so this layout is not the ideal choice for networks with huge amounts of traffic.
Note: This topology is no longer used. But there was a time when this topology used to be the first choice
among the network administrators.

2. Star Topology:
 In this topology, all computers connect to a centralized networking device.
 Usually, a networking switch or a Hub (in earlier days) is used as the centralized device. Each
computer in the network uses its own separate twisted pair cable to connect to the switch. Twisted
pair cable uses RJ-45 connectors on both ends.

The hub device can be any of the following:

• Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater
 • Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
• Layer-3 device such as router or gateway
Advantages of Star Topology:
 It is easy to install.
 Since each computer uses its own separate cable, a fault in cable does affect other computers of
the network.
 Troubleshooting is relatively easy
 It provides higher data transfer speed.
Disadvantages of Star Topology:
 It uses more cables than other topologies.
 If the centralized device fails, it brings the entire network down.
 The total installation cost is higher than the other topologies.
 Too many cables make the network messy.

3. Ring Topology:
 In this topology, all computers connect in a circle.
 Each computer directly connects to two other computers in the network.
 Data moves down a one-way path from one computer to another.
 When data signals pass from one computer to the next, each computer regenerates the signals.
 Since the signals are regenerated on each passing computer, the quality of the signals remains
constant throughout the ring.

Advantages of Ring Topology:

 It is relatively easy to troubleshoot.
 Since data flows only in one direction, there is no collision in the network.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology:
 It uses more cables.
 It is too expensive.
 A single break in the cable can bring the entire network down.
4. Tree Topology:
 A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of
star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 3). Tree topologies
allow for the expansion of an existing network
Advantages of tree topology:
• Scalable as leaf nodes can accommodate more nodes in the hierarchical chain.
• A point to point wiring to the central hub at each intermediate node of a tree topology represents
a node in the bus topology
• Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them gets damaged
• Easier maintenance and fault finding
Disadvantages of tree topology:
• Huge cabling is needed
• A lot of maintenance is needed
• backbone forms the point of failure.
5. Mesh Topology:
 A mesh topology is a network topology in which all the network nodes are individually connected
to most of the other nodes.
 There is not a concept of a central switch, hub or computer which acts as a central point of
communication to pass on the messages.
 Mesh topology is commonly used in the WAN network for backup purposes. This topology is not
used in the LAN network implementations.
 Unlike other network topologies, it can be divided into two kinds:
• Fully connected mesh topology and,
• Partially connected mesh topology
 A fully connected mesh topology has all the nodes connected to every other node. If you know the
graph theory, then it is like a fully connected graph where all the nodes are connected to every
other node.
 On the other hand, a partially connected mesh topology does not have all the nodes connected to
each other.
Advantages of mesh topology:
• Each connection can carry its own data load
• It is robust
• A fault is diagnosed easily
• Provides security and privacy
Disadvantages of mesh topology:
• Installation and configuration are difficult if the connectivity gets more
• Cabling cost is more and the most in case of a fully connected mesh topology
• Bulk wiring is required
6. Hybrid Topology:
 A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that uses two or more differing
network topologies.
 These topologies can include a mix of bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star topology,
and tree topology.
 The choice to use a hybrid topology over a standard topology depends on the needs of a business,
school, or the users.
 The number of computers, their location, and desired network performance are all factors in the
decision.
The two most commonly used types of hybrid topologies are the following.
Star-Ring hybrid topology
 A star-ring hybrid topology is a combination of the star topology and ring topology. Two or more
star topologies are connected together through a ring topology.
Star-Bus hybrid topology
A star-bus hybrid topology is a combination of the star topology and bus topology. Two or more star
topologies are connected together through a bus topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology:
1. Hybrid network combines the benefits of different types of topologies
2. Can be modified as per requirement
3. It is extremely flexible.
4. It is very reliable.
5. It is easily scalable
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology:
1. It is expensive
2. The design of a hybrid network is complex.
3. Hardware changes are required in order to connect topology to another topology.

Transmission Modes:
 Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two devices
connected over a network.
 It is also called Communication Mode.
 These modes direct the direction of flow of information. There are three types of transmission
modes. They are:
1. Simplex Mode
2. Half duplex Mode
3. Full duplex Mode

1. Simplex Transmission Mode:

 In computing network when there is a single flow of information or one direction flow of
information from the sender to the receiver is known as Simplex mode of transmission.
 In this mode of transmission, the communication takes place in one direction only, the circuit is
connected in such a way that it is either send only or receive only.
 There is no other mechanism for the data to be transmitted to the sender and this mode of
transmission generally includes circuits that are dedicated and are used in securities and fire
alarms.
Examples
 Communication between the computer and a keyboard is a basic example of simplex transmission
where the keyboard is the input and the computer is the output.
 The Speaker system is also an example of simplex transmission where the microphone acts as
input and the speaker as output.
2. Half Duplex Transmission Mode:
 In computing networks when there is both way flow of information or both direction flow of
information from the sender to the receiver but only one at a time is known as Half duplex mode
of transmission.
 In this mode of transmission, the communication takes place in both directions, the connected
devices can transmit or receive the data but not simultaneously.
 The direction of communication can be reversed as the radio stations can receive as well as
transmit the data and each character that is transmitted is displayed on the screen
instantaneously.
Examples
 A walkie talkie is a perfect example of half duplex transmission.
 The working functionality of walkie talkie is that when one person speaks from one end, another
person listens from another end.
 After a break, then another person speaks and the first person on the other end listens.
 Simultaneous speaking is not possible since this will create a distortion of sound and both the
receiver and the transmitter will not able to comprehend the information.

3. Full Duplex Transmission Mode:

 In computing networks when there is both way flow of information or both direction flow of
information from the sender to the receiver simultaneously is known as full duplex mode of
transmission.
  In this mode of transmission, the communication takes place in both directions over a
communication link where two wires are necessary and the channel capacity is shared between
the two devices.
 The bi-directional communication connects the devices, receiving and transmitting at the same
time and the communication link contains separate paths for sending and receiving.
Examples
 The most common example of this mode of transmission is the telephone. When two people speak
or communicate through telephone by using a telephone line, both has the ability to talk and listen
simultaneously.

Simplex mode Half-duplex mode Full-duplex mode

In simplex mode, the In half-duplex mode, the

In full-duplex mode, the
communication is communication is bidirectional,
communication is bidirectional.
unidirectional. but one at a time

A device can only send the

data but cannot receive it Both the devices can send and Both the devices can send and receive
or it can only receive the receive the data, but one at a time. the data simultaneously.
data but cannot send it.

The Full-duplex mode has better

The performance of half- The performance of full-duplex performance among simplex and
duplex mode is better than mode is better than the half-duplex half-duplex mode as it doubles the
the simplex mode. mode utilization of the capacity of the
communication channel.

Examples of Simplex
Example of half-duplex is Walkie- Example of the Full-duplex mode is a
mode are radio, keyboard,
Talkies. telephone network.
and monitor.

Categories of Networks: (or) Types of Networks:

 A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.
 A computer network can be categorized by their size.
 A computer network is mainly of four types:
• LAN(Local Area Network)
• PAN(Personal Area Network)
 • MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN(Wide Area Network)

1. Local Area Network (LAN):

 Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
 The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
 Local Area Network provides higher security.


 We can use different types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
  LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network among
each other while it can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.
 LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.

Characteristics of LAN:
 It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
 There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and ethernet.
Advantages of LAN:
Here are pros/benefits of using LAN:
 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area networks. This
significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed software for
each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the LAN
users.
Disadvantages of LAN:
Here are the important cons/ drawbacks of LAN:
 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of installing
Local Area Networks is quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer good
privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not able to
secure centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to
software setup and hardware failures
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
 It was developed in 1980s.
 It is basically a bigger version of LAN.
 It is also called MAN and uses the similar technology as LAN.
  It is designed to extend over the entire city.
 It can be means to connecting a number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a single cable.
It is mainly hold and operated by single private company or a public company.

Characteristics of MAN:
 It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
 Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Advantages of MAN:
 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers.
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
 MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
 It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
 It can be used in a college within a city.
 It can also be used for communication in the military.
3. Wide Area Network (WAN):
 A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.
 A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
 A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical
area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
 The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
 A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.

Characteristics of WAN:
 The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the latest files.
 Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.
Advantages of WAN:
 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices situated at longer
distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.
Disadvantage of WAN:
 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and wireless
technologies.
 Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.
 Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the network the more
expensive it is.
 Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network supervisors and
technicians to be employed.
 Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use information from other
computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense.

Transmission Media:
 The transmission media is nothing but the physical media over which communication takes place
in computer networks.
 Transmission media are the physical paths between a transmitter and a receiver.
 It is a pathway or link that is used for transmitting data from the sender to the receiver.
 These pathways are called Communication Channels.
 There are two types of Transmission Media
 Guided Media/ Wired Media/Bounded Media
 Unguided Media/ Wireless Media/Unbounded Media
Guided Media:
 Guided Media refers to those channels that allow the transmission of data through a physical
media.
 Physical Media is Tangible Media
 Tangible Media is media where wires can be touched and through these wires we can transfer
data between two computers or two devices.
 So in guided media, we use wires and we transmit data.
 Guided media is also known as Bounded Media because where all the wire passes, data also has to
pass through the wire. i.e., data is dependent on wire.
1. Twisted Pair Cable:
 These cables are used in local telephone communication and short distance digital transmission.
 It is made up of copper.
 The pairs of wires are together to reduce the interference by adjacent wires.
 Each pair is twisted to reduce the magnetic interference and Attenuation Noise and also prevents
the loss of data.
 Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for ground reference.

 It consists of four pair of wires (8 wires)

 They are the most widely used Transmission Media.

 These are used to connect terminals to the main computer placed at a very short distance.
  The bandwidth supported by the wire depends on the thickness of the wire and the distance to be
travelled by a signal on it.
 Bandwidth: a measurement of the amount of information that a particular computer network or
Internet connection can send in a particular time. It is often measured in bits per second
 Data Transmission speed is up to 9600bps if the distance is not more than 100 meters.
 If the distance is more then the transmission rate reduces, and as signals travel long distances they
become weak and there is a possibility for loss of data.
 It is an inexpensive medium of data transmission.
 It is easy to install
 Its bandwidth is less than that of Coaxial Cables and Fiber Optical Cables.
 Usually installed in buildings during construction.
 They are the most widely used Transmission Media.
Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
 This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield
for this purpose.
 It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:
1. Least expensive
2. Easy to install
3. High speed capacity
Disadvantages:
1. Susceptible to external interference
2. Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
3. Short distance transmission due to attenuation

 The number of twists per unit length determines the quality of the cable.
2. Shielded Twisted Pair Cable:
2. Coaxial Cables:
 Coaxial Cables consists of single copper wire surrounded by insulated material.
 These cables are normally used at home to connect TVs and 72 channels travel at a time through
this cable.
 These cables also transfer audio and video signals at the same time.
 The data transmission rate of coaxial cables is higher than the twisted pair cables.
 In Twisted pair cables only voice signals are sent, whereas in coaxial cables both audio and video
signals for over 100 channels are allowed to transfer.
  It consists of a central copper wire surrounded by a PVC insulation material over which a sleeve
of copper mesh is placed. The metal sleeve is again shielded by an outer shield of thick PVC
material.

Advantages:
 It can be used for long distances telephone lines for voice transmission at a very high frequency.
 These cables coaxial cables carry signals to long distances and will not allow the signal's to
become weak.
 So data gets transferred without any loss.
 These cables are also used in LAN
 The bandwidth of coaxial cables is 80 times more than twisted pair cables.
 i.e., 80*9600bps=7680000bps.
3. Optical Fiber Cables:
 In this type of transmission medium, data transfers in the form of light.
 This is the fastest medium used to transfer data.
 Data travels very fast in the form of light
 Fiber optic cables consists of tubes of glass through which data is transmitted.
 On the sending side there is a transmitter which converts the electric signals into light form and
travels across the cables and on the receiving side there are devices which will convert light form
into electric signals.
 A normal fiber optic cable is a fiber of glass called the core (about the size of a human hair).
 The core is surrounded by concentric layers of glass called cladding.
 The transmission capacity using fiber optic cables is 26000 times faster than twisted pair cable.
 Data transmission rate is 35 Tbps( Tera bits per sec). (36000000000000 bits per sec)
 These cables are not affected by any interference. It has high level of security, error rate is very
low and high quality of data transmission.

Unguided Media /Wireless Media / Unbounded Media:

  It refers to those channels that transmit data and information in the form of waves.
 These are the communication channels in which data is transmitted through the air instead of
cables i.e., there is no physical path between two devices for the transmission of data.
 Data signals are not bound to cabling media, therefore it is also known as Unbounded Media.
 The various unguided media are Microwaves, Satellite Communication and Mobile
communication.
Microwave:
 These are the communication channels in which data is transmitted through the air instead of
cables.
 Microwaves are high frequency waves that can only travel in straight lines.
 These cannot bend or pass through obstacles.
 It is limited to a particular city or community.
 Earth’s curvature changes for every 20 to 30 miles, meaning the line of sight is disturbed (i.e., one
tower will be at greater height and other at lower height)
 For every 20 to 30 miles a new tower should be placed, so that it will repeat the weak signals and
will strengthen the signals so that data reaches the destination.
 The transmitter and receiver are mounted on a very high tower and should be in a line of sight.
 Because if any obstacles like mountains or buildings come across then the waves cannot pass
through them.
 This may not be possible for long distances transmission because signals become weaker and
require power amplification .
 When signals travel long distances, they become weak and so there can be loss of data or the
destination will not receive the data.
 So we do not use microwaves for long distance transmission.

 In the diagram, the sending height is same as receiving height called the line of sight.
 Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is
using.
Satellite Communication:
 The main problem with Microwave communication is that the curvature of earth, mountains and
other structures often block the line of sight.
 Instead of antennas, satellites can be used to transmit microwave messages from one location to
another.
 Here we are using microwaves, but we still not use towers. Instead we use a satellite to transfer
data from one place to another.
 Earth stations either send or receive signals to or from the satellites.
 The signals go from the earth station to the satellite and the satellite retransmits the data to
different earth stations.
 In this way we can send data from any place to any other place.
 Satellites rotates approximately 23300 miles above the earth in precise location.
 Satellite Transmission stations that can both send and receive messages are known as earth
stations.
 The transmission from earth station to satellite is known as Uplink and transmission from the
satellite to the earth station is known as Downlink.
 Moon was used as a satellite in the early years of satellite transmission.
 The time taken by a signal to reach the moon and back was about 2 seconds.
 This time is called satellite delay and is still present in our satellite communication. Now it takes
only milliseconds.
 The time taken for a message to travel from earth station to satellite and from satellite to earth
station is 500 milliseconds.
Advantages of Satellite Communication:
 A large volume of data can be transmitted at a very high speed.
 Transmission and reception costs are independent of the distance between two points
 i.e., when data is sent to a building in your locality or to any other part of the world, the time and
cost is the same.
 Different communication satellites are used to carry different kinds of information.
 Some satellites are used for Television,
 some satellites are used for Telephone
 Some are used to transfer internet data etc.
 Telephone calls, TV Channels, Internet, Military communications', Weather and radio stations
use these satellites for broadcasting.
Disadvantages of Satellite Communication:
 The bad weather can severely affect the quality of transmission.
 Because signals are in the form of waves and waves are in open air, bad weather will always effect
the quality, speed and data is received with noise.
  Satellite transmission causes security problems because it is very easy to intercept the
transmission travelling through the air.
 Its cost of transmission is very high
 Satellite delay is still present in satellite communication.

Mobile communication:
 It is radio based network that transmits data to and from the mobile computers.
 Mobile computers are devices which you can use while you are in movement.
 Here we use radio waves.
 Radio waves pass through any obstacle. Suppose you are sitting in room and receiving call on
mobile, then you are receiving message in radio waves.
 Surroundings like walls, buildings, Trees – data will pass through all of these.
OSI Reference Model: (******* long answer)
 The OSI Reference Model was developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) for
connecting open systems.
 OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model. It was introduced in 1970’s.
 An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture.
 The purpose of OSI model is to facilitate communication between different systems without
requiring changes to the logic of the underlying software and hardware
 This model consists of seven separate but related layers namely, Physical Layer, Datalink Layer,
Network Layer, Transport Layer, Session Layer, Presentation Layer and the Application Layer.
 Layering means decomposing the problem of building a network into more manageable
components (layers)
 Advantage of layering is more modular design and easy to trouble shoot
  every layer uses the services of the previous layer and provides the services for the next layer.
 For eg. Layer 4 on the sending side uses the services of layer 3 (network layer) and provides the
services for layer 5 (session layer) and communicate with layer 4 (Transport layer) of the
receiving device.
 Each layer in the sending machine adds additional (its own) information to the message it receives
from the layer just above it and passes the whole packet to the layer just below it, this information
is added either as headers or trailers (control data appended either at the beginning or at the end
of a data parcel).
 generally headers are added to the message at layers 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2 whereas trailers are added at
layer 2

Functions of Layers:
7.Application Layer (Layer 7):
 At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications.
 These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
 This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user.
Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.
 **Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.
The functions of the Application layer are :
 1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

 Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.
 The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required
format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
1. Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A
key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :

 This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
authentication and also ensures security.
 The functions of the session layer are :
1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the error
 so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller : The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
 **All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP
model as “Application Layer”.
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known
as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

 Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer.
The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
 It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
 The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and
re-transmits the data if an error is found.
The functions of the transport layer are :
1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer ,
breaks the message into smaller units . Each of the segment produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
The services provided by the transport layer :
1. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement, back to the
source after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission is reliable and
secure.
2. Connection less service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows
for much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more
reliable than connectionless Service.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with the
Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

 Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks.
 It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available.
 The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by the network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are :
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network
layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.
* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.
** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

 The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message.
  The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
 When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers :
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of
NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the
header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request
onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC
address.
The functions of the data Link layer are :
1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects
and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus , flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving
acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC
sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a
given time.
* Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

 The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices.
 The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
 It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
  When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and
send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together
The functions of the physical layer are :
1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing
a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit
level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits
sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh topolgy.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between the
two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-duplex
and full-duplex.
* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware
Layers.

TCP/IP Reference Model:

 TCP/IP Model helps you to determine how a specific computer should be connected to the
internet and how data should be transmitted between them
 The purpose of TCP/IP model is to allow communication over large distances.
 TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol.
 The functionality of the TCP IP model is divided into four layers, and each includes specific
protocols.
 TCP/IP is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is defined according to a
specific function to perform. All these four TCP/IP layers work collaboratively to transmit the
data from one layer to another.
• Application Layer
• Transport Layer
• Internet Layer
• Network Interface
Application Layer
 This layer defines the protocols and standards that an application requires to connect with
network.
 For example, an application layer protocol HTTP defines how a web browser can fetch a web
page from a web server.
 The HTTP protocol manages communications between web browsers and web servers and opens
the right resource when a URL is entered in address bar or a link is clicked.
 Basically it’s a language that both web browser and web server understand and use to provide the
required information.

 When we type a URL in web address and hit enter key, HTTP protocol finds that address and
delivers the requested contents or display error message if the requested contents are not
available.
 Application layer does not define the application itself. It only defines the standards, services and
protocols that an application needs to connect with remote computer. The most common protocols
 that work in this layer are HTTP, HTTPS, SNMP, NTP, SSH, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, DHCP and
DNS.
Transport layer:
This layer is also known as host-to-host layer. It provides logical connection between two hosts. Main
functions of this layer are following: -
• Segmentation
• Reliability
• Flow control
• Connection multiplexing
Segmentation
 The process of breaking up large data file into smaller and identifiable pieces is known as
Segmentation and each piece produced in segmentation process is known as a segment.
 For example, a host wants to send a 100Mb file over a 1Mbps connection.
 Since a 100Mb file cannot be transferred over a 1Mbps connection, so it breaks the file in 100 or
more pieces.
 Since a piece is less or equal in size of the connection, it can travel across the connection easily.
 Destination host, upon receiving all the pieces, reassembles them back in original file. In this
example, the process of breaking file is the segmentation and each piece is a segment.
 Segmentation enables a host to send and receive any size of data file over the any size of
connection.
Reliability
A connection is considered as reliable connection when it provides following services: -
• Recognize and resend the lost segments.
• Recognize the segment order and arrange segments in correct order.
• Detect the duplicate segments and drop the extra segments.
• TCP protocol provides all above services.
• It numbers and sequences each segment so that the remote host can put all segments back into
the original order.
• After transmitting the segments, it waits for an acknowledgement from remote host.
• If it doesn’t receive acknowledgement of any segments, it retransmits those segments.
• Some applications such as DHCP and DNS do not require reliability.
• If an application doesn’t require reliability, it usually uses UDP protocol to transmit the data.
• Since UDP doesn’t use the reliable connection, it doesn’t insert the information in each segment
header that is required in reliable connection.
• Without this information, header becomes much lighter than the header with this information.
• A segment with a lightweight header moves faster in the network than a heavier segment.
Flow control:
 Flow control ensures that the remote host does not become overwhelmed by the source sending
too much segments at once.
 There are two types of flow control; ready /not-ready signals and windowing.
 Ready/not-ready signals
 In this method, the destination sends ready and not-ready signals to the source. Based on these
signals, source controls the flow.
 Destination sends a not-ready signal when its buffer fills up.
 Upon receiving the not-ready signal, source stops sending more segments and waits for a ready
signal.
 Once destination is ready to receive more segments, it sends a ready signal to the source.
 Upon receiving the ready signal, source resumes data sending.
 Windowing
 In this method, source and destination first define a window size.
 A window size is the number of segments that the source can send before receiving an
acknowledgement from the destination.
  Once acknowledgement is received, source can send next batch of segments.
Internet or Network Layer
 In original TCP/IP model, this layer is defined as Internet layer.
 In updated version, it is renamed to the Network layer.
 Main functions of this layer are addressing and routing.
 For these functions, it uses IP protocol.
 Addressing
 In order to communicate with other hosts, every host in a network needs a unique address.
 A unique address is the combination of two types of addresses; software address and hardware
address.
 This layer provides software address. Software address is also known as IP address.
 Routing
 Just like postal service delivers packages in real world, routing service delivers data packets in
network.
 It takes data packet from source, reads its destination address, finds destination in network and
delivers the packet to the destination host.
 Routers are used for routing.
 Just like post office filters and reroutes the package based on destination address, router checks
destination address in data packet and routes it through the best and the shortest path.
Link Layer (Data Link and Physical Layer)
 This layer defines standards and protocols for data transmission and physical connectivity.
 It also provides hardware addressing that is used to locate a device in local network.
 Switching and connecting devices are the two main functions of this layer.
 Switching
 Broadly, switching is just like routing but it works with hardware address instead of the software
address.
 Switches are used for switching. Besides switching, it also defines standards and protocols which
are used for physical connectivity.
 In original TCP/IP model both functions are defined in a single layer; Link layer.
 In updated version, both functions are defined separately. Functions and standards which are
directly related with physical transmission are defined in Physical layer while the functions and
standards which are indirectly related with physical transmission are defined in Data link layer.
 In updated version, switching is defined in Data link layer while standards and protocols related
with physical transmission are defined in physical layer.

Differences between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models:

OSI Reference Model TCP / IP Reference Model
1.Full form is Open System Interconnection Full form is Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol

2.It is developed by ISO (International Standard It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced

Organization) Research Project Agency Network).

3.In OSI, the Transport layer guarantees the In TCP/IP, transport layer does not guarantee
delivery of packets delivery of packets. Still this model is more
reliable.
4.OSI model provides a clear distinction between TCP/IP doesn't have any clear distinguishing
interfaces, services, and protocols. points between services, interfaces, and protocols.

5.It has 7 Layers It has 4 Layers

6.It is a Theoretical model which is used for It is a Client / Server model used for transmission
computing system of data over the Internet

7.Low in Use Mostly used

8. OSI model, the transport layer is only A layer of the TCP/IP model is both connection-
connection-oriented. oriented and connectionless.

9.In the OSI model, the data link layer and In TCP, physical and data link are both combined
physical are separate layers. as a single host-to-network layer.

10.Presentation and Session Layers are available No such layers in this model
11. OSI uses the network layer to define routing TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
standards and protocols.

12. delivery of packets is guaranteed Delivery of packets not guaranteed

13. It is defined after the advent of the Internet. It is defined before the advent of the internet.
15. The minimum size of the OSI header is 5 Minimum header size is 20 bytes.
bytes.

End of Unit 1