Chapter 2

Amplitude Modulation
Transmission Techniques
Baseband Transmission
• The electrical equivalent of original
information is known as the baseband signal.
• The communication system in which the
baseband signals are transmitted directly is
known as baseband transmission.
• Baseband transmission is effective only for
wire communication.
Example Telephone network, data
communication in computer networks through
coaxial cable.
But it is inefficient for wireless or radio
communication.
Limitations of Baseband Transmission

1. Baseband signal having small frequency range

from 20 Hz to 20 KHz only
(so no large channel accommodation, mixing of
signals).
2. Due to small frequency range, baseband signal
cannot travel long distance in free space or air.
3. After a travel of short distance signal gets
suppressed. So not used for radio
communication. i.e. wireless communication.
To make the baseband signal efficient for radio
communication modulation technique is used.
 Modulation Technique
• To overcome the drawbacks of baseband
transmission and to transmit baseband signals by
radio, modulation techniques must be used.
• Baseband signal (Information signal) is a low-
frequency signal and cannot travel longer distance.
Just like we cannot walk at longer distance.

Definition:
Modulation is the process of superimposing low-
frequency information signal on a high-frequency
carrier signal
Modulation Technique

Infor
Modulation Technique
Need of Modulation

Baseband signal transmission cannot be used for

radio communication. To transmit the baseband
signal for radio communication, modulation must
be used.
Modulation is necessary because of following
advantages:
1. Reduction in height of antenna.
2. Avoids mixing of signals.
3. Increase the range of communication.
4. Multiplexing is possible.
5. Improves quality of reception
Avoids Mixing of Signal
Classification of Modulation
Types AM, FM, PM Definition, Waveforms
Amplitude Modulation
Definition:
Amplitude modulation is a technique of
modulation in which the instantaneous amplitude
of carrier signal varies in accordance with
amplitude of modulating signal.

While frequency and phase of carrier remains

constant. Nature of Amplitude Modulated
waveform shown in Fig. below.
Continued….
Modulation Index
Effect of Modulation Index on Modulated Signal
Continued….
Example
Draw the AM wave for triangular and square
wave modulating signal.
Solution:
For square wave input.
 Example 2 Draw the AM waveform for the modulation
index m = 0.75, m = 1 and m = 1.25.
Take a graph paper and a d ju st th e v a lu e of E m and E C in su ch a w ay th at
E m E m E m
= 0 .7 5 , = 1, = 1 .2 5 .
E c E c E c

(a) AM wave for m = 0.75

Continued…
 Frequency Spectrum
• Representation of AM wave in frequency domain is also
known as frequency spectrum of AM wave.

Definition:
Frequency spectrum is a graph of amplitude versus
frequency.

• The frequency spectrum of AM wave tells us about

number of sidebands present in AM wave with
corresponding amplitudes.
Continued……
Features of Frequency spectrum
 Bandwidth Requirement
• The bandwidth of AM signal is defined as the
frequency range from upper sideband to lower
sideband frequency in frequency spectrum.
BW = fUSB – fLSB
= (fc + fm) – (fc – fm) (from Fig. 2.13)
= fc + fm – fc + fm
= 2 fm
BW required for AM signal.

Hence, bandwidth of AM signal is twice the

modulating signal frequency.
Sideband Concept (DSB and SSB)

DSBFC:
Means double sideband full carrier as shown in
Fig. 2.13 (a). Its BW = 2fm.
 Continued…

DSBSC (or DSB):

Continued…
SSB:
Representation of AM Wave

AM wave is represented in two ways:

(i) In Time Domain
(ii) In Frequency Domain
AM in Frequency Domain
Power Relations in AM Wave
Continued…
Continued….
COHERENT DETECTION OF DSB-
SC
Excercise :

A modulating signal 30 cos (2 103t) is used to modulate

a carrier signal 30 sin (2 105 t). Find:

(a) Modulation index

(b) Percentage modulation

(c) Sideband frequencies and their amplitude

(d) Bandwidth of AM wave

(e) Draw the frequency spectrum.

 em=20 sin (2 103t) … (1)
em=Em sin (2 fm t) … (2)
Compare equation (1) and (2), we get
Em=20 V

fm=103 Hz = 1 kHz

Similarly, carrier signal

ec=40 sin (2 104t) … (3)
But, ec =Ec sin (2 fc t) … (4)
Compare equation (3) and (4), we get,
Ec=40 v

fc=104Hz = 100 kHz

(a) Modulation Index:

m = 0.5

(b) Percentage modulation:

% modulation=m 100
=0.5 100
(c) Sideband frequencies and their amplitude:
LSB = FLSB=fc  fm
=100 kHz  1 kHz
=99 kHz
USB = FUSB=fc + fm
=100 k + 1 kHz
=101 kHz
LSB amplitude=USB amplitude
= 0.5
= 10 V
(d) Bandwidth of AM
BW = 2 fm
= 2 1 kHz
Time Domain Representation
for SSB-SC Signals
Hilbert transform
 GENERATION OF SSB- SC
The modulation process in which only one side band is
transmitted and with carrier suppression is called Single
sideband suppressed carrier (SSB- SC).

Modulating Signal m(t) = Am Cos (2πfmt) and Carrier

Signal c(t) = Ac Cos (2πfct)

SSB-SC signal can be generated by passing DSB-SC signal

through BPF and DSB-SC signal is generated by multiplying
m(t) & c(t).

SSB-SC(t) = AmAc/2 Cos2π(fc+fm)t (or) SSB-SC(t) =

AmAc/2 Cos2π(fc-fm)t
FREQUENCY DISCRIMINATION
PHASE DISCRIMINATION
DEMODULATION OF SSB WAVE
 AM Transmitter

The functions of transmitter are:

1. To convert original information into electrical signal.
2. To amplify the weak signal.
3. To modulate the signal.
4. To increase the power level of modulated signal.
5. To transmit the signal through transmitting antenna.
The AM transmitters are of two types:
1. Low level modulated transmitter.
2. High level modulated transmitter.
Low Level Modulated AM
Transmitter
High Level Modulated AM
Transmitter
 Comparison between High Level and
Low Level Modulation

Sr. High Level Modulation Low Level Modulation

No.

1. Modulation takes place at high power Modulation takes place at low power
level. level.

2. Class-C amplifier are used which are After modulation linear amplifiers (Class
highly efficient. A, AB or B) are used.

3. Very high efficiency. Low efficiency than high level

modulation.

4. Complex because of very high power. Easy because of low power.

5. Used in high power broadcast Used in TV transmitters (IF modulation

transmitters. method).
In laboratory equipments, walkie-talkies
etc.
AM Modulator Circuit using BJT
Operation
The transistor is normally operated in the Class-c Mode in
which it is biased well beyond cut-off.

• The carrier input to the base must be sufficient to drive the

transistor into conduction over the part of RF cycle, during

which collector current flows in the form of pulses.

• The tuned circuit in the collector is tuned to resonate at the

fundamental component, thus, the RF voltage at the

collector is sinusoidal.
• When modulating signal is applied to the steady

collector voltage changes to a slowly varying

voltage given by V‘cc = Vcc + Vm(t).

• The modulating voltage Vm(t) is applied in series

with Vcc through the low frequency transformer.

•
The RF bypass capacitor provides a low

impedance path for the RF to ground so that

• The coupling prevents the 'steady' voltage from being
transferred to the output,
• so that RF varies about mean value of zero shown in Fig.

Fig. Input/Output waveform of AM Modulator

Advantages of AM

1. AM transmitters are not complex.

2. AM receivers are simple and easy to detect.
3. Less expensive.
4. Covers large distance.

Disadvantages of AM

1. Requires large bandwidth.

2. Requires large power.
3. Gets affected due to noise.

Applications of AM

1. Radio broadcasting.
2. Picture transmission in TV (VSB is used).
 Chapter 3
Angle Modulation
 Angle Modulation

Angle Modulation

Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation

Frequency Modulation

Definition of FM:
Frequency modulation is a technique of modulation
in which the frequency of carrier is varied in
accordance with the amplitude of modulating signal.
• In FM, amplitude and phase remains constant.
• Thus, the information is conveyed via. frequency
changes
 Modulation Index
Definition:
Modulation Index(β) is defined as the ratio of frequency
deviation ( ) to the modulating frequency (fm).

M.I. Frequency Deviation

Modulating Frequency

β δ
fm

In FM M.I. 1

Modulation Index of FM decides −

(i) Bandwidth of the FM wave.
(ii) Number of sidebands in FM wave.
Deviation Ratio

The modulation index corresponding to maximum deviation

and maximum modulating frequency is called deviation ratio.

Deviation Ratio = Maximum Deviation

Maximum modulating Frequency
= δmax
fmax

In FM broadcasting the maximum value of deviation is limited

to 75 kHz. The maximum modulating frequency is also limited
to 15 kHz.
 Percentage M.I. of FM
The percentage modulation is defined as the ratio
of the actual frequency deviation produced by the
modulating signal to the maximum allowable
frequency deviation.

% M.I = Actual deviation

Maximum allowable deviation
Mathematical Representation of
FM
(i) Modulating Signal:

It may be represented as,

em = Em cos mt (1)

Here cos term taken for simplicity

where,
em Instantaneous amplitude
m Angular velocity
2 fm
fm Modulating frequency
(ii) Carrier Signal:

Carrier may be represented as,

ec = Ec sin ( ct + ) -----(2)
where,
ec = Instantaneous amplitude

c= Angular velocity
= 2 fc
fc = Carrier frequency
= Phase angle
(iii) FM Wave:

Fig.3.25 Frequency Vs. Time in FM

FM is nothing but a deviation of frequency.

From Fig. 3.25, it is seen that instantaneous frequency ‘f’
of the FM wave is given by,
f =fc (1 + K Em cos mt) (3)
where,
fc Unmodulated carrier frequency

K Proportionality constant
Em cos mt Instantaneous modulating signal

• The maximum deviation for this particular signal will

occur, when
cos mt 1 i.e. maximum.

Equation (3) becomes,

f fc (1 K Em) (4)

f fc K Emfc (5)
• So that maximum deviation will be given by,

= K Emfc (6)

• The instantaneous amplitude of FM signal is given by,

eFM = A sin [f( c, m)]

= A sin (7)

where,

f( c, m )=Some function of carrier and modulating

To find , must be integrated with respect to time.
Thus,
d = dt
= c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
d = c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
ϴ= c (t+ KEm sin mt)
m
= ct + KEm c sin mt
m

= ct + KEmfc sin mt
fm
 = ct + sin mt [... = K Em fc]
fm
Substitute value of in equation (7)

Thus,
eFM = A sin ( ct + sin mt ) ---(8)
fm
eFM = A sin ( ct + βsin mt) ---(9)

Frequency Spectrum of FM
• This is the equation
Frequency spectrumofisFM.
a graph of amplitude versus
frequency.
• The frequency spectrum of FM wave tells us about
number of sideband present in the FM wave and their
amplitudes.
• The expression for FM wave is not simple. It is complex
because it is sine of sine function. Only solution is to
use ‘Bessels Function’.
Equation (9) may be expanded as,
eFM = Ac {J0 (β) sin ct

 J1 (β) [sin ( c  m) t − sin ( c − m) t]

 J2 (β) [sin ( c  2 m) t  sin ( c − 2 m) t]

 J3 (β) [sin ( c  3 m) t − sin ( c − 3 m) t]

 J4 (β) [sin ( c  4 m) t  sin ( c − 4 m) t]

 } (10)
From this equation it is seen that the FM wave
consists of:
(i) Carrier (First term in equation).
(ii) Infinite number of sidebands
(All terms except first term are sidebands).
• The amplitudes of carrier and sidebands depend
on ‘J’ coefficient.
Note: c 2 fc, m 2 fm So in place of c and m ,

we can use fc and fm.

Fig.2.26 : Ideal Frequency Spectrum of FM
 Bandwidth of FM

• From frequency spectrum of FM wave shown in Fig. 2.26,

we can say that the bandwidth of FM wave is infinite. But
practically, it is calculated based on how many sidebands
have significant amplitudes.
(i) The Simple Method to calculate the band
width
BW=2fm x Number of significant sidebands --(1)

With increase in modulation index, the number of significant

sidebands increases. So that bandwidth also increases.

(ii) The second method is by using Carson’s rule.

• Carson’s rule states that, the bandwidth of FM wave is twice the
sum of deviation and highest modulating frequency.

BW=2(  fmmax) (2)

= 2 fm Highest order side band

Highest order side band To be found from table 2.2 after the
calculation of modulation Index β where, β /fm
e.g. If β 20KHZ/5KHZ
From table, for modulation index 4, highest order side band is 7th.
Therefore, the bandwidth is

B.W. 2 fm Highest order side band

2 5 kHz 7
70 kHz
Carrier Distribution Charts:
Table 2.2: Carrier Side Band Distribution Chart for different
Modulation
Modulati Carrie Side Frequencies
on Index r J0 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11t 12t
β h h
J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 J7 J8 J9 J10
J11 J12
0.25 0.98 0.12 0.01
0.5 0.94 0.24 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.77 0.44 0.11 0.06 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.03 1 1 1 1
1.5 0.51 0.56 0.23 0.13 0.06 0.13 0.13 0.09 0.06 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 2 3 2
2 0.22 0.58 0.35 0.2 0.13 0.26 0.19 0.13 0.13
0.0 0.0 0.0
2.4 0 0.52 0.43 0.31 0.28 0.32 0.25 0.23 0.22 2 6 5
3 −0.26 0.34 0.49 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.28 0.0 0.1
4 −0.4 −0.07 0.36 0.36 0.4 0.35 0.34 0.34 2
5 −0.18 −0.33 0.05 0.26 0.36 0.19 0.34 0.1
3
5.5 0 −0.34 −0.12 0.11 0.16 0.03
0.1
6 0.15 −0.28 −0.24 −0.17 −0.1 8
7 0.3 0 −0.3 −0.29 0.03
8 0.17 0.23 −0.11 −0.24
8.65 0 0.27 0.06
Effect of Modulation Index on Sidebands
Modulation index 0.5 1 2 2.5 4
Number of significant sideband on either side of 2 3 4 5 7
carrier
Types of Frequency Modulation
FM (Frequency Modulation)

Narrowband FM Wideband FM
(NBFM) (WBFM)
[When modulation index is small] [When modulation index is
large]
 Comparison between Narrowband
and Wideband FM
Sr. No. Parameter NBFM WBFM

1. Modulation Less than or slightly greater Greater than 1

index than 1
2. Maximum 5 kHz 75 kHz
deviation
3. Range of 20 Hz to 3 kHz 20 Hz to 15 kHz
modulating
frequency
4. Maximum Slightly greater than 1 5 to 2500
modulation
index
5. Bandwidth Small approximately same Large about 15 times greater
as that of AM than that of NBFM.
BW = 2fm BW = 2( fmmax)

6. Applications FM mobile communication Entertainment broadcasting

like police wireless, (can be used for high quality
ambulance, short range ship music transmission)
to shore communication etc.
Representation of FM
FM can be represented by two ways:
1. Time domain.
2. Frequency domain.
1. FM in Time Domain
Time domain representation means continuous variation
of voltage with respect to time as shown in Fig. .
2. FM in Frequency Domain
• Frequency domain is also known as frequency
spectrum.
• FM in frequency domain means graph or plot of
amplitude versus frequency as shown in Fig. 2.29.

Fig. 2: FM in Frequency Domain

 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

• Pre and de-emphasis circuits are used only in frequency modulation.

• Pre-emphasis is used at transmitter and de-emphasis at receiver.
1. Pre-emphasis
• In FM, the noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies.
• This effect can be reduced by increasing the value of modulation index (β), for
higher modulating frequencies.
• This can be done by increasing the deviation ‘ ’ and ‘ ’ can be increased by
increasing the amplitude of modulating signal at higher frequencies.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher audio modulating frequencies in accordance with
prearranged response curve is called pre-emphasis.
• Pre-emphasis circuit is a high pass filter as shown in Fig. 1
Fig. 1: Pre-emphasis Circuit
As shown in Fig. 1, AF is passed through a high-pass filter,
before applying to FM modulator.
•As modulating frequency (fm) increases, capacitive
reactance decreases and modulating voltage goes on
increasing. fm Voltage of modulating signal applied to FM
modulator Boosting is done according to pre-arranged curve
as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: P re-emphasis Curve

 • The time constant of pre-emphasis is at 50 s in all CCIR standards.
• In systems employing American FM and TV standards, networks having time
constant of 75 sec are used.
• The pre-emphasis is used at FM transmitter as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3: FM Transmitter with Pre-emphasis

 De-emphasis
• De-emphasis circuit is used at FM receiver.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher modulating frequencies in the process of pre-emphasis is
nullified at receiver by process called
de-emphasis.
• De-emphasis circuit is a low pass filter shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4: De-emphasis Circuit

 Fig. 5: De-emphasis Curve

• As shown in Fig.5, de-modulated FM is applied to the de-

emphasis circuit (low pass filter) where with increase in fm,
capacitive reactance Xc decreases. So that output of de-emphasis
circuit also reduces.
• Fig. 5 shows the de-emphasis curve corresponding to a time
constant
50 s. A 50 s de-emphasis corresponds to a frequency response
curve that is 3 dB down at frequency given by,
f = 1/ 2πRC
The de-emphasis circuit is used after the FM demodulator at the FM receiver shown
in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6: De-emphasis Circuit in FM Receiver

 Comparison between Pre-emphasis and De-
Parameter Pre-emphasis De-emphasis
emphasis
1. Circuit used High pass filter. Low pass filter.

2. Circuit diagram

3. Response curve

4. Time constant
T = RC = 50 s T = RC = 50 s
5. Definition Boosting of higher frequencies Removal of higher frequencies

6. Used at FM transmitter FM receiver.

 Comparison between AM and FM
Parameter AM FM

Amplitude of carrier is varied in Frequency of carrier is varied in

accordance with amplitude of accordance with the amplitude
1. Definition modulating signal keeping of modulating signal keeping
frequency and phase constant. amplitude and phase constant.

2. Constant Frequency and phase. Amplitude and phase.

parameters

3. Modulated signal

4. Modulation Index m=Em /Ec m = / fm

5. Number of Only two Infinite and depends on β.

sidebands
6. Bandwidth BW = 2fm BW = 2 ( + fm (max))
7. Application MW, SW band broadcasting, Broadcasting FM, audio
video transmission in TV. transmission in TV.
 FM Generation
There are two methods for generation of FM wave.

Generation of FM

Direct Method Indirect Method

1.Armstrong Method
1.Reactance Modulator
2.Varactor Diode
Reactance Method

Fig. : Transistorized Reactance Modulator

Varactor Diode Modulator

Fig. : Varactor Diode Frequency Modulator

Limitations of Direct Method of FM
Generation
1.Difficult to get high order stability in carrier

frequency because in this method the basic oscillator

is not a stable oscillator, as it is controlled by the

modulating signal.

2.Generally in this method we get distorted FM, due

FM Transmitter (Armstrong Method)
FM Generation using IC 566

Fig. : Basic Frequency Modulator using NE566 VCO

 Advantages / Disadvantages /
Applications of FM
Advantages of FM
1. Transmitted power remains constant.
2. FM receivers are immune to noise.
3. Good capture effect.
4. No mixing of signals.
Disadvantages of FM
The greatest disadvantages of FM are:
1. It uses too much spectrum space.
2. The bandwidth is wider.
3. The modulation index can be kept low to minimize the bandwidth used.
4. But reduction in M.I. reduces the noise immunity.
5. Used only at very high frequencies.
Applications of FM
1. FM radio broadcasting.
2. Sound transmission in TV.
3. Police wireless.
Pulse Modulation Technique
Fig. : Carrier for Continuous Wave and Pulse Modulation
 Need of Pulse Modulation
• Comparing to continuous wave modulation (like AM,

FM), the performance of all pulse modulation

schemes except PAM in presence of noise is very

good.

• Due to better noise performance, it requires less

power to cover large area of communication.

• Due to better noise performance and requirement of

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Definition:
•The amplitude of the pulsed carrier varies in
accordance with the instantaneous value of
modulating signal, is called PAM where width and
position remains constant.
Generation of PAM

Fig. : Generation of PAM Block diagram

Waveforms of PAM
Advantages of PAM
• It is easy to generate and demodulate PAM.
Disadvantages of PAM
1. Since PAM does not utilize constant amplitude pulses,
output is distorted due to additive noise so that it is
infrequently used.
2. Transmission bandwidth required is too large.
3. Transmitted power is not constant.
Application of PAM
•Used in radio telemetry for remote monitoring and sensing.
Generation of PAM Transistorized Circuit

Fig. : Transistorized circuit for generation of PAM

 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

Definition:

• When the width of pulsed carrier varies in accordance with

the instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal, is called
PWM where amplitude and position remains constant.
Generation of PWM

Fig.: Block Diagram of generation of

PWM
Waveforms of PWM
Generation of PWM using IC
555

Fig. : Generation of PWM using IC 555

 .

Advantages of PWM
1. More immune to noise.
2. Synchronization between transmitter and receiver
is not required.
3. Possible to separate out signal from noise.
Applications of PWM
• PWM is used in special purpose communication
systems mainly for military but is seldom used for
commercial digital transmission system.
 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

Definition
• When position of pulse carrier varies in
accordance with the instantaneous value of
modulating signal is called PPM, where width and
amplitude of carrier remains constant.
Generation of PPM

Fig.: Block diagram of PPM

generation
Waveforms of PPM
Advantages of PPM
1.Good noise immunity.
2.Requires constant transmitter power output.
Disadvantages of PPM
1.Requires synchronization between transmitter and
receiver.
2.Large Bandwidth requirement.
Applications of PPM
1.Used for optical communication system where there is no
multipath interference.
2.Useful for narrowband FM channel allocation, in the radio
control and model aircraft, boats and cars.
3.Used for military applications.
Generation of PPM using IC
555

Fig. : Generation of PPM using IC 555

 Comparison of PAM, PWM and PPM
Parameter PAM PWM PPM

1. Variable parameter of Amplitude Width Position

pulsed carrier.

2. Bandwidth Low High High

requirement

3. Transmitted power Varies with Varies with Remains

amplitude of variation in constant
pulses width

4. Noise immunity Low High High

5. Information contained Amplitude Width variations Position

in variations variation

6. Output waveform
ANY QUESTION?