Historical Development of Magnetic Recording and Tape Recorder 3

Masanori Kimizuka

Abstract
The history of sound recording started with the "Phonograph," the machine invented by Thomas Edison
in the USA in 1877. Following that invention, Oberlin Smith, an American engineer, announced his idea for
magnetic recording in 1888. Ten years later, Valdemar Poulsen, a Danish telephone engineer, invented the
world's first magnetic recorder, called the "Telegraphone," in 1898. The Telegraphone used thin metal wire
as the recording material. Though wire recorders like the Telegraphone did not become popular, research
on magnetic recording continued all over the world, and a new type of recorder that used tape coated
with magnetic powder instead of metal wire as the recording material was invented in the 1920's. The real
archetype of the modern tape recorder, the "Magnetophone," which was developed in Germany in the
mid-1930's, was based on this recorder.After World War II, the USA conducted extensive research on the
technology of the requisitioned Magnetophone and subsequently developed a modern professional tape
recorder. Since the functionality of this tape recorder was superior to that of the conventional disc recorder,
several broadcast stations immediately introduced new machines to their radio broadcasting operations.
The tape recorder was soon introduced to the consumer market also, which led to a very rapid increase
in the number of machines produced. In Japan, Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, which eventually changed its name
to Sony, started investigating magnetic recording technology after the end of the war and soon developed
their original magnetic tape and recorder. In 1950 they released the first Japanese tape recorder.
In the 1960's several cartridge-type tape recorders were developed to meet the requirements of car-stereo
devices, and finally, the compact cassette system was introduced. Japanese manufacturers contributed to
improving the basic recording performance of compact cassette recorders and to expanding the variety of
available products, especially small-sized tape recorders. As a result, they attained a large market share
in the worldwide tape recorder market. In 1979 the "Walkman," a portable compact cassette player, was
introduced to the market, and in a very short period it became very popular all over the world. The product
concept of the Walkman was well accepted, and it changed the style of audio listening dramatically.
In this report I briefly describe the history of sound recording, particularly the progress and relation of
magnetic recording technologies in the compact cassette system. I also describe the product concept and
downsizing technologies of the Walkman. In the last section, I explain the development of digital audio tape
(DAT), an advanced tape recording system that led to the rise of digital audio technology.
Japanese audio manufacturers joined the tape recorder market relatively soon after the end of World War
II. Around 1970 the technical capabilities of device manufacturers increased rapidly, and many superior
devices such as precision mechanical components and high-performance electrical devices became
available on the domestic market. The synergy effect between product design and device technologies
improved the competitiveness of the final products, and Japanese audio manufacturers achieved success
in the compact cassette tape recorder market. They changed the style of listening and the audio product
itself with their introduction of the stereo-headphone "Walkman" in 1979. They ultimately succeeded in
getting a huge market share of the worldwide audio market.
Many people have recently been enjoying listening to music supplied in a digitally compressed format with
small portable devices and headphones. However, it is hoped that the Japanese audio industry will develop
a revolutionary new product or service for a more comfortable listening experience with even better sound.
Profile
Masanori Kimizuka
Chief Survey Officer, Center of the History of Japanese Industrial Technology,
National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo

Contents
1. Introduction 185
2. Recording Sound 187
3. Invention of Magnetic Recording 189
4. Post-war Tape Recorders 197
5. Development of Domestically-Produced Tape Recorders 206
6. Emergence of Cartridge-Type Tape Recorders 215
7. Structure and Performance of Compact Cassette-Type Tape Recorders 224
8. Magnetic Tape in Compact Cassettes 227
9. Advances in Magnetic Heads for Compact Cassettes 229
10. Development of Three-Head Compact Cassettes 234
11. Noise Reduction Systems 238
12. Advances in Driving Motors 244
13. Towards the "Headphone Stereo" 251
14. Invention of Digital Audio Tape Recorders (DAT) 258
15. Conclusion 269
Tape Recorder System Diagrams 271
Chronological Table 272
List of Tape Recorders 273
1 Introduction
Many thousands of years ago, people painted various images practical magnetic recording machine.
on rock surfaces. The vivid animal depictions in the famous Just before the Second World War, a magnetic recording
Cave of Altamira, thought to have been painted as a ritual machine was proposed in Germany, which replaced the steel
to the gods, are still-image records left by the people of the wire with tape, making it easier to use. This was the birth
time. Since ancient times, people have dreamt of recording of the prototype tape recorder. While the war prevented
sound in the same way as pictures; however, they lacked countries from exchanging magnetic tape recording
the means to record it, other than passing it down through technology, research progressed in Germany and the
the oral traditions of story and song. When writing was technology continued to improve. By the end of the war,
invented, people could record their voices through this the tape recorder was complete, equipped with advanced
innovative means of “recording words using letters”. With technology such as AC bias and stereo recording. After
regard to music, however, capturing the sound itself held the war, the Allies carried out a detailed investigation of
more significance than the recording of mere words. People all German technology related to magnetic recording; this
devised notation systems as a means to record the sounds of technology then became widely used in the development of
music and a number of civilisations had their own notations tape recorders in the United States. Ampex, a small, newly-
and symbols for this purpose. However, this “sheet music” founded company, took on the challenge of developing the
was still an indirect means of recording music. The recording tape recorder in the United States; before long, it was an
of sound itself remained a dream. industry-leading corporation, making major contributions
Around the mid-19th century, Frenchman Édouard-Léon to the technical advancement and development of the tape
Scott de Martinville devised a machine that could record the recorder. With Europe lagging a little behind the times,
changes in a sound waveform against a time axis, based on Studer, a small Swiss company, began to develop the tape
the idea that sound is transmitted as a wave. Although Scott recorder there. It developed superior models, from business
de Martinville’s machine could record sound waveforms, it machines to luxury consumer products, and became the
could not reproduce the recorded waveform as sound. In 1877, leader of the industry in Europe. In Japan, Tokyo Tsushin
around 20 years later, American inventor Thomas Edison Kogyo (later Sony), founded not long after the end of the
invented the “phonograph”, a machine that could reproduce war, persevered in researching magnetic recording, believing
sound by producing a vibration from a sound waveform in its potential. In 1950, the company completed the first
recorded on a brass cylinder wrapped in tin foil. For the first domestically-produced tape recorder in impoverished post-
time in human history, a machine could record and reproduce war Japan. After the war, tape recorder technology and its
sound. The more advanced gramophone record was a later potential star qualities went public. Venture companies in
improvement to the device. This advancement meant that the Japan, Europe and the United States alike took on the tape
device could be developed not only as a sound recorder, but recorder challenge, and a number of interesting designs
also as a household music player through these records. As emerged.
radio broadcasting gained popularity, disc recorders became While tape recorders first gained popularity for business
vital pieces of equipment for recording and playing back use, companies soon began to develop models for general
sound, used by many broadcasting offices until the end of use as well, and these machines quickly gained popularity
the Second World War. While records improved in quality, for household use. In the United States, they became the
increased in length and progressed to stereo, the principle of popular choice of audio equipment for entertainment with
sound recording remained the same: mechanically recording the sale of music tapes, which had converted to stereo much
or etching raw sound waveforms onto media. faster than records had. Companies began to focus on easy-
Telecommunications technology developed rapidly in the to-use cartridge-style tape recorders, with car stereos as a
19th century and telegraphy became increasingly more possible application. In the early 1960s, companies began
practical. In 1876, American inventor Graham Bell invented to propose multiple-cartridge systems. A compact cassette
the telephone, which could transmit sound itself. Based on proposed by the Dutch company Philips established itself
the idea that telephonic sound is converted into electricity as the effective global standard with a royalty free patent
and could thus be recorded in the form of magnetic changes, licence policy. By this time, Japanese companies were
American Oberlin Smith published the world’s first article on becoming more confident in their development and design of
the concept of magnetic recording. In 1898, inspired by this AV equipment. Parts manufacturers, who supplied electronic
concept, Danish engineer Valdemar Poulsen used steel wire components and equipment parts, began to improve their
to build the “Telegraphone” wire recorder, the world’s first technological capabilities, developing better quality and more
advanced parts and actively working to incorporate them world, causing a revolution that fundamentally altered the
into their designs. Like the compact cassette tape recorder, way we listened to music.
technological developments were standardised, high in
performance and packed with features. This work required This report begins with the history of sound recording, and
perseverance and meticulous attention to detail, but Japanese then touches on the invention of magnetic recording and
companies were well suited to this and ended up leading the development of the early open reel tape recorders in
the compact cassette tape recorder industry. At the same Chapters 2 to 5, before going on to discuss the development
time, other audio equipment also began to be sought after of component technologies of the compact cassette tape,
around the world. The 1970s and 1980s ushered in a golden such as tape, heads, noise reduction and motors in Chapters
age for the Japanese audio industry. Given the popularity of 6 to 12. Chapter 13 describes the development of compact
compact cassettes, the headphone-equipped portable stereo, cassette equipment and the creation and development of the
the Walkman, appeared in 1979. This embodied a completely Walkman, the headphone-equipped portable stereo. Chapter
new audio concept. Music, which had previously been 14 describes the development of digital audio tape recorders
limited to within the home, could now be taken outdoors and (DAT), typified by the compact disc, at the leading edge of
enjoyed alone anytime, anywhere. This hit product swept the technology in the digital audio age.
2 Recording Sound
Sound Recording by Scott de
2.1 Martinville
Writing was invented as human civilisations developed,
making it possible to record and pass on various matters. As
writing developed, it enabled large amounts of knowledge
to be kept on a broad range of areas for a long period of
time, facilitating the further advancement and expansion of
civilisation. From the dawn of time, writing (and pictures) Fig. 2.1. Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville’s
by humans was the sole means of keeping records. It was “Phonautograph” (1)

the dream of humankind since ancient times to store and

reproduce voice and music, or the sounds themselves, but
this dream was not readily achieved. Much trial and error
2.2 Invention of the Phonograph

took place in the 19th century to achieve this dream based on In 1877, 20 years after the phonautograph was invented,
rapidly advancing modern science and technology, and some American inventor Thomas Edison succeeded in making
major results had been achieved even before the advent of a device that could record and play back sound using a
the 20th century. cylinder like the phonautograph. The cylinder was made
Sound is a wave that travels through the air; it is a of brass, wrapped in tin foil and fitted with a handle on its
compression wave that alters with time. Accordingly, in axis. Cylindrical tubes fitted with diaphragms with needles
order to record sound, it is necessary to record the changes attached were arranged on either side of the cylinder. These
in that wave against a time axis. Based on the idea that tubes worked respectively as a microphone for recording
sound could be recorded if air density could be captured and a speaker for playback. To record sound, one pressed
as an oscillation, French printer Édouard-Léon Scott de the microphone needle against the cylinder and wound
Martinville succeeded in recording a waveform in 1857. His the handle. When one spoke into the microphone tube,
device captured sound through a plaster horn and transmitted the needle would record the sound on the tin foil on the
it to a diaphragm; a pig bristle attached to the diaphragm cylinder. To play the sound back, the needle on the playback
recorded the sound waveform in lampblack onto a cylinder. diaphragm would trace the groove created during recording;
The cylinder was turned on its axis with the sound waveform the diaphragm would vibrate according to the recorded
recorded in a continuous line on the surface of the cylinder. waveform and convert it back to sound. This was a very
This instrument was named the phonautograph; many of clear and simple mechanism. Edison immediately decided to
these were manufactured as experimental equipment for apply for a patent, naming this instrument the “Phonograph”
sound recording (Fig. 2.1). A further improvement was made (Figs. 2.2, 2.3). While it seems to have been based on the
to the device by wrapping it with paper coated in lampblack, idea of Scott de Martinville’s phonautograph, it was full of
which could then be kept as a recording paper, rather than original ideas and experimentation, such as using tin foil
coating the cylinder itself. While the phonautograph could as a recording media and the unique construction of the
record sound, it could not play it back, as it had no means to diaphragm and needles. The phonograph finally achieved
reproduce the original sound from the waveform. However, the dream of recording sound for the first time in history.
it excited many scientists and engineers, who became The invention of the “talking machine” immediately became
engrossed in trying to invent a machine that could record and known throughout the world, as did the name “Phonograph”.
play back sound. It appeared in an article in a Japanese literary magazine the
following year in 1878 with a translated name meaning “voice
reproduction device”. In 1879, Englishman James Ewing,
a lecturer at the University of Tokyo, carried out a public
experiment for himself. The president of the Tokyo Nichi
Nichi Shinbun newspaper, Genichiro Fukuchi, who attended
the experiment, coined the Japanese term chikuonki meaning
“sound storing device” that later took hold in Japan as the
name for the gramophone.
 for the business model of reproducing recorded discs and
selling them in large quantities as records. Creating a mould
by carefully reproducing a groove etched into a master disc
then using that mould to produce large quantities of copies
was the prototype for modern record production. This was
vitally instrumental to the development of the recording
and music industries. The discs were far more suited to the
reproduction process than were the cylinders; this became
the trump card to conclude the market battle between the
two formats. These records were the mainstay of recorded
music until the late 20th century. Technical improvements
to disc records continued to develop, such as long-playing
capabilities, improved sound quality and stereo sound,
although the principle of producing sound by mechanically
tracing a groove etched onto a disc remained fundamentally
Fig. 2.2. Patent document for the Phonograph (2)
the same as it had been in Berliner’s gramophone.

Fig. 2.3. Edison’s “Phonograph” (3)

Fig. 2.4. Berliner’s “Gramophone” (4)

References
(1) Mori, Yoshihisa, et. al. Onkyō-Gijutsu-Shi [History of
2.3 Appearance of Disc Gramophones
Sound Recording], Tokyo University of the Arts Press,
March 2011, p. 16.
There was much interest in the gramophone at the laboratory
(2) Ibid., p. 20.
(later Bell Laboratories) founded by Graham Bell, the
inventor of the telephone. Researchers at the laboratory (3) Ibid., p. 18.
hoped to study improvements to the gramophone; one of (4) Ibid., p. 27.
these was Emil Berliner. Berliner moved to the United States
from Germany at the age of 19 and worked as a technician
on research to improve the gramophone. He was greatly
impressed and excited by Edison’s cylinder phonograph and
had a good understanding of its inherent issues. Edison’s
device recorded sound by etching a waveform onto a
cylinder in a vertical direction, with the depth of the groove
changing with the volume of the sound. Feeling that this
would distort the sound, Berliner came up with a system of
etching the waveform in a horizontal direction. Berliner also
came up with the idea of using flat, disc-shaped recording
media instead of cylinders. Thus, the disc gramophone
and gramophone records were conceived in 1887, 10 years
after Edison’s phonograph. This instrument was named the
“Gramophone” (Fig. 2.4), marking a very significant point
in the history of sound recording. Berliner did not stop at
simply inventing the gramophone, he also devised the basis
3 Invention of Magnetic Recording
3.1 The Work of Oberlin Smith In either case the current, broken into waves of varying
lengths and intensities corresponding with the vibrations of
Edison had turned humanity’s dream of recording sound the diaphragm in the telephone, passes in its circuit through
into reality. Berliner had improved on the cylinder the helix B, converting into a permanent magnet any piece
phonograph, creating the disc gramophone. The invention of hardened steel which may be at the time within the helix.
of the gramophone had implications that went beyond Through this helix B passes a cord, string, thread, ribbon,
merely recording sound; it created an industry from a new chain or wire C, made wholly or partly of hardened steel,
style of entertainment in the form of listening to music at and kept in motion by being wound on to the reel E from off
home on duplicated records. The underlying principle of the the reel D, E being revolved by hand, clock-work or other
gramophone was that of mechanically recording a sound means. J is a tension spring or brake pressing against D to
waveform onto a medium and reproducing that waveform keep the cord C taut.
as an oscillation. Around 1888, American mechanical When in operation with the undulatory current from the
engineer Oberlin Smith devised and published an idea for a telephone A passing through the helix, the cord C becomes,
device for recording voices transmitted by telephone based so to speak, a series of short magnets grouped into alternate
on a completely different principle from that used in the swellings and attenuations of magnetism.
gramophone. Inspired by the phonograph, Smith was the first The actual lengths of these groups depends upon the speed
in the world to come up with the idea of magnetic recording, of their motion, but their relative lengths depend upon
which differed completely from mechanical recording the relative lengths of the sound wave; and their relative
methods. Believing that more information could be gathered intensities depend upon the relative amplitudes of these
by making this available to the general public, he published waves. The cord C therefore contains a perfect record of the
his idea in The Electrical World without patenting it. The sound, far more delicate than the indentations in the tin-foil
concept of magnetic recording published by Oberlin Smith is of the mechanical phonograph. The probable construction
given below. of C would be a cotton, silk or other thread, among whose
“The following proposed apparatus is, however, purely fibres would be spun (or otherwise mixed) hard steel dust,
electrical, and is, as far as known to the writer, the only one or short clippings of very fine steel wire, hardened. Each
fulfilling such conditions that has been suggested. [Fig. 3.1 piece would, of course, become a complete magnet. Other
(a)] is the recording part of an electrical phonograph. [Fig. 3.1 forms of C might be a brass, lead or other wire or ribbon
(b)] is the talking part of the same. Many of the pieces, as D, through which the steel dust was mixed in melting—being
E, B, C, etc., can be the same ones as are used in [Fig. 3.1 (a)]. hardened afterwards in the case of brass or any metal with a
… In [Fig. 3.1 (a)] the voice or other sound is delivered into high melting point. … Another imaginable form of C would
an ordinary telephone A. Preferably, this should be a carbon be simply a hard steel wire, but it is scarcely possible that
transmitter so as to have s battery F in the circuit, and thus it would divide itself up properly into a number of short
use as strong a current as practicable. Possibly, however, a magnets. … If it could be made to work it would obviously
Bell telephone without a battery would answer the purpose. be the simplest thing yet suggested.”

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.1. Oberlin Smith’s Wire Recorder Idea
 3.2 Invention of the Wire Recorder

The publication of Oberlin Smith’s idea was truly ground-

breaking in terms of technological developments in magnetic
recording. Many engineers were inspired by this article and
set about trying to develop magnetic recording devices.
In 1898, 10 years after Smith published his idea, Danish
telephone engineer Valdemar Poulsen invented the world’s
first magnetic recorder, using steel wire as a recording
medium. This device, shown in Fig. 3.2, is very similar in
structure to Edison’s phonograph, except that the cylinder is
wrapped in steel wire rather than tin foil or wax and it has a
electromagnet touching the wire. This magnet plays the same
role as the needle used in the phonograph. As the cylinder
revolves, the magnet runs along the wire, using continuous
magnetisation to record sound on it. To play back the sound,
the magnetised wire is run through the same electromagnet,
allowing the recording to be reproduced as an electrical
current induced in the coil through magnetisation. Poulsen
called this instrument the “Telegraphone”. As a telephone Fig. 3.3. Poulsen’s Telegraphone patent (2)
engineer, he apparently intended to record voices transmitted
by telephone (an answerphone, so to speak). Poulsen gained patent rights in the United States for their DC bias system.
patent rights for the telegraphone in Denmark, the United The DC bias technology was very effective in improving
States, the United Kingdom, France and other key countries sound quality by increasing the sensitivity of the recording
and embarked on a major marketing campaign for it. and reducing distortion. It became an essential piece of
Although the telegraphone had promising prospects with a technology for magnetic recording in devices such as
well-received exhibit at the Exposition Universelle in 1900 the wire recorder for the next 30 years until AC bias was
in Paris, it failed as a business venture, as the products were invented.
fraught with problems: the quality was not good enough, they When a magnetic field is externally applied to a magnetic
were prone to breaking down, and it was difficult to achieve substance and gradually strengthened, the internal magnetic
the desired sound quality. The improved development and flux of the magnetic substance also increases; however, it
performance of the disc recorders and the popularity of the only increases to a certain extent. The magnetic flux at this
record industry boosted the dominance of the gramophone point is called the maximum magnetic flux density (Bm).
and the magnetic wire recorder was largely forgotten by the If the external magnetic field is reduced to 0 at this point,
public. Poulsen and his assistants worked hard to improve the magnetic substance retains its internal magnetic flux
the performance of magnetic recording and achieved density rather than also returning to 0. This means that the
some results that would later become relevant, such as the magnetic substance has become a magnet (it has become
invention of DC bias. magnetised). This magnetic flux density is called residual
magnetic flux density (Br); the substance will never become
a stronger permanent magnet than it is at this point. The
north pole of a magnet created through magnetisation in one
direction would have become the south pole of the magnet
if the magnetisation were to have taken place in the opposite
direction. The magnetic field forms a symmetrical curve
corresponding to the strength of the magnet, as shown in Fig.
3.4. This curve is called the magnetisation curve or hysteresis
curve.
Fig. 3.2. Poulsen’s “Telegraphone” (1) When a completely non-magnetised material is magnetised,
the magnetization follows the 0-a, 0-c curve shown in
3.3 Invention of DC Bias
Fig. 3.4. In the initial stage, this curve is called the initial
While the telegraphone business venture failed to take magnetisation curve. In a magnetic recorder, the horizontal
off, Poulsen and his assistant Peder O. Pedersen worked axis corresponds to the recording magnetic field applied
hard to improve the telegraphone. In 1907, they acquired to the magnetic material (wire, later magnetic tape) by
the head, while the vertical axis shows the intensity of the
magnetisation. The magnetic field produced by the head is
in proportion to the strength of the recording signal, that
is, the recording current flowing through the head. Since
the initial magnetisation curve is not a straight line, the
result of magnetisation will be a distorted waveform even
if a magnetic field is applied according to the sound being
recorded. This is called unbiased recording, shown in Fig.
3.5. Significant distortion occurs where a recording is made
where the magnetisation curve is not in a straight line.
Having the recording current as DC and using a near-straight
Fig. 3.6. Straight line section of magnetisation curve (5)
magnetisation curve reduces distortion and produces better
sound quality. This is called DC bias recording. While using
straight-line section a of the magnetisation curve shown in
Fig. 3.6 reduces distortion, as shown in Fig. 3.7, if we look
at the overall magnetisation curve, we see that section b on
the outer loop is a longer straight-line section, so it would be
better to use section b. First, a magnetic substance is applied
to a saturation field to create Br; the substance is then biased
Recording waveform

in one direction without reducing the magnetic flux density;

the recording current is then added and DC bias recording
can be achieved using section b, as shown in Fig. 3.8. This
was the DC bias method invented by Poulsen and Pedersen,
achieving good recording quality by using long straight
Playback waveform

sections of the magnetic curve.

Fig. 3.7. DC bias recording (6)

Recording waveform

Playback waveform

Fig. 3.8. DC bias recording 2 (7)

Fig. 3.4. Magnetisation curve (3) 3.4 Advances in the Wire Recorder

Poulsen continued working hard to promote the wire recorder,

setting up a sales company in the United States in the hope
of popularising it. He also continued to make improvements
to the telegraphone itself, but he was never able to dominate
the market because the device was lacking both in terms of
competitive pricing and in the degree of technical perfection
Recorded waveform

required for ease of use and good performance. The wire

recorder failed as the popular choice of sound recorder due
to the growth and development of the disc gramophone.
However, by the late 1920s there was a growing interest in
Input waveform
magnetic recorders in fields such as broadcasting and military
Fig. 3.5. Distortion due to unbiased recording (4)
communications and further research began to be carried of whether a more suitable material could be used as a
out, especially in the West. One feature of the wire recorder recording medium for a magnetic recorder that was easier
was that it could play continuously for longer periods than to use and could overcome these drawbacks. Although the
records; there was a demand in these fields for such a feature. idea to coat a tape of soft material with a powdered magnetic
These recorders were actually implemented in some areas substance was proposed by A. Nasavischwily in Germany
in Europe, such as the large, steel ribbon recorders used and Joseph A. O’Neill in the United States in the 1920s,
in broadcasting, which replaced the steel wire with steel nobody had managed to build a working machine. In 1928,
foil as the recording medium. Fig. 3.9 shows an improved German engineer Fritz Pfleumer coated paper tape with iron
telegraphone from around 1920. This is an archetypal tape oxide to create a “recording tape” and made the world’s first
recorder, with the wire-wound reel driven by a motor and use tape recorder, called the “Sound Paper Machine”. While this
of the left and right reels alternating when the recorded wire machine had all the basic elements of a tape recorder and
is rewound. Fig. 3.10 shows a British Marconi-Stille steel could be hailed as the world’s first tape recorder, it crucially
ribbon recorder used for broadcasting by the BBC. This huge lacked in performance and could not produce a satisfactory
device weighed one tonne and could record for 30 minutes quality of sound. The coated magnetic tape did not have an
on a steel ribbon that was 3mm wide, 80μm thick and 3,000m even surface and the coating was not very well attached;
long. One of these was imported by Japan in 1937 and used during playback the magnetic particles would scatter on
for foreign-language broadcasting by NHK Tokyo. coming into contact with the head. Due to this, it became
known as the “Sandpaper Machine”.

Fig. 3.9. Telegraphone, circa 1920 (8)

Fig. 3.11. Fritz Pfleumer’s “Sound Paper Machine” (10)

3.5.2 Creation of the Magnetophon

Pfleumer was granted patent rights in 1930 and took the
world’s first tape recorder to all of the major electrical
manufacturers in Germany to try to market it, but could
not raise much interest because despite the potential of the
technology, it lacked in performance.However, in 1932,
the president of Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft
Fig. 3.10. Marconi-Stille steel ribbon recorder (1937) (9) (AEG) showed some interest, buying the patent rights from
Pfleumer. AEG immediately set up a research laboratory
on magnetic recording and set about improving the Sound
Paper Machine and the magnetic tape. Being an electrical
3.5 Invention of the Tape Recorder manufacturer, AEG needed experts in chemistry to improve
3.5.1 Sound Paper Machine the magnetic tape and sought assistance from IG Farben.
Consequently, the IG Farben’s Ludwigshafen factory (later
The wire recorders and steel ribbon recorders were certainly
BASF) ended up collaborating on the magnetic tape project.
not easy to use. They used solid metal recording media; if
While IG Farben worked on developing the tape, AEG put
the wire came unwound it was extremely difficult to put
its efforts into research and development of the magnetic
it back; if it broke, it had to be welded back together. It is
recorder, completing the forerunner to the modern tape
not difficult to imagine that the question was often posed
recorder – the “Magnetophon” – in 1934 (Fig. 3.12). AEG
planned to exhibit it at a radio show that year, but several superior for recording sound. The Second World War ended
defects were discovered in the drive train and the amplifier in 1945 with an Allied victory. Magnetophon technology was
right before the show, so the exhibit was withdrawn. AEG analysed by the Allies, leading to the development of highly
made further improvements to the drive mechanism and other efficient tape recorders in the United States.
parts and enclosed the mechanism unit, the amplifier unit and
the speaker unit in separate housings. The combined system
went on display at the Berlin Radio Show in 1935 as the “K1
Magnetophon”. The world’s first practical tape recorder and
magnetic tape was successfully demonstrated in public. As
well as having high-quality tape developed by a specialised
manufacturer, it had a stable tape drive system and ring heads

Fig. 3.13. Magnetophon (1943) (12)

3.6 Discovery of AC Bias

Fig. 3.12. An early Magnetophon (ca. 1934) (11)

that would not put excess pressure on the tape and damage it. 3.6.1 American Research
These developments meant that the Magnetophon had most Around 1920, the United States Naval Research Laboratory
of the elements of a modern tape recorder. was researching how to reduce telegraph transmission times
using magnetic recording. The idea was that recordings
3.5.3 Popularity of the Magnetophon made at normal speed could be transmitted at high speed and
AEG developed a range of other models after the K1 recorded at high speed at the receiving end, thereby reducing
Magnetophon, such as a console model and a portable model. the transmission time. Although this was never implemented
These began to be used for monitoring radio broadcasts due to the difficulty of high speed recording, AC bias was
and recording military and police interrogations. While discovered by chance during the course of this research. In
broadcasting offices mainly used disc recorders, most of 1921, laboratory researchers Wendell Carlson and Glenn
the broadcasting offices in Germany had Magnetophons Carpenter discovered the AC bias effect while experimenting
installed by the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. with magnetic recording when their amplifier oscillated
The adoption of AC bias in 1942 made a major improvement unexpectedly, acting as a high-frequency bias. This invention
to the sound quality, which had previously not been as good was patented in the United States in 1927. Although this
as the disc recorders. High-quality, pre-recorded broadcasts should have radically improved the performance of magnetic
began to be transmitted all across Europe. The Allied Forces, recording, it was overlooked as a means of improving
thinking that such a high quality broadcast could only be recording, being primarily used for noise reduction.
live, were mystified at how these shows could be broadcast In the mid-1930s, Bell Laboratories carried out some
continuously (Fig. 3.13). research on AC bias with a view to improving the
Although the Magnetophon gained popularity in Germany performance of steel wire/ribbon recorders. In 1937, Bell
as a new, high-quality recorder, all international technology Labs developed the endless-loop style “Mirrophone”. A
exchange stopped at this time, as the machine with its stereo-capable model using AC bias was demonstrated at the
broadcasting and recording uses would be particularly helpful 1939 New York World’s Fair. Dean E. Wooldridge of Bell
to the military. The main sound recorders in the West at the Labs put in a patent application for the results of the AC bias
time were the disc recorders; while there were some steel research in 1939 and a US patent was registered in 1941.
wire/ribbon recorders in use, they were not really practical The patent was later given over to Marvin Camras from
recording machines. Magnetophon technology was clearly the Armour Institute/Illinois Institute of Technology and an
improved version, later known as the Camras Patent, made also carried out an experimental “pre-recorded broadcast”
a big impact in the world of magnetic recording. While AC with NHK Sendai. Following on from this, he also
bias was rapidly adopted by Armour Institute in 1941 for successfully made a live recording of whaling in the sea off
use in wire recorders for the navy and other applications, the Kinkasan with collaboration from Anritsu Electric. Although
sound recorders themselves still had the usual performance/ he used a trial wire recorder for this experiment, it succeeded
function limitations of wire recorders. in recording aboard a rocking boat, which was impossible to
do with a disc recorder. It was quite a long recording and had
3.6.2 Research in Germany to be edited down to around ten minutes for broadcasting.
While Germany had built the first modern tape recorder in Although it was quite a difficult task to cut and re-join
the form of the Magnetophon, by around 1930, all magnetic the thin wire, it meant that pre-recorded broadcasts were
recorders, including steel wire/ribbon recorders, were using now possible in an age in which live broadcasting was the
the DC bias method invented by Poulsen. norm. However, there was a lot of background noise in the
In 1938, the German state broadcasting company made the recording and so pre-recorded broadcasts were deemed
decision to use the K4(S) Magnetophon for broadcasting. Dr unsuitable for regular use in broadcasting. Accordingly,
Hans-Joachim von Braunmühl, chief engineer of the state Nagai’s laboratory then set about researching noise reduction.
broadcaster’s research laboratory, appointed Walter Weber Teiji Igarashi, a researcher from Nagai’s laboratory who had
to the task of improving the quality of the Magnetophon. In gone to work with Anritsu, was also researching applications
1939, while experimenting with circuits, Weber discovered for magnetic recording at this time. Igarashi discovered
by chance how high quality recording and playback could AC erasure by chance in an experiment and confirmed
be achieved, radically improving sound quality in terms that this drastically reduced background noise. Although it
of frequency response, noise and distortion. Weber knew did not improve sound quality, it was able to reduce noise
that this improvement was caused by abnormal oscillation without needing the existing method of DC erasure and
in the recording circuit and eventually managed to make was thus granted a patent. This motivated Igarashi to repeat
a recording using AC bias by chance. He spent some time the experiment to optimise the process by altering the AC
examining the idea and formalised the AC bias method in frequency and intensity, thus perfecting the AC bias method.
1940. In July that year he applied for a German patent. Given the fact that Nagai had achieved the same approximate
The adoption of AC bias saw rapid improvement in the results earlier than Igarashi and Anritsu had had technical
performance of the Magnetophon, producing far greater advice from Nagai from the beginning, Anritsu Electrical
recording and playback quality than could be achieved and Nagai jointly applied for an AC bias patent, which was
through DC bias. AEG prepared to introduce AC bias to granted in 1940.
the wider community by staging public demonstrations and
other activities. In 1942, AC bias was used in Magnetophons 3.6.4 AC Bias
for broadcasting. This enabled pre-recorded broadcasts of AC bias is a method of recording in which a higher frequency
extremely high quality for the time to be transmitted all signal (the bias signal) is recorded along with the recording
across Europe up until just before the war ended. signal. This method produces a better quality of magnetic
recording than DC bias and is an indispensable means for
3.6.3 Research in Japan improving the performance of modern tape recorders. This
Japanese research on magnetic recording began in the late technology is now used in all analogue tape recorders. The
1920s. Dr Kenzo Nagai of the Tohoku University Faculty of higher the frequency of the superimposing bias signal,
Engineering, who was researching voice delay devices with the greater the expected performance; yet wavelengths of
the idea that they would be useful in studying submarine between 30 kHz and 200 kHz are generally chosen, taking
acoustics, began researching magnetic recording after into account the saturation of the head.
coming up with the idea of using a proposed recording on an As shown in Fig. 3.14, the recording current flowing through
endless steel wire as a delay device. This research developed the head during AC bias recording takes a waveform such
into a study on the wire recorder and followed on to applied as (c), produced by recording input signal (a) superimposing
research, such as on proposed secret communications using with bias signal (b). Recording should be achieved by
magnetic recording. With collaboration from the university’s this signal being applied to the head and the tape passing
Institute for Materials Research, Nagai studied the most through the gap in front of the head. However, when a
suitable material to use for wire recording and the Institute high frequency bias current is superimposed with the input
for Materials Research developed a magnetic material called signal (here, the sound current), a recording current as
Sendai Metal (an alloy of 40% steel, 40% nickel and 20% shown in Fig. 3.15 (B) flows through the head, generating
copper) which was very good for recording. In 1936, Nagai an alternating magnetic field. Looking at one point on the
 Table 3.1. AC Bias Patents (13)

Application Month Day Patent Month Day Country Patent No. Name of Invention / Thesis Inventor Accepted Notes
Year Year

1902 Jun 12 1907 Dec 10 USA 879,083 Telephone Valdemar Paulsen 111,305 DC bias patent
Peder O. Pedersen

1921 Mar 26 1927 Aug 30 USA 1,640,861 Radio Telegraphone System Wendel C. Carlson 456,020 AC bias patent
Ollen W. Carpenter

1936 Jun 05 Japan The Journal of the A Study of Noise in Kenzo Nagai, Shiro AC erasure
Institute of Electrical Magnetic Recording Systems Sasaki, Junosuke Endo
Communication No. 180
1936 Oct 12 1937 Feb 03 Japan 119,071 Magnetic Recording Devices Teiji Igarashi, Saburo AC erasure and AC
Not Requiring Peripheral Utsugi bias patent
Equipment Patent held by Anritsu
Electrical Co., Ltd.
1938 Feb 05 Japan The Journal of the An Experimental Examination Kenzo Nagai, Shiro AC erasure
Institute of Electrical of the AC Blowout Method in Sasaki, Junosuke Endo
Communication No. 7 Magnetic Recording
1938 Mar 14 1940 Jun 21 Japan 136,997 A Magnetic Recording System Teiji Igarashi, Makoto AC bias patent
Having AC as a “Bias” Ishikawa, Keizo Nagai
Patent held by Anritsu
Electrical Co., Ltd.
1939 Jul 29 1941 Mar 18 USA 2,235,132 Magnetic Telegraphone Dean E. Wooldridge 287,192 AC bias patent
(assignor: Bell Telephone
Lab.)
1940 Jul 28 1943 Nov 04 Germany 743,411 Verfahen zur magnetischen Hans J. von Braunmühl AC bias patent
Schaaaufzeichung Walter Weber
1941 Oct 02 1943 USA Method of Magnetic Sound 413,380 Same patent
Recording applied for in USA
1941 Dec 22 1944 Jun 13 USA 2,351,004 Method and Means of Marvin Camras 423,928 AC bias patent
Magnetic recording (assignor: Armour
Research Foundation)

tape that has passed through, the magnetic field changes, as

shown in Fig. 3.16, and the final magnetisation is recorded
(the south pole in the case shown in Fig. 3.16). Since the
strength of the magnetisation is proportionate to the input
signal, it is possible to record with very little distortion. This
Input signal
waveform

is represented on curve B-H in Fig. 3.17, which shows the

changes in the magnetic field affecting the tape. AC bias
recording means that the tape is temporarily magnetised to
saturation, so that recording can take place irrespective of the
Bias waveform

initial magnetisation curve. Where the input signal is 0, the

tape magnetisation is also 0, meaning it has been AC erased.

Sections 3.6.1 to 3.6.3 discuss the progress of research in

current waveform
Recording head coil

various countries. It is interesting to note that in each case an

unexpected oscillation in the amplifier during an experiment
caused a successful result purely by chance. In each case,
researchers also came to the conclusion that erasing residual
magnetisation would produce better recording quality. Fig. 3.14. AC bias recording waveforms (14)
While AC bias could be considered to be a more intuitively
elusive phenomenon than DC bias, it was made to work by
chance and ended up becoming a vital technology that vastly
improved the recording quality of tape recorders.
 References
(1) Mori, Yoshihisa, et. al. Onkyō-Gijutsu-Shi [History of
Sound Recording], Tokyo University of the Arts Press,
March 2011, p. 73.
Sound High
(2) Ibid., p. 73.
current frequency
(enlarged view)
(3) Tēpurekōdā no Kiso [Tape Recorder Basics]. Sony
Tape progression Inc. Technology Education Center, May 1985, p. 34.
(4) Ibid.
(5) Ibid., p. 35.
(6) Ibid., p. 36.
Fig. 3.15. Tape magnetisation process (15)
(7) Ibid.
(8) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
1 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 1]”, JAS Journal
2004, Vol. 44, No. 7.
Uniform (9) Ibid.
(10) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
2 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 2]”, JAS Journal
2004, Vol. 44, No. 8 & 9.

Fig. 3.16. Residual magnetisation at a certain (11) Ibid.

point on the tape (16)
(12) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
1 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 1]”, JAS Journal
2004, Vol. 44, No. 7.
(13) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
33 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 33]”, JAS Journal
2004, Vol. 48, No. 5 & 6.
Residual magnetic (14) Tēpurekōdā no Kiso [Tape Recorder Basics]. Sony
flux density
Inc. Technology Education Center, May 1985, p. 37.
(15) Ibid.
(16) Ibid.
(17) Ibid., p. 38.

Fig. 3.17. Magnetic field temporarily

reduced through AC bias (17)
4 Post-war Tape Recorders
a major concern for the “Bing Crosby Show”, a popular
4.1 United States radio programme at the time that was on its way to being
broadcast nationwide, to maintain the sound quality of
4.1.1 Creation of Ampex the recording. Bing Crosby staff members investigating
In July 1945, two months after Germany surrendered, the use of the Magnetophon for making high quality pre-
John Mullin of the US Army Signal Corps encountered the recorded broadcasts were very interested in the Ampex
Magnetophon at a radio station on the outskirts of Frankfurt. 200 demonstration and offered to help with getting the
Mullin, who had been investigating German communication system introduced to radio stations. Being a newly founded
technology, was captivated by its performance capability. By company, Ampex had no marketing channels through which
the end of the year, he had acquired several machines and to target radio stations. It signed an agreement for the
dozens of tapes, immediately sending them off to the United marketing to be carried out by Bing Crosby Enterprises and
States for a more detailed analysis. With the help of a friend soon the Magnetophon was being delivered to the ABC to be
at home in San Francisco, Mullin set about repairing and put to use in radio broadcasts. With the 200 model accepted
improving the confiscated Magnetophons, replacing the DC for use by radio stations, Ampex released the improved
bias system with AC bias (the Magnetophons he acquired 300 model in 1949, establishing its firm standing in the
were the old K4 models that used DC bias) and redesigning field of tape recorders for business use. Compared with the
the electrical circuits and began to make some test music existing disc recorders, the machine was ground-breaking
recordings (Fig. 4.1). He created a major stir on 16 May 1946 in terms of its sound quality, ease of use and ease of editing.
when he demonstrated his new and improved Magnetophon Its popularity immediately spread to other areas such as
at a meeting of the IEEE in San Francisco. recording studios and movie sound recording.

Fig. 4.1. Mullin’s improved Magnetophon (1)

Despite being a small-scale start-up company, Ampex Co., Fig. 4.2. AMPEX 200 (2)
Ltd. was very interested in this demonstration and set about
developing its own model with a firm belief in its potential. While Ampex developed the 200 model tape recorder, disc
While it was difficult to set a direction and goals for this recorder manufacturers Audio Device and 3M appealed to
project to develop a completely new product, the company Ampex to provide information and guidance in developing
was able to develop a playback head with advice from tape media. The Magnetophon had given these companies a
Mullin. With positive cooperation from Mullin, such as glimpse of the huge potential of magnetic recording, that is,
providing his own Magnetophon until the company was able the tape recorder, in place of the disc recorder and they were
develop a drive train, the playback head developed by Ampex very interested in magnetic tape as a new product. While
did wonders for the performance of the Magnetophon. The 3M had no experience with recording equipment, it was a
company then worked on other developments, such as a very experienced chemical developer, and made a full-scale
recording and a erase head, and managed to complete the entry into the field of magnetic tape, developing the famous
Ampex 200 model by 1948 (Fig. 4.2). As pre-recorded “Scotch Magnetic Tape”. The company’s superior technical
broadcasts began to dominate American airwaves, it was competence enabled the production of magnetic tape that
offered extremely stable performance for its time. It produced
the famous “Scotch 111”, which became the standard tape recordings of the national aquatics championships in Los
for tape recorders all over the world (Fig. 4.3). Angeles were brought to Japan by an NHK engineer and tape
recorders began to be used in radio broadcasting in earnest.
From 1951, the post-war-founded commercial broadcasters
began to use the PT-6. Thus the Magnecorder was the first
tape recorder to be brought to Japan and put to practical use.
This machine provided much inspiration for domestic tape
recorder development within Japan.

4.1.3 Unified Standards

A great number of companies appeared in the United States
between 1947 and 1950, manufacturing and marketing tape
4.1.2 Opposition to Ampex: the Magnecorder
recorders firstly as business machines used by broadcasters
While Ampex was working on developing the tape recorder,
and also for household use. While some of these were
several other US companies also began developing this
well-established business equipment companies that had
new recording technology. While some companies became
been making disc recorders since the pre-war era, some of
interested after being inspired by Mullin’s demonstration of
them were new players attracted by the new market. With
the Magnetophon, others were working on developments
multiple manufacturers producing tape recorders according
completely unrelated to the Magnetophon. Magnecord, a
to their own standards, there was little compatibility
Chicago company founded in 1946, introduced the SD-1
between recorded tapes. This limited their scope of use
wire recorder as its first product and continued developing
and presented an obstacle to the advancement of this long-
new products. With a strong proposal from the sales end, the
awaited technology. As tape recorders became more widely
company put its steel wire development on hold and started
used in broadcasting, this issue clearly worsened. Since radio
working on tape recorders. In May 1948, the company
broadcasts had been popular in the pre-war days, there was an
exhibited its first prototype at the NAB Show, gaining
association of commercial broadcasters in the United States
considerable popularity. This machine was called the PT-6
called the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB)*.
(Fig. 4.4) and was priced far lower ($499.50) than the Ampex
Given the use of sound recorders in broadcasting, the NAB
200 ($3,825). Its small casing also attracted more user
had already established the Recording and Reproducing
interest than the large, console-style 200. While the Ampex
Standards Committee in 1941 for the disc recorders. In
200 had a three-head configuration allowing recordings to be
1949, this committee extended its jurisdiction to regulate
monitored for business use, the PT-6 was not really suitable
the necessary terms, measurements and characteristics of
for business use, having only two heads: one for erasing and
tape recorders as well. The NAB standards became the de
one for recording/playback. Two heads became the standard
facto global standards for consumer use as well and were
configuration for household tape recorders, as cost was an
implemented as national standards in many countries around
important factor and the two-head configuration offered the
the world. This ensured a minimum level of compatibility in
basic recorder functions. Nevertheless, the Magnecorder
the open-reel era.
switched to three heads in 1950 to meet the demand for a
* The National Association of Broadcasters, an association
proper business machine.
of commercial broadcasters in the United States, was
established in 1923, having thus been in existence for
90 years. The NAB holds an annual convention in the
United States as well as world’s largest exhibitions
of broadcasting equipment (many of the recent
exhibitions have been in Las Vegas). The Recording and
Reproducing Standards Committee exists within the
organisation of the NAB. Following the Second World
War, this Committee set the standards for disc and tape
Fig. 4.4. Magnecorder PT-6 (1948) (4) recorders for broadcasting use and, together with the
RMA (later RTMA, now EIA), has long been known in
In 1949, a Hawaiian Japanese radio station brought a Japan for these tape recorder standards.
Magnecorder and some Scotch 111 magnetic tape to
NHK in order to record the popular amateur singing radio
programme “Nodojiman Shiroto Ongakukai”. In August that
year, several Magnecorder PT-6s that had been used in relay
 post-war high-end tape recorder market together with US
4.2 Europe company, Ampex. The Revox brand produced a succession
of high-quality tape recorders for general use. The 36 series,
4.2.1 Revival of the Magnetophon which originated in 1955 with the A36, had stereo capability
Although Germany was home to the advanced technology and continued to dominate the market through to 1967, when
that produced the Magnetophon, its defeat in the Second music lovers and audiophiles fell for the sound quality of
World War left its magnetic recorders lagging behind. As an the A77 (Fig. 4.7), considered to be the best general use tape
advanced chemical product, magnetic recording tape had recorder at the time. Despite being very highly priced, it was
been produced by the major chemical manufacturers and was extremely popular, with hundreds of thousands sold all over
in frequent use by broadcasters for pre-recorded broadcasts in the world.
pre-war Germany. After the war, the production of magnetic
recording tape in Germany was resumed by Agfa in 1949 and
BASF in 1950.
In 1954, nine years after the war, the freshly-outfitted
Magentophon M5 (Fig. 4.5) was finally released by
Telefunken, a subsidiary of AEG, for semi-professional use,
followed by a model for home use in 1958. In 1952, AEG
released the KL-15D, a combined record player and tape
recorder for home use. While the Magnetophon was thus
revived several years after the war, a significant portion
of its tape recorder technology was publicly known and
other European manufacturers who had previously worked
with steel wire recorders and other technology were now Fig. 4.5. Magnetophon M5 (1954) (5)
developing their own tape recorders and putting them on the
market. The tape recorder was advancing across Europe as a
business machine, with British company EMI producing the
BTR/1, a copy of the Magnetophon for professional use in
1948 and Swiss company Studer producing the Dynavox for
semi-professional use in 1949.

4.2.2 Activity by Studer

Studer was a small electronics manufacturer founded in
Zurich, Switzerland in 1948 by Willi Studer. Not long
after its founding, Studer began to import tape recorders
from the United States, inspiring the company to make
its own developments on the tape recorder. It started out
by remodelling the imported American tape recorders
to European specifications and completed its first tape
recorder in 1949: the Dynavox. Although it was a small-
scale company with limited human resources, equipment
and capability, it succeeded somewhat in business due to
the novelty of the tape recorder. With this experience under
its belt, the company improved its design and released the
T26 in 1951, under the new brand name of Revox. While
the Dynavox and the T26 were developed and marketed
as general use (albeit highly-priced) tape recorders, Studer
developed the 27 model, based on the T26, as a tape recorder
for business use. This machine was trialled at music events
and was favourably received. In 1952, the Studer 27 went
into full-scale production (Fig. 4.6). Through the success
of the Studer 27, the company gained a reputation as a
manufacturer of business-use tape recorders, leading the
 other areas also placed orders for the Nagra I, it was little
more than a prototype model and had a number of defects.
Kudelski completed the significantly-revised Nagra II (Fig.
4.8) and began to manufacture this model by the end of 1953.
Though portable, the Nagra had a very precise and
technologically advanced tape operation system and
presented a wealth of possibilities to diversify the scope of
the tape recorder. The Nagra III debuted in 1959; this model
had a systematic operation function, which could be used
in synchronisation with a cine-camera for cinematography,
for example. The Nagra continued to rank highly as the
high-performance portable business machine of the tape
recorder industry, used by film studios and broadcasting
stations throughout the world. Brimming appeal with
its maintenance-oriented design for business use, its
precisely-manufactured parts and the sharp, unique feel of
its operation, the Nagra became the landmark design for
Fig. 4.6. Studer 27 (1952) (6) many tape recorder designers. As an integrated system with
a number of peripheral devices for synchronisation with
cinematography, it enjoyed a long reign as the main sound
recording equipment used on film sets. The Nagra’s role
in this industry finally came to an end as digital recording
equipment and digital voice processing rapidly replaced
analogue equipment.

Fig. 4.7. Revox A77 (7)

4.2.3 A p p e a r a n c e o f “ N a g r a”, t h e Po r t a b l e Ta p e
Recorder
While the tape recorder was a magnetic recording device
Fig. 4.8. Nagra II (1953) (8)
and relied more heavily on electrical systems than the
gramophone, the major factors determining its performance
in the pre-digital-recording era were the tape drive system 4.3 Development in Japan
and the mechanism allowing accurate and stable operation. It
was a precision instrument requiring a high working accuracy 4.3.1 Domestic Produc tion of Tape Recorders for
and an assembly system, so there was no better place for it Business Use
than Central Europe, where the watchmaking industry had Although Anristu and Nippon Electric Company (NEC)
developed. Studer was founded in Switzerland, yet it was began to develop and manufacture steel wire recorders
another Swiss company in Lausanne that produced a unique around the late 1930s, they lacked development experience
recorder exemplary of post-war Europe: the Nagra. Warsaw- in many areas, such as sound quality and operation; as a
born Stefan Kudelski left his homeland of Poland during result, they were not able to produce anything capable of
the Second World War. He eventually settled in Switzerland being used in broadcasting in the pre-war era. The fact that
after living in Hungary and France. In 1951, in Lausanne, NEC launched a steel wire recorder in 1948 indicates that
Kudelski built a small, lightweight, portable tape recorder development had continued during the war; however, the
with a focus on sound quality. He named this machine Nagra, recorder was not widely popular as it was very expensive (Fig.
meaning “to record” in Polish. The first Nagra I was bought 4.9).
by a local radio station in 1952. Although radio stations in
 hand, while Totsuko adhered to the basic principles, it added
some of its own original technology.

Fig. 4.9. NEC MR-1 steel wire recorder (1948) (9)

As mentioned in Section 4.1.2, the use of tape recorders in

Japanese broadcasting started in 1949 with the American Fig. 4.10. Totsuko Prototype No. 1 (10)
Magnecorder. The PT-6 model used was brought to Japan by
NHK. Using this model as a reference and with collaboration
from NHK, Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo (“Totsuko”, later Sony)
and Nippon Denki Onkyo (later Denon) started working
on a domestically-produced tape recorder. Development
had finally begun on a Japanese-made tape recorder. Denon
was an established company with various achievements
as a domestic manufacturer of recording equipment for
broadcasting both before and after the war, including
supplying disc-style recorders to NHK. Its roots were in the
Denki Onkyo Research Institute founded by Koichi Tsubota Fig. 4.11. Denon Prototype No. 1 (11)

before the war to work on domestic disc-style recorder

production. Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, on the other hand, was a
new company, founded by Masaru Ibuka in 1946, that had
developed and marketed several measuring instruments for
electrical engineering and was constantly looking to work
on innovative new products. Respective company founders
Tsubota and Ibuka were contemporaries at the Waseda
University Faculty of Science and Engineering, although it is
not known to what extent the two men knew each other.
Both companies built prototype tape recorders within a
short space of time (Figs. 4.10, 4.11), which were then
evaluated by NHK. The results of this evaluation were
reflected in the official demands that were submitted, while
the prototypes were redesigned to meet NHK specifications. Fig. 4.12. PT-11 Totsuko (12)
The prototypes were introduced by NHK in 1951 as the PT-
11 (Fig. 4.12) and PT-12 (Fig. 4.13), the first domestically-
produced tape recorders for business use, and were put to
use by broadcasting stations all over Japan. It seems that the
machines were treated as “portable”, with the tape transporter
and amplifier each in separate casings. Photographs of the
prototypes show the differences in approach between the
two companies. Denon, with its wealth of experience in
the field of broadcasting equipment through its disc-style
recorders, was trying to emphasize guaranteed performance
and credibility in the field of business machines by making a
faithful reproduction of the Magnecorder PT-6. On the other
Fig. 4.13. PT-12 Denon (13)
4.3.2 The Creation of Prototype No. 1 by Totsuko use, both for the base material and for the powder coating.
From the outset, researchers at Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo were With the idea of simply proving the tape was magnetised,
very interested in magnetic recording and had studied researchers ground cylindrical OP magnets into powder in a
systems such as the steel wire recorder. Coming into contact mortar and tried coating this onto a suitable paper material
with the tape recorder through the NHK, the researchers with a paste made from boiled rice. This experimental
were convinced of the potential of this new product and tape produced only noise. After various experiments, the
concentrated their efforts on developing it. Despite the researchers concluded that the ground-up magnets were
extreme scarcity of reference material, Totsuko showed too strong and that they should use a weaker magnet for
incredible manoeuvrability for a start-up company headed recording. The use of powdered OP magnets as a magnetic
by engineers, repeating a number of designs and prototypes substance was the same method used for the later metal
in a short space of time. It seems the company was also tapes, but perhaps the level of technology at the time meant
examining and investigating the principles of magnetic that the heads were not able to magnetise a highly coercive
recording, while its procurement of the purportedly magnetic substance. The Totsuko research team searched
indispensable “high frequency bias patent” from Anritsu through various sources of literature and found that if a
indicates that it was preparing to ensure the superiority of substance called ferric oxalate is oxidised by burning, it
its products through its unique technological developments. becomes ferric oxide. Despite the lack of materials, they
Having abandoned the early steel wire recorders in favour managed to acquire a ferric oxalate reagent and immediately
of the tape recorder in its work on magnetic recording, set about heating it in a frying pan. The yellow ferric oxalate
Totsuko worked on its own developments in spite of various turned brown and then black; by observing the colour and
hardships. While its first prototype was for the NHK, as taking it off the heat at the appropriate time, they were able
mentioned in the preceding paragraph, the development of to produce ferric oxide powder without any problem. To
products for business use definitely contributed greatly to coat this powder onto the base material, they started out
the company’s accumulation of technology. Although the by using a spray gun, but this wasted a lot of the powder.
scarcity of parts and materials and the lack of information Through trial and error, they ended up creating a prototype
and technology following the war meant that new product by applying the powder with a brush. They made repeated
development was rife with difficulties, Totsuko finally recording experiments on a primitive experimental recording
released the “G” in 1950, the first domestically-produced tape device made from a pair of 78 RPM record turntables. They
recorder. At ¥160,000, it was very highly priced. Although improved the magnetic substance and made various analyses
tape was also being developed and marketed, it was still the of different choices of base material, but at that time there
rudimentary paper-based tape. The physical properties of was no paper or plastic in Japan suitable for use as magnetic
this tape, such as its smoothness, were still underdeveloped, tape. They had no choice but to leave it to a paper expert and
which directly affected the recording and playback functions enlisted the help of Honshu Paper Co., Ltd., which showed a
(Fig. 4.17). great deal of interest in the development of the new product,
A major obstacle to Totsuko building a tape recorder was the as it could potentially supply the base material for the paper
lack of appropriate parts. In particular, the driving motor had tape (Figs. 4.14, 4.15). Following these developments on the
to rotate at a constant speed; it had to be silent (a matter of magnetic tape and the machine itself, the “G”, Japan’s first
course for sound equipment); it had to produce a certain level tape recorder, was released in 1950.
of torque. These criteria could not be met with the motors
from general electrical goods, such as fans, so the company
asked Denon for the use of its hysteresis synchronous motor
developed for use in disc-style recorders.
The company also had much difficulty finding a good rubber
material to use for the power transmission unit idler and in
other parts. Totsuko built up a diverse wealth of knowledge
to improve the rubber belts and idlers, which later proved
very useful in improving the performance of the Sony tape
recorder, ensuring its predominance.
Another major challenge was developing the magnetic tape.
The researchers understood that coating a base material with
magnetic powder would produce a tape that could be used
for recording, but, with very little in the way of reference
material, they were blindly guessing as to what they could Fig. 4.14. Tools used for the magnetic
tape prototype (replicas)
 develop the product to try to lower the price and increase its
ease of use. With technology, patent strategies and marketing
as its weapons of choice in the popularity stakes, Totsuko
was laying the groundwork for it to become Japan’s leading
tape recorder manufacturer.

Fig. 4.15. Prototype tape (1949)

Fig. 4.18. Totsuko tape recorder manual

4.3.4 Totsuko and the AC Bias Patent

As mentioned in Section 3.6, AC bias was discovered by
chance in the 1920s during research on magnetic recording,
but it was not until the late 1930s that research began
in earnest throughout the world on how to improve the
Fig. 4.16. The Totsuko G, Japan’s first domestically- performance of magnetic recording. This coincided exactly
produced tape recorder (1950) (14) with the start of the Second World War. Since recording
technology had definite useful military applications, such
as broadcasting and voice recording, the exchange of
technology between countries was stopped until after the
war. After Germany’s defeat, the Magnetophon – the most
advanced technology of the day – was taken and studied
in detail by the victors. As a result of the ensuing rapid
technology transfer, better, more modern tape recorders were
developed and put to use. AC bias came to be recognised
Fig. 4.17. Early “Soni-Tape” made by Totsuko (1950) (15)
as an indispensable piece of technology for high quality
recording and playback.
4.3.3 Marketing Tape Recorder No. 1 Totsuko began developing the tape recorder in Japan after
Totsuko started marketing the G under the trademark the war. As well as making its own tape, it also set about
“Tapecorder”. Although customers were interested in carefully examining relevant patents on AC bias, having
the novelty of it, it was not readily accepted as a general found that AC bias was necessary in order to be able to
household item, as it was expensive, big and clumsy, commercialise the tape recorder. The patent for AC bias in
with no obvious usefulness. It was mainly used by public Japan had come about as the result of research by Kenzo
organisations, such as for recording courthouse proceedings. Nagai of Tohoku University and Teiji Igarashi, one of
This was what had been foreseen, with even the letter G Nagai’s assistants who had continued the research at Anritsu
standing for “government”. Totsuko started out marketing in Electric. The patent rights were held by Anritsu (Fig. 4.19).
the belief that the popularity of this ground-breaking product After negotiating with Anritsu, Totsuko took over the patent
would also spread to household use as well. However, rights for AC bias in October 1949. As this was a huge
although there was some interest in the product, this interest investment for Totsuko at the time, the company bought the
did not really translate into sales. Totsuko reviewed its rather patent jointly with NEC. The Nagai Patent had been granted
optimistic policy of “if we build a good machine, it will sell” in Japan in 1940. Although a US patent had also been applied
and focused its attention on raising public awareness and for, the procedures had been interrupted by the war. In the
advertising the tape recorder, creating a manual to explain meantime, the Camras Patent had been established as the
the uses and benefits of its top tape recorder and redoubling patent for AC bias in every other country except Japan.
its sales activities (Fig. 4.18). The company also continued to
 Nagai Patent
Teiji Igarashi, Makoto Ishikawa, Keizo Nagai
A Magnetic Recording System Using AC for Bias
Patent No. 136997; applied for in March 1938;
granted in June 1940.

Fig. 4.20. Akai AT-1 tape mechanism (17)

With the Nagai Patent licence due to expire in 1955, many

1. Recording medium 5. Recording amplifier
2. Demagnetisation/ 6. High frequency
erasure coil source for biasing manufacturers, including major electrics companies, were
3. Recording coil 7. Playback coil anticipating getting involved in the tape recorder industry.
However, the patent licence was extended for another five
4. Microphone 8. Playback amplifier
Fig. 4.19. Partial drawing from the “Nagai Patent” on AC bias (16) years on the grounds that the patent was not able to be put
to use during the Pacific War. A number of companies that
4.3.5 Dispute over the AC Bias Patent had been making preparations to enter the industry clearly
The domestic Japanese tape recorder market developed opposed Totsuko and the Ministry of International Trade and
rapidly from the launch of the G in 1950. The AC bias patent Industry. Although Totsuko continued to refuse to licence the
proved to be a major weapon for Totsuko to keep other patent rights, by 1958 the manufacturing latecomers were
companies out of the marketplace, enabling the company granted consent to use the Nagai Patent. Fierce competition
to hold on to its high market share in tape recorder sales. ensued in the development and marketing of new products,
Around this time, the US trading company Balcom began and Japan’s tape recorder industry was making tremendous
large-scale import and sale of US-made tape recorders leaps forward.
in Japan. Totsudo and NEC complained that this was an
infringement of their AC bias patent rights and repeatedly
References
issued Balcom with requests to either pay royalties or
1) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
stop selling. Balcom repeatedly ignored them, so Totsuko
10 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 10]”, JAS Journal
presented its case to Tokyo District Court in September
1952. This turned into a major case for Balcom, involving 2005, Vol. 45, Nos. 8 & 9.
even the GHQ, but Totsuko eventually won the case. During 2) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
the course of the proceedings, the US patent holder, Armour 5 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 5]”, JAS Journal
Research Foundation, came to Totsuko’s attention. Thinking 2005, Vol. 45, No. 1.
that its exports might be affected, Totsuko reconciled with
3) Mori, Yoshihisa, et. al. Onkyō-Gijutsu-Shi [History of
Armour and the two entered into an agreement of mutual
Sound Recording], Tokyo University of the Arts Press,
technological assistance.
Totsuko stood firm on patent permission with regard to March 2011, p. 81.
Japanese manufacturers as well. In 1954, Akai Electric 4) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
Company launched a tape recorder kit featuring a “new AC 8 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 8]”, JAS Journal
bias method”, which ingeniously incorporated a bias circuit 2005, Vol. 45, Nos. 5 & 6.
(Fig. 4.20). Totsuko immediately objected that this was a
5) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
patent infringement, but Akai Electric denied this as it “did
24 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 24]”, JAS Journal
not violate the Nagai Patent”. Although the matter went
to court, Totsuko decided to reach a settlement, in light of
2007, Vol. 47, No. 4.
its isolation in the industry as well as other circumstances. 6) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
Nevertheless, fierce competition continued in product 25 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 25]”, JAS Journal
development. 2007, Vol. 47, Nos. 5 & 6.
7) Provided by Mori, Yoshihisa. 12) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
8) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono 37 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 37]”, JAS Journal
28 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 28]”, JAS Journal 2008, Vol. 48, Nos. 11 & 12.
2007, Vol. 47, No. 10. 13) Ibid.
9) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono 14), 15) Provided by Sony Corporation.
36 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 36]”, JAS Journal 16) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
2008, Vol. 48, No. 10. 32 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 32]”, JAS Journal
10) Provided by Sony Corporation. 2008, Vol. 48, No. 4.
11) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono 17) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
36 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 36]”, JAS Journal 41 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 41]”, JAS Journal
2008, Vol. 48, No. 10. 2009, Vol. 49, Nos. 5 & 6.
5 Development of Domestically-Produced Tape Recorders
awareness, the tape recorder remained a largely unknown

5.1 The Popular-Model Tape Recorder device in domestic circles.However, its capacity to enrich
audio-visual education was being hailed in schools. With
its scope of use thus expanded, it was only a matter of time
Having completed the G, the first domestically-produced before the school pupils made it commonly known about at
tape recorder, in 1950, Totsuko launched the popular-model home. Totsuko released the R in 1953 at a price of ¥50,000.
H (Fig. 5.1) in 1951, aimed at popularising the tape recorder. The following year, it marketed the TC-301, an improved
At ¥84,000, it was around half the price of the G. With a version of this model, as a “small machine for home use”.
simple mechanical configuration of a single motor and two Although this model was simpler than the H and P models
heads, it was also ingeniously designed to be easier to use, in terms of performance, the tape recorder began to spread
such as having a single knob to switch the tape operation through ordinary households in earnest thanks to the onset of
and amplifier between recording and playback. The entire mass production and mass marketing of low-priced products
machine was stored in a trunk-like case, which showed that around this time.
some consideration for household use had been incorporated The speed of product development also increased; in
into its design. In fact, the H was the first model for which 1954, the TC-302 – the deluxe version of the TC-301 –
Totsuko employed an industrial designer. In 1952, a year after hit the market at ¥57,000. The following year, in 1955,
the H, Totsuko launched the even lower-priced P (¥75,000) Totsuko produced a succession of products as the leading
(Fig. 5.2). The main customers of both the H and the P were tape recorder manufacturer, such as the premium TC-501
elementary and junior high schools as the machines were (¥84,000) and the two-channel TC-551 (¥135,000), capable
still too highly-priced for household use. Although Totsuko of recording in stereo. In 1956, Totsuko released the TC-
redoubled its marketing through advertising and public 201 at the drastically-reduced price of ¥38,000, throwing

Table 5.1. Early Totsuko Tape Recorders(4)

Model No. P-3 TC-301 TC-302 TC-501 TC-551 TC-201 TC-401

Release date and 1954(S29).10 1954(S29).09 1954(S29).12 1955(S30).09 1955(S30).12 1956(S31).07 1956(S31).08

price (¥) 69,500 49,000 57,000 84,000 135,000 38,000 65,000

External dimensions (mm) 250×400×300 170×300×300 190×320×300 220×490×360 240×690×430 220×420×335 210×420×330
Weight (kg) 14 8 8.3 15 27 12.3 14
Maximum reel (in) 7 5 ← 7 ← ← ←
Tape speed (cm/s) 19, 9.5 9.5 ← 19, 9.5 ← ← ←

Heads (no.) 2 ← ← ← ← ← ←
Track half width ← ← ← full width erase half width ←

two-channel R/P
Motors (no.) 2 1 ← ← ← ← ←
Speakers (in) 6.5 5 5×7 ← 5x7 (x2) 4×6 5×7
Microphone (ohms) 10k ← ← ← ×2 10k ←
Frequency response (19 cm/s) 100 7,500Hz 50 10,000Hz 70 10,000Hz 150 7,000Hz 50 10,000Hz
(9.5cm/s) 150 5,000Hz ← 100 6,000Hz ← 200 4,000Hz 100 6,000Hz
SN ratio (dB) 40 40 40 50 50 40 45
Wow-and-flutter ( ) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.3 0.25
Bias (kHz) 30 ← ← 50 ← 30 50
Valves 6AU6×2, 42.80 6AU6×2, 6AR5 6AU6×2, 6AQ5 6AU6×2, 12AU7 6AU6×2, 12AU7×2 6AU6×2, 6AR5 12AT7×2, 6AQ5
6×4 6×4, 6E5M 6 A R 5 ×2 , 6AQ5×2, 6AR5 6×4 6AR5, 5GK,
5GK4 6E5
6E5M 6E5M×2, 5Y3GT
Power source AC100V ← ← ← ← ← ←
Power consumption (W) 100 60 75 100 140 60 90
the popular-model tape recorder market wide open (Table
5.1). Although Totsuko had achieved success with the tape
recorder, it was always watchful of developments among
the major manufacturers because of its own relative lack of
capital might. It took great care to ensure the predominance
of its own products by improving its product development
capabilities and exploiting its AC bias patent.

Fig. 5.3. TC-551 Stereocorder (1955) (3)

Increase in Manufac turers Entering

5.2 the Market

While Totsuko obstinately refused permission for other

companies to use the Nagai Patent for AC bias, things
eventually began to change in the industry, such as Akai’s
insistence that its “new AC bias method” was not a patent
infringement. This occurred around 1955, just when the
dispute with Balcom and Armour had reached a conclusion
(See Section 4.3.5). Although the regulatory authority, the
Ministry of International Trade and Industry, had initially
supported Totsuko’s position in the dispute with Balcom, it
did have some misgivings about obstinate patent right claims
in terms of industry development. Totsuko had taken great
pains to ensure the predominance of its successful new tape
recorder so that it could ensure enough capital to develop the
transistor radio. However, Totsuko also recognized that to a
degree it had already profited as a founding member of the
industry, that competition was an inevitable factor in market
(1) Motor (6) Recording/playback head
(2) Motor axle (7) Capstan
(3) Reel axle (winding) (8) Switchover camshaft expansion, including the export market, and the company
(4) Reel axle (feeding) (9) Pushbutton was by now confident in its product development ability. In
(5) Erasing head the light of this and other factors, in 1958 Totsuko decided to
allow other Japanese manufacturers to use the Nagai Patent,
Fig. 5.1. Totsuko H and an outline of its mechanism (1951) (1)
provided that it was through Totsuko and NEC.
This meant that the AC bias method required for analogue
tape recorders was freely available for use (albeit with
licence fees payable). More than ten companies started
manufacturing tape recorders for consumer use, including
Matsushita Electric Industrial, Sanyo Electric, Toshiba,
Tokyo Electro Acoustic Company (later TEAC) and Yaou
Musen (later General). Matsushita began research and
development very early on at its central research institute.
It took the lead among the latecomer manufacturers,
releasing its RQ-201 (Fig. 5.4) in August 1958, right after
the patent licence was granted. This set was manufactured
by Matsushita Communication Industrial; a number of sets
manufactured by Matsushita Electric Industrial proper were
Fig. 5.2. Totsuko P (1952) (2) released in December the same year.
 much like business equipment; the smaller, more portable
types were more popular for home use. The machines for
school use had standard reel sizes from No. 7 (18cm) to
No. 10 (27cm), while the machines for home use ranged
from No. 5 (12cm) to No. 7. While a longer recording time
was afforded by having as long a length of tape as possible
on a reel, the price of the tape was a major factor for home
use. To economise on tape consumption, a tape speed of
4.8cm/s was added to the existing standardised speeds of
19cm/s and 9.5cm/s. With the advent of the 1960s, popular
models emerged in great numbers at greatly reduced prices.
The demand also grew for tape recorders for studying at
home (Figs. 5.6, 5.7). The time for great numbers of small-
Fig. 5.4. Matsushita No. 1 RQ-201 (1958) (5) to-medium manufacturers in the industry had ended. The
time had come for major manufacturers to take on the tape
recorder in earnest, producing far superior machines. There

5.3 Tape Recorders for Use in Education was much competition between the popular models made by
major manufacturers. Matsushita released the RQ-303 (Fig.
5.8), which used a dedicated No. 4 reel (10cm) and a tape
After the war, the Ministry of Education set about promoting speed of 4.8cm/s to make it smaller and more lightweight.
audio-visual education at the request of the GHQ, leasing At ¥10,000, around half the price of other machines in
16mm projectors to elementary and junior high schools all the same class, it was a major hit. In 1958, Tokyo Tsushin
over the country, among other initiatives. The NHK took Kogyo changed its name to Sony Corporation, with the idea
charge of audio resources and started full-scale educational that merging the company name and product name would
broadcasts for schools. This course of events gave a major reinforce the brand name.
boost to the popularity of the tape recorder and gave rise to
a growing demand for tape recorders in schools. However,
the early tape recorders were extremely variegated in terms
of operation, specifications and terminology and there was
no compatibility whatsoever between them. To rectify this,
a motion was drafted by the NHK Science & Research
Laboratories and enacted by the Ministry of Education in
1954 to specify the basic standards for the features required
in tape recorders for educational use. The main details are
given below.
(1) General Rules: definition of a tape recorder for
educational use
(2) Configuration: Mechanism requirements Fig. 5.5. TK-9, made by West German company Grundig (8)
(3) Standards and special conditions
1) Various performance standards and standard tape
2) Level indicator and standard recording level
3) Recording track positioning: compatibility assurance
4) Overall sound characteristics
(4) Insulation tests and pressure tests
(5) Product labelling and associated books
Popular-model tape recorders with built-in speakers,
produced in Japan in accordance with these standards, went
on sale from around 1955. At the same time, a variety of
similar tape recorders from the West and other overseas
countries were imported and sold domestically (Fig. 5.5). Fig. 5.6. Toshiba GT-620 “College Ace” (¥18,800) (7)
While the tape recorders for educational use (in schools)
came down in price, they were quite bulky and seemed very
 Fig. 5.9. Denon disc-style recorder used in
“man-on-the-street” interviews (10)

Fig. 5.7. Sony TC-111 (¥19,800) (1961) (8)

Fig. 5.10. Stancil-Hoffman “Mini-Tape” (11)

Around this time, portable tape recorders were being

Fig. 5.8. Matsushita RQ-303 “Mysonic” (¥10,000) (1963) (9) introduced from the United States. In 1951, the NHK began
to use these for its “man-on-the-street” interviews. The
model used was the shoulder-strap-style “Mini-Tape” made

5.4 Emergence of “Densuke”

by Stancil-Hoffman (Fig. 5.10). Equipped with a No. 5 reel,
this machine was capable of two speeds of 38cm/s and 19cm/
s. The DC motor rotated in sync with an internal vibrating
In 1946, right after the war, the NHK started broadcasting oscillator (details unknown) as part of a drive system to
so-called “man-on-the-street” interviews, run by announcer produce a steady revolution speed. It was a dedicated
Shuichi Fujikura. The novelty of these “audience recording machine, with the built-in valve amplifier only
participation programmes”, in which the ordinary people used for basic recording, although a small external amplifier,
became part of the cast, as well as the interviews on current sold separately, could also be attached for monitoring. When
public opinions, made these programmes very popular. At Nobutoshi Kihara of Totsuko heard about this machine,
first, the NHK used the disc-style recorder (Fig. 5.9) that had he started investigating similar machines, referring to
been used in broadcasting since before the war. Although photographs and other reference materials, without ever
it was portable, it was heavy, susceptible to vibration, the having seen the machine itself. In March 1951, he started on
records had to be changed over due to the limited recording a prototype, which he supplied to the NHK in July that year
time on each disc and the recording level had to be constantly (Fig. 5.11). Despite the fact that he had the Mini-Tape to refer
adjusted. These factors would have made it very difficult to to, it is actually quite remarkable that he developed a working
operate in the street. prototype in such a short space of time. It was configured
quite simply with a valve amplifier dedicated to recording,
a single recording head and no erasing head. Although
this meant that the recording tape had to be demagnetised
in advance, it was well received as a recording device for
professionals, who actually preferred simplification if it
ensured reliability. While the tape operation system and
drive system resembled those of the Mini-Tape, no suitable
 (1) Rewinding 5-inch reel (9) Zenmai tension indicator
(2) Rewinding tape guide (charger plug for M-2)
(3) Pinch roller (10) Recording-playback switch
(4) Capstan (11) Microphone connector
(5) Winding 5-inch reel
(12) Oscillation signal light
(6) Handle shaft hole for rewinding
(13) Listening receiver jack
(7) Recording/playback head
(8) Start/stop power switch (14) Volume controller

Fig. 5.11. Photograph and exterior diagram of Totsuko M-1 (1951) (12)

DC motor could be procured domestically in those days.

Kihara eventually settled for a hand-wound spring motor for
gramophones (a Zenmai motor), made by Nippon Columbia.
Fully wound, the spring motor could drive the machine for
around four minutes. Ingeniously, Kihara incorporated an
additional winding mechanism that enabled a No. 5 reel to
operate continuously for 15 minutes.
Having introduced the Totsuko shoulder-strap-style recorder,
the NHK was immediately able to boost the manoeuvrability
of its “man-on-the-street” interviews, which in turn boosted
the popularity of its programmes. Ryuichi Yokoyama turned Fig. 5.12. Sony TC-2850SD (1973) Cassette Densuke (13)
these “man-on-the-street” interviews into cartoon form
with his “Densuke” character that appeared in the Mainichi
Shimbun. The Totsuko tape recorder came to be known as
the “Densuke”, based on this character, roaming the streets
with his tape recorder on his shoulder doing “man-on-the-
street” interviews about current events. In the broadcasting
industry, this nickname came to be used to refer to outdoor-
use recording machines.
Totsuko registered the name Densuke as a trademark, using
it as a pet name for its portable tape recorder. Although the
name remained in popular use between professionals in the
industry, it was soon forgotten in the everyday tape recorder
world. However, the name once again gained popularity as
the pet name for everyday tape recorders (see Section 6.11)
when the “Cassette Densuke” TC-2850SD portable cassette
deck (Fig. 5.12) appeared in 1973 along with a boom in live Fig. 5.13. Sony TC-5550-2 (1974) Open Densuke (14)
recording. Later, the Open Densuke (Fig. 5.13) and Elcaset
Densuke (Fig. 5.14) appeared and the name Densuke became
synonymous with the highly-portable tape recorder in the
everyday tape recorder world.
 Fig. 5.14. Sony EL-D8 (1977) Elcaset Densuke (15)

5.5 Ultra-Small Magnetic Recorders

Fig. 5.16. The Midgetape and its special tape cartridge (1955) (17)

With its success in the domestic production of a shoulder-

strap-style tape recorder, which had been adopted by the
NHK as well as other commercial broadcasters, Totsuko set The Totsuko SA-2 Babycorder (Fig. 5.17) hit the market
about researching and developing an even smaller magnetic in 1957, probably based on these models. With the aim
recorder. An ultra-small magnetic recorder called the Minifon of becoming ultra-small and lightweight yet maintaining
had been developed and marketed in Germany in 1952 (Fig. performance, it incorporated a transistor amplifier. Equipped
5.15). This was a wire recorder with 0.05mm steel wire as with a cartridge like the Midgetape and operated with ten
its recording medium and its minute mechanism contained AA batteries, it was small in size and easy to use. More
in a tiny casing. It was configured with precise detail, with mobile than the M model, it was supplied in great numbers to
forethought given to ease of use and stable operation. It broadcasters and other organisations. However, it disappeared
could record, playback and rewind; appropriate tension on off the market within a few years, as it was too highly
the wire at all times prevented it from breaking or jamming. priced at over ¥100,000 to become popular in general use.
In 1955, a magnetic recorder called the “Midgetape” (Fig. Nevertheless, Totsuko’s commitment to developing smaller,
5.16) appeared in the United States, based on the concept of lightweight models became typical of later development
the Minifon. This was a uniquely-configured, ultra-small tape trends in the consumer electronics industry.
recorder that used a cartridge-style tape with two tiny reels in
a casing.

Fig. 5.15. External and internal views

of the Minifon (1952) (16)
 Fig. 5.17. Sony SA-2 “Babycorder” (1957) (18)

but could achieve no definitive advantage over industry

5.6 Battery-Operated Tape Recorders leader Sony (Totsuko). Matsushita determined to establish
its own place in the market, setting its sights on the battery-
Around 1959-1960, export manufacturers began to make
operated tape recorder, which Sony had not yet mastered.
large quantities of “reel-driven” battery-operated tape
In those days, the greatest obstacle to battery operation was
recorders, in which the tape was driven only by the rotation
the lack of good quality, small-scale DC motors. With the
of the reel. While these could be regarded as copies of a
help of its battery and device departments, Matsushita set to
reel-driven tape recorder made by a German manufacturer
work on basic component development, such as simplifying
in 1958, they were mainly made for export to the United
mechanisms and improving motor efficiency. In December
States, being quite simple in construction and relatively easy
1960, it completed the RQ-112 (¥37,500). The following
to manufacture. The reel-driven machines had no capstan to
year in 1961, it launched the improved RQ-114 model, laying
move the tape at a constant speed; they simply recorded by
the foundation for battery operated, portable tape recorders
rotating the winding reel at a fixed revolution and thus could
and leading to the best-selling RQ-102 in 1965. Motivated by
be built with a very simple mechanism. However, since the
the developments among the latecomer manufacturers, Sony
tape speed changed from the start of the tape to the end of the
launched the TC-800 (¥36,000) in 1966 (Fig. 5.19), with a
tape, recordings could only be played back on the machine
built-in, direct drive servo motor. Development competition
on which they were recorded (self-recording) and were
grew increasingly fierce among the major manufacturers,
not compatible with any other machine for playback. The
ushering in the compact cassette era.
variation in recording and playback performance from the
start of the tape to the end of the tape also meant that it was
difficult to develop this into a high-quality recorder. These
tape recorders never appeared on the Japanese domestic
market. With their simplified performance and low price,
many of them were little more than toys.
Meanwhile, proper battery-operated, capstan-driven, portable
tape recorders gradually grew in number. By the mid-1960s,
tape recorders were well-established in the export market,
although the simplistic, reel-driven models had disappeared.
This led Japanese manufacturers to work on the compact
cassette style tape recorder. Sony launched its battery
operated, portable tape recorders, such as the performance-
Fig. 5.18. Sony TC-902 (1959) (19)
enhanced, capstan-driven SA-2 Babycorder for business use
and the tiny TC-902 for personal use, but they did not always
meet with success.
Matsushita Electric entered the tape recorder market in 1958,
 when stereo FM broadcasts started in earnest around 1970,
tape decks grew tremendously in popularity as a means for
recording these broadcasts.

Fig. 5.19. Sony TC-800 (1966) (20)

Fig. 5.20. Staggered head placement (21)

Development in Func tion and

5.7 Performance

5.7.1 Stereo Conversion

Tape recorders enable multiple-track recording on the same
tape. In principle, it is very simple to create the stereo effect.
While disc records were the mainstream medium of the
Fig. 5.21. Stacked head placement (22))
music industry, the question of how to record (cut) and play
back a single sound as two signals presented a very difficult
problem. In 1931, British electronics engineer Alan Blumlein 5.7.2 Transistors
patented the idea of a 45/45 system to record separate signals To begin with, all tape recorder amplifier units used valves,
from the left and right walls of the groove in a record, but with the increasing use of the transistors in electronic
although this was not put into practical use until after LP equipment, researchers began examining their application in
records appeared in 1958. tape recorders. In 1959, Hyfax incorporated transistors into
While magnetic stereo recording experiments had been its TR-100S stereo tape deck; however, it went off the market
carried out in 1939 on steel wire recorders, the two-track almost immediately as the product was somewhat imperfect:
recorder released by the US company Magnecord in 1949 the transistor is a difficult component to get right, producing
was the first tape recorder to incorporate stereo sound. The a lot of unwanted noise and causing the amplifier to behave
head placement was the so-called staggered type (Fig. 5.20), erratically.
where the two channels are set slightly apart from each other. Accordingly, the first proper transistor tape recorder in
Given the head manufacturing technology available at the Japan was the TC-777 (Fig. 5.22) produced by Sony in
time, it was difficult to achieve the manufacturing precision 1961. Although it was monophonic, the TC-777 was a semi-
required to have two tracks on one head; there was no choice professional, high quality machine with three heads, three
but to have a separate head for each track. By the late 1950s, motors and electronic operating buttons. It also had built-
many stereo tape recorders were being sold in the United in power amplifiers and speakers. It was very popular with
States, including machines for home use. Rapid progress was its extremely high cost performance, and was outstanding in
made on the speaker-less “stereo tape deck”, as it could be design as well. Its successor, released in 1964, was a stereo
used in the home in conjunction with other audio equipment. tape deck. From then on, there were rapid advancements
It was easy to use because it worked on the same machine as in the use of transistors in tape recorders and this became
a record player and the cost was relative to the improvement a feature of battery-operated, small-scale compact cassette
in performance. Advancements were also made on head players.
technology, and the stacked arrangement (Fig. 5.21) soon
replaced the staggered. Although stereo tape records (music
tapes) grew in popularity as the stereo playback media of
choice in the home, they quickly lost their top spot in the
market when the cheaper stereo LP records went on sale.
Stereo tape recorders had a slow start in Japan, although
 2007, Vol. 47, Nos. 8 & 9.
7) 50 Years of Audio. Japan Audio Society Publishing,
December 1986, p. 476.
10) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
39 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 39]”, JAS Journal
2009, Vol. 49, Nos. 2 & 3.
11) Ibid.
12) Ibid.
16) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono
45 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 45]”, JAS Journal
Fig. 5.22. Sony TC-777 (1961) (23)
2009, Vol. 49, Nos. 11 & 12.

References 17) Ibid.

1) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono 21) 50 Years of Audio. Japan Audio Society Publishing,
41 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 41]”, JAS Journal December 1986, p. 481.
2009, Vol. 49, Nos. 5 & 6. 22) Ibid.
3) Ibid. 2), 8), 13), 14), 15), 18), 19), 20), 23) Provided by Sony
4) Ibid. Corporation.
6) Abe, Yoshiharu. “Tēpu Rokuon-ki Monogatari Sono 5), 9) Provided by Panasonic Corporation.
27 [The Story of the Tape Recorder 27]”, JAS Journal
6 Emergence of Cartridge-Type Tape Recorders

Characteristics of the Open-Reel difficult to maintain precision in the cartridge itself when it
6.1 Tape Recorder went into mass production. It required a narrow head gap to
achieve the desired level of recording/playback performance,
The first proper tape recorders began to appear after the war which was impossible to achieve with the manufacturing and
and rapidly replaced the disc-style recorder. By the 1960s, components technology available at the time. This made it
tape recorders were the first choice of recorders from business difficult to ensure product quality. Manufacturers were not
use to home use. They became indispensable equipment for willing to come on board and the attempt ended in failure.
broadcasters and recording studios and were well-received
in other industries, such as music production, where multi-
track recording enabled new musical works to be created.
The superior features of the tape recorder mesmerised many
audiophiles and it now became a popular piece of household
audio equipment. However, from the beginning, these tape
recorders were all “open-reel” machines that needed reels
of tape to work. In order to maintain high quality, open-reel
tape recorders had to have a high tape speed, which used up a
Fig. 6.1. RCA cartridge (1)
lot of tape. This meant that the reels and the overall machine
120 x 184 x 12 mm
had to be quite large in size. Of course, there were smaller
machines, but many of them had to compromise on features
or recording time. The fact that these tape recorders needed
reels of tape to work meant they were difficult for the average
6.3 Car Stereos and the Endless Cartridge
person to use. People ran into various difficulties, such as
the tape on the reels being damaged by careless treatment, As audio equipment became more popular for home use in
or the tape coming unwound and jamming. Although studies the United States, it spurred a demand for the development
on using the tape in a cartridge (case) as a way to overcome of in-vehicle audio equipment, or the car stereo. In-vehicle
these shortcomings had been made quite early on after the entertainment started out with car radios and rapidly gained
war, nothing practical had eventuated from these studies. momentum in response to user demand, with innovations
such as car audio equipment using disc records (Fig. 6.2).

6.2 RCA Cartridge Development also began on cartridge-style tape recorders

intended for car audio. Vibration is a major issue in vehicles
Stereo tape decks came into popular household use as a and disc players were never very popular in cars, as this was
means of stereo playback from around the mid-1950s in the a very difficult problem to overcome. However, vibration
United States. Quite a number of music tapes went on the resistance is one of the strengths of tape recorders, making
market around this time as well. Although the 45/45 stereo this issue relatively easily to overcome. As well as needing
LP record became quite popular after it hit the market in to be smaller than the existing models, tape recorders for
1958, the stereo tape recorder remained the main item of car stereos could only be cartridge-type machines, to ensure
household audio equipment in the United States until the operability and to store the tape safely.
mid-1960s. Given the popularity of music tapes, RCA set The Fidelipac cartridge went on sale in the United States
about researching cartridge-style tape recorders quite early in 1962 and became very popular for in-vehicle use. These
on. In 1958, RCA Victor announced its cartridge-style tape cartridges measured 102x133x24mm and held a 6.3mm tape
(Fig. 6.1) and put around 150 kinds of music tapes on sale in an endless loop. With a four-track stereo system (two
along with the tape recorder. Measuring 184×120×12mm, stereo programmes) and a tape speed of 9.5cm/s, these tapes
the cartridges were larger than the compact cassettes that could play for ten minutes (Fig. 6.3).
would later emerge. The tape was 6.3mm in width, the same In 1965, US company Learjet put out an eight-track
as that of the open-reel machines, while being 25μm thin cartridge that was around the same size as the Fidelipac
and 600ft (around 180m) in length. The tape ran at a speed (102x136x22mm) (Figs. 6.4, 6.5). The tape width and speed
of 9.5cm/s; the four-track, two-channel stereo setup could were also the same as the Fidelipac, but with eight tracks (four
record or play back for 32 minutes at a time. However, it was stereo programmes) it could play for around 60 minutes. The
eight-track was a success and it soon beat all competition
to become the standard car stereo. In a short space of time,
it had spread throughout the United States. The early car
stereos in Japan also used the eight-track cartridges. These
cartridges became the popular choice of car stereo tape,
becoming the forerunner of later developments in the CD/
laser disc karaoke machine.

Fig. 6.5. Structural diagram of an eight-track cartridge (5)

Fig. 6.2. In-vehicle record player (XLP Record) (2)

6.4 Emergence of the Compact Cassette

As the car stereo was growing in popularity and the endless-

loop cartridge tape was emerging onto the scene in the
United States, a twin-hub cartridge tape was attracting
attention in Europe: the “Compact Cassette” developed by
the Dutch company, Philips. While RCA, mentioned in
Section 6.2, had planned to release its own cartridge design
to European tape recorder manufacturers in the hope that it
would be popularised in Europe as well, no manufacturers
were willing to take it on and the RCA cartridge ended in
failure. While the company later worked with European
Fig. 6.3. Fidelipac cartridge (1962) (3) manufacturers to make the cartridge better and smaller,
102 x 133 x 24 mm four-track/two channel resulting in a new style of cartridge, there was disagreement
among the companies, which ended in a struggle for
supremacy between the following two types of cartridge (Fig.
6.6).
(1) DC (Double Cassette) International Type
Promoted by: Grundig, Telefunken, Blaupunkt (all
German companies)
Released: 1963
(2) Compact Cassette Type
Promoted by: Philips (the Netherlands)
Released: 1962 test sale, 1964 full sale
Both cartridge types were smaller than the RCA cartridge,
while the tape width, tape speed and other characteristics
were based on a completely new, easy-to-use format
Fig. 6.4. Learjet eight-track cartridge (1965) (4) completely unrelated to the open reel specifications. The
102 x 136 x 22mm eight-track/two-channel Compact Cassette format eventually won out for the reasons
below, although a major reason was Philips’ decision to make
its patent freely available in order to popularise it.
Success factors for the Compact Cassette format:
(1) Smaller cartridge size
 (2) Twin hub structure prevented tape jamming and strict standards in place and incorporating all kinds of
improved tape running innovations within the scope of these standards to produce
(3) (The potential for) superior sound quality / a superior product not only gave users greater convenience
performance and greater confidence in the product and format, but also
(4) Careful development approach of provisional sales prevented innovative technology from being short-lived
and getting feedback from the market in the marketplace. This was the perfect way for Japanese
(5) Free patent licence manufacturers to demonstrate their talents.

It seems that Philips did not originally set out to make the
patent freely available, but it eventually switched to its
free-patent policy while competing with the opposing DC
International format. Around 1963, Grundig proposed to
Sony that they jointly promote the DC International format;
soon afterwards, Philips made the same proposal regarding
the Compact Cassette format. Philips also approached other
Japanese companies in regard to adopting the Compact
Cassette format, proposing a royalty fee of ¥25 per piece.
When Sony seemed inclined to decline, Philips pressed for
a contract at a drastically reduced price. Sony flatly refused
and Philips finally announced it would offer the licence to
Sony for free. Then, in the light of antitrust laws and its
business credibility, Philips made the bold move in 1965
of making the basic patent available to all manufacturers
worldwide rather than just to Sony. One of the conditions
of this was that manufacturers should “strictly adhere to the
standards and strictly maintain compatibility”. This served as
a huge boost to the spread and development of the Compact
Cassette.
The Compact Cassette format was strongly focused on
compatibility. Unlike the open-reel system, it was compatible
with mono and stereo (Fig. 6.7). The system of putting

Fig. 6.6. (1) DC International and (2) Compact Cassette (6)

 - Tape: Developing a high-quality magnetic substance better
Recording/playback Erasing head
head than ferric oxide
- Heads: Developing a core material to make the best use
of the magnetic substance in the tape; achieving a stable,
narrow gap
(a) Mono - Noise reduction: Developing and (de facto) standardising a
system with high cost performance
- Servo technology: Achieving precise rotation control with a
small-scale DC motor / low-speed rotating motor
(b) Stereo - Improved mechanical precision: Ensuring intensity and
accuracy with small-scale parts; progressively introducing
Fig. 6.7. Compact Cassette track arrangement (7)
new materials

Te c h n o l o g i c a l D e ve l o p m e n t s fo r t h e
6.5 Compact Cassette
Table 6.1. Basic Parameter Comparison of the Open-Reel
System and the Compact Cassette
The Compact Cassette started out as a monophonic note-
Tape Speed
taking machine with none of the so-called Hi-Fi capabilities Track Width (mm)
(cm/s)
for music playing. When Philips brought it onto the market,
1.0 (four stereo tracks)
the company first made a cautious test sale. While this was Open Reel 9.5 – 38.0
2.0 (two stereo tracks)
definitely successful in terms of laying the foundation for the
Compact Cassette 4.76 0.6 (stereo)
Compact Cassette system, a few key technologies needed
to be developed before it could achieve Hi-Fi capabilities
with a slow tape speed of 4.76cm/s and a narrow track width
Success as an International
of 0.6mm (one stereo track) and become a mainstream tape
6.6 Standard
recorder for music use. For the tape recorder to produce
a sound that was closer to the original, it needed a wide Tape recorders had their beginnings after the war in the form
frequency response and a guaranteed dynamic range. This of open-reel machines. As well as having good sound quality
became the target of technological development. In terms and long-playing capabilities, these were easier to use than
of the mechanical performance of the running of the tape, the disc-style recorders and soon gained popularity as the
it was also very important to have a steady tape speed recorder of choice. As they reduced in price, they became
and to ensure the head stayed in constant contact with the popular audio equipment for home use, with music tapes
tape without disturbing it. Open-reel machines achieved also becoming available on the market. However, the open-
better performance by increasing the tape speed and reel machines were bulky and somewhat cumbersome to
broadening the track width. Relatively free from structural use, which prevented their popularity from spreading even
design constraints, it was also easy to improve the running further. As discussed in the previous section, a number
performance of the tape on these systems. Although there of ideas were put forward in the 1960s to encase the tape
were some disadvantages with the open-reel machines, such in a cartridge. This is when the Compact Cassette hit the
as their bulkiness and high tape consumption, they were market as the more orthodox of these cartridges. Although
the best option in terms of consistent sound quality. Since at first it fought with other formats for dominance, the
the Compact Cassette used far less tape than the open- momentous decision by Philips to licence its patent free of
reel systems, as shown in Table 6.1, and had to adhere to charge to manufacturers worldwide succeeded in making it
certain standards, there could be no change in tape speed or the de facto international standard very early on. Unifying
track width. Consequently, to improve its basic recording the format meant that not only endorsed manufacturers
performance, improvements had to be made to the magnetic but also members of the surrounding industries, such as
substance on the tape and to the head that played the tape. materials manufacturers and parts manufacturers, could also
It was also difficult to ensure the accuracy of the tape confidently make development investments into the Compact
operation, since the tape system was contained within the Cassette format, thereby creating a virtuous cycle of rapid
confines of the cartridge and the mechanism itself was tiny. technological enhancement. While the basic small size
Consequently, another major challenge was to develop and specifications meant a lower quality product than the open-
improve the precision of the motor and parts. The major reel system, the developers focused on improving the limited
technology challenges within these various constraints are recording and playback performance by making various
given below on a priority basis. essential technological developments with the tape recorder,
such as working on the tape, heads, noise reduction and servo
control. By the early 1970s, the cassette deck was a fully-
recognised piece of audio equipment. Cassette deck tape
recorders had come to be acknowledged as proper magnetic
recording machines and not just toys.

C o m p a c t C a s s e t t e Ta p e R e c o r d e r s
6.7 in Japan
The Philips EL-3301 cassette recorder was first released in
Japan in May 1965, ushering in Japan’s Compact Cassette Fig. 6.9. Matsushita EL-3301T (1966) (9)
era. The first sales were not made by electronics stores, but
rather by the department store chain Mitsukoshi. At ¥27,000,
S t a n d a r d i s e d C a s s e t t e Ta p e
they were quite highly priced, but they seem to have sold out 6.8 Recorders
immediately thanks to ingenious PR and choice-goods sales
floor management by Mitsukoshi, which at the time had a By the time the Compact Cassette appeared, tape recorders
reputation for sophistication (Fig. 6.8). The following year had a diverse range of applications, such as learning tools
in April 1966, Matsushita Electric launched the EL-3301T for studying. Although there had been a lot of competition
(Fig. 6.9) with Philips as the OEM; in June that year, Aiwa to develop a high quality tape deck for recording music,
released the first domestically-produced model. By the end everyday tape recorders for home use were battery operated,
of the year, Sony, Sanyo, Columbia, Standard and a number monophonic devices and, to a certain extent, fairly low
of other companies had launched similar products. By 1967, priced. While the 3-5” open-reel tape recorders for home use
fierce development and marketing competition had begun, had been fairly well-received on the market, they were big,
with almost all of the major Japanese audio equipment heavy and difficult to use; the users had to know how to work
manufacturers having a Compact Cassette product line-up. the machine and mainly tended to be young people such as
students. The appearance of the Compact Cassette presented
an opportunity to expand the target consumer group to
include those who had previously not been considered, such
as women and the elderly. This provided a huge boost to the
tape recorder market for home use. With the range of target
users expanding to include a wider range of ordinary people,
the external appearance of the tape recorder inevitably
underwent some design changes to make it more appealing;
an increasing number of Compact Cassette machines were
flat in shape with built-in microphones and piano-key
button operation (Figs. 6.10, 6.11). Stereophonic machines
that doubled as tape decks appeared in the product lineups
alongside the general monophonic machines. Compact
Cassette machines were becoming the mainstream tape
recorders of choice.

Fig. 6.8. Philips EL-3301 catalogue at the time the product

was launched (1965) (8)
 capabilities. Since these devices were intended more for DC
operation, battery lifespan was also a major issue. Reducing
energy consumption was the prime focus for this category of
product.
The concept embodied in the TC-50 continued in its
successors. It was followed by the TC-1000 (1972), which
had various improvements in function and performance, such
as an anti-rolling mechanism and auto-shutoff feature, as well
as improved operability through its button-type operation. By
1978, the series had developed as far as the TCM-100 (Fig.
Fig. 6.10. Sony TC-100 (1966) (10) 6.13), which, complete with a coreless motor, became the
Sony’s first Compact Cassette machine mother of the first “Walkman”.

Fig. 6.11. Sony TC-1160 (1968) (11) Fig. 6.12. Sony TC-50 (1968) (12)
The first machine with an inbuilt electorate
condenser microphone

6.9 Ultra-Small Handheld Devices

Sony brought out its first Compact Cassette tape recorder,

the TC-100, in 1966. Operated by AC mains, battery or car
cigarette lighter, its cassette pop-up mechanism, piano key
buttons and other features made it easy to use in terms of
function. It was quite deep and rectangular in shape, closely Fig. 6.13. TCM-100 (1978) (13)
resembling the early Philips machines, and was usually only “Pressman”
used on a desk. To fully play on the strengths of the Compact
Cassette, tape recorders had to be user friendly, with one-
hand operation and an input microphone. Of course, they
also had to be small, lightweight and battery-operated. In
1968, Sony released the TC-50 (Fig. 6.12), featuring an
inbuilt microphone for dictation, one-hand operation and an
original shape. This model could be seen as an attempt at
downsizing the Compact Cassette player. The operability and
mobility afforded by the inbuilt microphone was well-noted;
the machine received much attention thanks to its use by the
crew aboard the Apollo 10 spaceship (Fig. 6.14). Since the
main target markets for this type of small-scale tape recorder
were business use, such as for data collection and dictation,
Fig. 6.14. The TC-50 aboard the Apollo
and educational use, such as for conversation drills and
lessons, it was more important to make the machine smaller,
lighter and more operationally reliable than to give it Hi-Fi
 “K appa” B ook Sized Tape
6.10 Recorders

Ultra-small, handheld tape recorders such as the TC-50

were often used in business for tasks such as data collection.
Proposals were made to design standard home-use tape
recorders in such a way as to make them useful for business
purposes as well. Developers began focusing on downsizing
and especially slimming down these machines, so that as well
as being functional, they could be used on a desk or put in a
briefcase. A slimmed down tape recorder was the engineer’s
dream. Rapid improvements in technology among parts Fig. 6.16. TCM-280 mechanism
manufacturers in the early 1970s meant higher-precision
parts, enabling the design of mechanisms that were thinner
than had previously been possible. In 1975, Sony released the
ground-breakingly slim TC-1100 (Fig. 6.15), only 29.5mm
in thickness. Not only was this model slim, it also had a
surface area comparable to that of a “Kappa” book, a well-
known style of paperback with a defined size of 11 x 17cm.
With this very smart, impressive design, it was a success,
with endorsements ranging from business use to home use.
The single Compact Cassette tape recorder can be said to
have developed from the TC-50 into the handheld headphone
stereo, reaching its final form in the slim models such as the Fig. 6.17. TCM-280 erase head, recording/playback head
TC-1100. For a long time, the TC-1100 series dominated
the general tape recorder market for business and home
Cassette Densuke and the Live
use, bringing out similarly-sized multifunctional devices
that incorporated radios, as well as other follow-on models
6.11 Recording Boom
with better designs. Fig. 6.16 shows the mechanism of the In 1973, eight years after the Compact Cassette appeared
TCM-280, one such follow-on model. The design makes in Japan, Sony released the portable TC-2850SD (Fig.
much use of stainless steel in various parts such as levers, 5.12), a Hi-Fi deck. Even though this model was battery-
allowing thinness as well as strength. The slim, brushed DC operated and portable, it had all the capabilities of a proper
servomotor uses counter-EMF. The permanent magnet DC tape recorder, equipped with a high-grade microphone
erase head reduces electric current consumption, while the amplifier, a Dolby noise reduction system and a high-quality
standard-sized recording/playback head is of permalloy (Fig. recording amplifier. Since its functionality and performance
6.17). were outstanding for a portable Compact Cassette player,
it came to be known as the “Cassette Densuke”, inheriting
the pet name that had been used for portable, business-use
tape recorders. The introduction of this model triggered a
“live recording boom”, with a slogan describing it as “no
ordinary deck mechanism”. It also played a major part in
boosting the confidence of general and business users in the
sound quality and potential of the Compact Cassette. Even
though the TC-2850SD was a high-performance model, its
mechanism was the standard format of the day; the focus
had been on higher quality recording and stable performance
Fig. 6.15. Sony TC-1100 (1975) (14)
rather than downsizing it and including an amplifier unit.
The first Kappa book sized device
With the success of this model, a number of other similar
high-performance, portable Compact Cassette recorders were
produced. Five years later in 1978, Sony released the TC-D5
(Fig. 6.18), combining both small size and high performance.
While the “live recording boom” had died away, the TC-
D5’s small, sharp-looking design and outstanding basic constrained standards, revising and improving the tape heads
performance were highly regarded. The model became a and the drive system, including the mechanisms and the
long seller, being well received by users serious about sound motor. The resulting superior cassette decks hit the markets
quality, from high-end amateurs to professionals. However, as fully recognised items of audio equipment. The Japanese
small-scale, portable tape recorders had one weakness: the audio equipment industry steadily gained confidence through
rotational accuracy of the capstan, which was the pivotal competitive development and eventually decided to set new,
part of the tape drive. To improve this accuracy and also to Japan-specific industry standards.
prevent the rotation being disturbed by external interference,
the TC-D5 incorporated a “disc-drive” driving system. The (1) Micro-Cassette
basic configuration of this system was a small coreless motor The Micro-Cassette is a tape recorder that uses small-
in direct contact with a rim-driven flywheel on the capstan scale cartridges around one quarter the size of the Compact
spindle, with a frequency generator fitted onto the flywheel Cassette. The tape width was 3.81mm, the same as the
to detect rotation. Ingenious details such as the materials Compact Cassette, while the available tape speeds were
used and the contact pressure on the motor pulley and the 2.4cm/s and 1.2cm/s. With standards set by Olympus, it
flywheel allowed the driving force to be transmitted cleanly was put on the market in 1969 as the Pearlcorder. In 1974,
while preventing the motor from vibrating (Fig. 6.19). Olympus, Sony and Matsushita set their own standards
together and each company released a small-scale memo
recorder. While it gained some popularity due to its small
size, it never reached as extensive a range of uses as the
Compact Cassette.

(2) Elcaset
The Elcaset was a tape recorder standard jointly developed
and announced in 1976 by Sony, Matsushita and TEAC
that combined the sound quality of the open reel with the
ease of use of the Compact Cassette. The tape width was
6.3mm, the same as the open-reel machines, and the tape
speed was 9.5cm/s. The tape came out in A6-sized cartridges.
Fig. 6.18. Sony TC-D5 (¥99,800) (1978) (15) Although products were developed and marketed by the
three companies, they were not widely popular and soon
disappeared from the market.

While both of the above new Japanese standards sought to

perfect aspects lacking in the Compact Cassette, they were
not widely popular. They were neither very marketable nor
very necessary, since they served only to supplement what
the Compact Cassette lacked. Compact Cassette machines
had had a head start in development; they were also being
produced in large quantities and therefore at lower cost.
Coreless motor However, Japan’s achievements in developing international
standards proved to be an invaluable experience when Japan
Disc-drive type
capstan servo
later led the world into the digital era.
Fig. 6.19. Perspective drawing of the TC-D5 drive system (16)
References
1) 50 Years of Audio. Japan Audio Society Publishing,
December 1986, p. 483.
6.12 Other Cartridge Tape Recorders 2) Mori, Yoshihisa, et. al. Onkyō-Gijutsu-Shi [History of
Sound Recording], Tokyo University of the Arts Press,
While the early Compact Cassettes lacked the capability for
March 2011, p. 57.
music recording, Japanese audio equipment manufacturers
3) 50 Years of Audio, p. 498.
worked hard on improving performance within the tightly
4) Ibid., p. 499.
5) Onkyō-Gijutsu-Shi, p. 88. 9) Provided by Panasonic Corporation.
6) Ibid., p. 89. 10), 11), 12), 13), 14), 15), 16) Provided by Sony
7) 50 Years of Audio, p. 500. Corporation.
8) Ibid., p. 503.
7 Structure and Performance of Compact Cassette-Type Tape Recorders
Ty p e s o f C a s s e t t e Ta p e R e c o r d e r s the freer open-reel era was carried over into the Compact
7.1 According to Head Arrangement Cassette as well. Fig. 7.1 shows the various Compact
Cassette tape recorder formats.
Although Compact Cassette machines started out as so-
called memo recorders and were initially limited in terms
of function and performance, as the competition for
7.2 Basic Structure

standardisation ended and the Compact Cassette became Fig. 7.2 shows the basic structure of a tape recorder.
recognised as the standard format, development rapidly The input signal passes through the equaliser after being
began on increasing its functionality and performance. The adequately amplified; it is then applied to the recording head
original construction was in cartridge form and presumed a with the bias signal added to it. The tape moves in front
two-head configuration only: an erase head and a recording/ of the head (Fig. 7.3) at a fixed speed and is magnetised in
playback head. Various head formations were devised, but proportion to the strength of the magnetic field coming from
in the end the head formation that had been put to use in the gap in the recording head, thus recording is achieved.

Erase head
Playback head Recording/playback
head
(a) 1 way playback (b) 2 head, 1 way

Recording/playback Small-window Recording/playback

Erase head combination head erase head
combination head

(c) 3 head, 1 way open reel (d) 3 head, 1 way closed loop dual capstan

4 ch head
Erase/recording/playback combination head

(e) rotary head reverse (f) 4 ch head reverse (dedicated playback)

Fig. 7.1. Compact Cassette tape recorder formats and head arrangement (1)
 Input current

Input Amplifier Recording Playback

equaliser equaliser Amplifier Output

Recording head winding current

Bias current
Bias
oscillator

Erase current Tape

Erase Recording Playback
head head head

Fig. 7.2. Basic structure diagram of a tape recorder (2)

When the recorded portion of the tape is rewound and passed

by the playback head at the same speed, the magnetic flux 7.4 Loss during Recording
on the tape passes through the gap to the head, inducing a
current corresponding to the magnetisation on the tape when Loss (signal attenuation) at the recording head tends to
the tape was wound. Playback is achieved by this signal be greater the higher the frequency, as shown in Fig.
being output through the playback amplifier. 7.4. Self-demagnetisation loss is the mutual negation of
adjacent magnetic flux as the recorded wavelength on the
tape decreases. Recording demagnetisation loss increases
the higher the frequency; like AC bias, at very high
Coil frequencies the minor loop converges at 0 and nothing is
Core recorded. Penetration loss is loss caused by differences in
(iron core)
magnetisation between the surface of the tape and the deeper
levels of magnetic particles on the tape due to different
Head gap depths of magnetisation on the tape. Core loss is loss caused
by eddy currents in the head core. Recording spacing loss
Fig. 7.3. Diagram of the magnetic head principle (3) is loss caused by a space forming between the tape and the
head gap; however, this has less effect during recording than
during playback.

7.3 Recording mechanism

Relative levels of tape magnetisation (dB)

The magnetisation curve of tape is represented by what is

called a hysteresis curve rather than a straight line. As a
current passes through the head coil, the magnetisation of
the tape that is in contact with the gap alters in a hysteresis (1) Self demagnetisation loss

loop pattern in response to variations in the magnetic field

(2) Recording demagnetisation loss
(3) Penetration loss
H. As the tape moves, the magnetic field applied to that (4) Core loss
particular point on the tape returns to 0 once it has gone past (5) Recording spacing loss
the gap. If the applied AC current (recording signal) has a
high frequency, the magnetic field is reversed and returns to
0. Consequently, while residual magnetisation is achieved
Recording current frequency (Hz)

in a small loop, the recorded magnetisation waveform is Fig. 7.4. Loss during Recording (4)
greatly distorted because the initial magnetisation curve is
non-linear. Accordingly, a sine wave is passed through the
recording head at a higher frequency than the recording 7.5 Loss during Playback
current as a means to avoid this distortion. This is called AC
bias recording and is an indispensable piece of technology Ideally, a playback head should increase in output in
for ensuring good electromagnetic conversion in analogue proportion to frequency. In reality, however, various losses
recording (see Fig. 3.6). occur when a tape is played back (Fig. 7.5). Gap loss is loss
caused by gap width: if the recorded wavelength is equal tape type. Equalising low frequencies meant increased noise
to the gap width, there is no output. Playback spacing loss with any rise in gain, so the low frequency time constant was
is loss due to a space forming between the tape and the gap flattened (Fig. 7.6).
in the playback head. This can be caused by the surface
properties of the tape, the tape driving performance, the Time Constant (μs) Folding Frequency (Hz)
IEC Type Number
tape tension or other factors. Azimuth loss is caused by T1 T2 f1 f2

a misalignment between the playback head gap and the I (normal tape) 120 1326
II (chrome tape)
azimuth angle of the recorded signal (determined by the 3180 70 50 2274
III (ferrichrome tape)
relative position of the recording head gap and the tape).
IV (metal tape)
Spacing loss and azimuth loss are largely due to tolerances
of the core mechanisms of the tape recorder, including the
tape drive system. Particular attention needs to be paid to

Response (dB)
this when designing mechanisms. Since there are limited
options for head arrangement on Compact Cassette machines
in particular, it is very difficult to improve azimuth precision
on reverse machines and three-head machines. Head
Frequency (Hz)
arrangements with no pads inside the cassette (such as heads
that are inserted through a small window) cannot ensure Fig. 7.6. Compact Cassette playback equaliser (6)
proper contact between the tape and the head and are thus
susceptible to spacing loss. Thickness loss is loss related to
the effective depth of magnetisation during playback. References
1) Saishin Ōdio Gijutsu [Latest Audio Technology],
Ohmsha, April 1991, p. 158.
2) Ibid., p. 146.
Induced voltage in head coil (relative value) (dB)

3) Ibid., p. 146.
4) Ibid., p. 150.
5) Ibid., p. 151.
6) Ibid., p. 153.

(1) Gap loss

Where
(2) Playback spacing loss g: gap width
(3) Core loss λ: recording wavelength
(4) Azimuth loss w: track width
(5) Thickness loss θ: tilt angle (radians)

Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 7.5. Losses during playback (5)

7.6 Playback Equaliser

A characteristic of magnetic recording is that although

the output of the playback head is relative to the speed
of variation in magnetic flux, certain losses are evident
at high frequencies. Consequently, a balanced frequency
response can be achieved in a tape recorder through
playback compensation (equalising) that separates the mid
and low frequencies, where loss is negligible, from the high
frequencies, where loss is not negligible. This had to be
standardised relatively early on, because there would be little
compatibility between machines if every different device
were to make this compensation in a different way. Compact
Cassette machines had different playback equalisers for each
8 Magnetic Tape in Compact Cassettes
recording performance, so they had to focus on developing
Development of Magnetic
8.1 Substances
and improving the magnetic substance itself to improve tape
performance. The Compact Cassette philosophy of strictly
Development of ferric oxide magnetic tape continued with maintaining compatibility not only spurred on product
the basic aim of trying to improve its recording performance. development, providing users with small, lightweight tape
Unlike the open-reel system, the Compact Cassette tape recorders that were easy to use, but also forced developers
recorder system meant very little freedom in terms of tape to improve the performance of the technology under very
width, tape speed and head formation. Since compatibility restrictive conditions. This was the driving force that made
had to be strictly adhered to, there was a strong demand to the development of the Compact Cassette so definitive.
improve the performance of the magnetic tape itself. The
early Compact Cassette tapes were lacking in performance
8.2 Development of Chrome Tape
in terms of music recording. Development of magnetic
substances quickly got under way in order to make this In 1970, BASF released a “chrome tape” that used chromium
system into an all-purpose tape recorder for recording dioxide as the magnetic substance. This tape was a major
everything from conversations to music. improvement in terms of a high-frequency response that
could not be achieved with ferric oxide tape. Up until this
time, all Compact Cassette players had a playback equaliser
Evaporated
time constant of 120μs; the arrival of the chrome tape
meant a time constant of 70μs could be used. This became
Coated the standard value for high frequency compensation for
Alloy powder
high-performance tape. Once BASF developed its chrome
CrO2
tape, Japanese manufacturers also came up with their own
Co containing γFe2O3
chromium dioxide tape. In 1973, Sony released its “DUAD
γ•Fe2O3 (Fe3O4) (high coercivity)
tape”, double-coated with ferric oxide and chrome. The ferric
γ•Fe2O3 (micro particles)
oxide layer on this tape compensated for the lack of energy
γ•Fe2O3 (standard size)
(or lack of sensitivity) in the mid and low frequency range
that was a shortcoming in chrome tape. In turn, the high
Fig. 8.1. Estimated development
frequency response of chrome made this a high performance
of magnetic substances on tape (1)
tape. Although this type of tape became standardised as the
Type-III, it was not highly popular and went out of use in
Fig. 8.1 is a chart proposed in the 1970s showing the the 1980s. Although double-coated tape had a reputation
estimated development of magnetic substances on tape. for good sound quality and had also been used in open-
First, attempts were made to physically improve the tape reel systems, it faced pressure from the high performance
and magnetic substance by developing and improving the and price competitiveness of Type-II tapes such as cobalt
magnetic ferric oxide powder, increasing the packing ratio tape. When metal tapes appeared, it lost much of its purpose
by making the particles smaller and improving the tape’s and exclusive Type-III products faded from the market.
adherence to the head by making the tape surface smoother. While chrome tape was ground-breaking in terms of high
At the same time, improvements were being made to the frequency response and played a huge part in improving the
process of applying the magnetic powder to the tape, as performance of Compact Cassettes, it gradually disappeared
well as to the adhesives and additives, the so-called binders, off the market in Japan due to patent licencing issues and
that went into the magnetic powder. Work was also being pollution issues with hexavalent chromium effluent from
done to improve the mechanical precision of the tape by coating factories. Instead, cobalt-deposited ferric oxide
improving the tape cutting machines (slitters) and other (CoFe2O4, crystal growth of cobalt ferrite on the surface of
elements in the manufacturing process, enabling the creation ferric oxide) tape with similar properties became the main
of a more delicate and higher-precision tape than open-reel high-performance music tape in use. Eventually, most of the
tape. However, the most important tasks were to downsize Type-II tape was this so-called “cobalt tape”.
the product and improve its ease of use. Developers had
very constrained conditions under which to achieve proper
 Creation of Practical Evaporated
8.3 Appearance of Metal Tape 8.4 Tape

With stereo records becoming popular and FM broadcasts During the same period of time, Matsushita achieved another
reaching full swing in the late 1960s, the audio market dream: thin metal film tape. Although thin metal film tape
flourished. The Japanese audio industry entered a phase of was considered ideal, as it does not require a binder like
furious development in exports. While Compact Cassette coated tape does, it required a new manufacturing technique
machines were a mainstay of this trend, as the audio to achieve such a product in tape form. Matsushita developed
market expanded, there was increasing demand for further the evaporation coating method, in which an evaporated
performance improvements in the Compact Cassette. The coating could be continuously formed on a base product (Fig.
magnetic properties of the tape had to be improved, but the 8.2). It was originally developed as a means of evaporation
standards had to be strictly maintained. The race was on to coating for the production of film capacitor electrodes.
get a new, high-performance magnetic substance out of the While evaporated tape offered superior magnetic properties,
laboratory and onto shop shelves. Developers first came up it also had several flaws when used in tape recorders. It
with chromium oxide; the next development was cobalt. adhered to the head very well, as the surface of the tape
Finally, they came up with metal tape (metal powder tape) was far smoother than coated tape; however, it could cause
and set about putting it to practical use. Nagai, Iwasaki, et too much friction against the head and the tape guide, so
al. had already reported some research results at Tohoku an appropriate lubricant was required. The magnetic layer
University regarding tape for short wave recording around was very thin, so care had to be taken to ensure it did not
1963. Although this was recognised to have better qualities deteriorate, even when highly durable materials such as
in theory, there was no obvious need for the product and nickel or cobalt were used for the magnetic film. These
no incentive to solve the various difficulties faced in various hurdles were cleared and the first evaporated tape –
manufacturing it. High-performance Compact Cassettes “Ångrom” tape – was created for the microcassette in 1978.
presented such a need, and metal tape, originally considered In 1984, an Ångrom Compact Cassette went on sale as a
to be for video use, was put to practical use. Type-II tape. This evaporated tape was later developed for
Despite being called metal tape, it was actually a type of use in video, just as the metal tape was, and full use was
coated tape very similar in composition to the existing ferric made of its high density recording properties. It became a
oxide tape rather than a completely new composition, such very important tape in the era of audio/video digitisation.
as the evaporated tape discussed in a later section. The
difference was that the magnetic substance used was metal
particles (iron). This meant a superior magnetic substance
compared to ferric oxide because the lack of oxygen atoms
increased the density of the metal, thereby adding to the
magnetism of the substance; however, it was also very
susceptible to oxidation. It was important to develop anti-
oxidation or rust-proofing measures to be incorporated into
the tape manufacturing process, as well as a method for
producing metal particles. A number of companies tried to
solve this issue through various means, such as coming up
with different binder materials or putting anti-rust properties
into the magnetic particles themselves. A major argument
was the lack of compatibility: the tape was highly retentive,
and could not be recorded onto or erased using existing Fig. 8.2. Example evaporation-coating device (2)
machines. However, such concerns were far outweighed by
the desire for better sound quality, and a new standard, the References
Type-IV, was established. The final stage in the evolution of 1) Jiki Kiroku Gijutsu Dai 3-Kan [Magnetic Recording
the Compact Cassette had taken place. The development of Technology Volume 3], Japan Industry Engineering
metal tape not only proved useful for audio, but also made
Center, May 1980, p. 87.
a major contribution to the improvement, downsizing and
2) Jiki Kiroku Gijutsu Dai 3-Kan [Magnetic Recording
digitalisation of small-scale video tape recorders and the
development of audio and video equipment. Technology Volume 3], Japan Industry Engineering
Center, May 1980, p. 89.
9 Advances in Magnetic Heads for Compact Cassettes
9.1 Recording/Playback Head Structure
Core

Magnetic heads used in tape recorders comprise a magnetic

circuit of a coil wrapped around an iron core with a part Coil
cut away. Magnetic recording occurs when a magnetic
field is applied to the tape through this cut-away section, Head gap
or gap. For playback, the magnetic flux on the tape passes
through the gap, inducing a current in the coil, which is
then amplified (see Fig. 9.1). The core material must be Laminate core
sensitive to microscopic changes in magnetism. Since high
magnetic permeability is needed to increase the effectiveness
Resin or Shield case
similar
of the magnetic circuit during recording, many of the early Shield between
channels
heads were made of permalloy, an alloy of nickel and iron
with high magnetic permeability. The magnetic head is a
wound coil with impedance that increases in proportion to
frequency. As a result, the higher the frequency, the greater Fig. 9.1. Typical magnetic head structure (1)
the “core loss”, loss caused by eddy currents. To reduce this
core loss, a laminate structure is used, made up of several
layered sheets of permalloy (Fig. 9.2). The head is also
Coil Case Terminal

designed so that the magnetic circuit is narrower near the Dummy

gap, so as to increase the effectiveness of the exchange of
magnetic flux. The front part of the head that comes into
contact with the tape is called the tape contact surface. Since Mounting plate
it is in constant contact with the tape, it is very important for
it to be abrasion-resistant; it must have very smooth frictional
properties so as not to adversely affect the running of the
tape. In actual heads, the contact surface comprises a shield Shield
between tracks (if there are multiple track heads, such as for Gap Core (Inside of the case
stereo), a dummy segment without tracks and a resin material encapsulated in resin)
to hold these in place. If these different materials do not wear Fig. 9.2. Laminated head structure (2)
evenly, this affects the contact with the tape and may result
in spacing loss. Accordingly, every head-manufacturing
Types of Heads and their
company has come up with its own ideas on which materials
9.2 Characteristics
to select and how to polish the contact surface.

(1) Recording Heads

The aim of these heads is to generate a large and effective
magnetic field with very little current and magnetise the
tape precisely and accurately. They are configured to have
a slightly larger gap of around 3-5μm to avoid magnetic
saturation at the gap and increase the effectiveness of the
recording penetrated into the tape. Impedance is set to 10Ω at
1kHz for an electrical circuit providing a bias current

(2) Playback Heads

The priority for these heads is to reduce gap loss in order to
play back at as high a frequency as possible. Accordingly,
they have a far narrower gap than recording heads, at around
1.0μm. Since they have an increased number of winds in
the coil to make the playback output as high as possible
(increased sensitivity), they automatically have a high
impedance of 1kΩ at 1kHz. As well as being highly sensitive,
playback heads are connected to a playback amplifier,
so require strong magnetic shielding to prevent external
magnetic induction and noise generation.

(3) Recording/Playback Combination Heads

The basic two-head type Compact Cassette tape recorders
use the same head for recording and playback in order to
Fig. 9.3. Four-gap ferrite erase head (3)
make the device simpler and keep the price down. Many of
these recording/playback heads have a gap of 1.3-1.6μm in
consideration of magnetic saturation during recording as well
as gap loss during playback. Since the parameters of these
heads are not optimum for either recording or playback, they
are inferior in performance to the three-head type, which uses
individual recording and playback heads. However, for as
long as Compact Cassettes used ferric oxide, they achieved
adequate high-end performance.

(4) Erase Heads

Many AC erase heads use ferrite materials, which generate Fig. 9.4. Permanent magnet erase head (4)
strong magnetic fields with little heat generated from eddy
currents. But with the appearance of metal tape, erase heads
Advances in Materials for Magnetic
needed to generate even stronger magnetic fields. Although 9.3 Heads
Sendust erase heads were developed that could achieve this,
they were extremely cost-prohibitive, so other alternatives
9.3.1 Ferrite Heads
were devised, such as improving the ferrite material and
The Compact Cassette started out using ferric oxide tape.
increasing the number of gaps (Fig. 9.3). Low-cost, popular-
As these tapes became more widely used, it became a major
model machines were not really capable of playing and
challenge to solve the quality performance issue resulting
recording on high-performance tape such as metal tape.
from narrow track width and slow tape speed. In the late
Many of them used a DC erase method with erase heads
1960s, stereo records, which were already firmly established
made from permanent magnets. In such cases, rather than
as a music medium, improved greatly in sound quality due to
simply using a magnet, the head surface was magnetised in
improvements in recording and cutting technology, creating
an N-S-N-S arrangement to give the effect of AC erasure
an even greater demand to improve the sound quality of
as the tape passed by. Combination products such as radio
consumer tape recorders. While development continued
cassette players often used permanent magnet erase heads to
on high-performance open-reel machines such as studio
avoid causing radio interference with a strong magnetic field
recorders, this was increasingly heavy-duty equipment for
(Fig. 9.4).
analogue recording and therefore highly priced. Naturally,
this resulted in a greater demand in the home audio and car
audio markets for a small-scale, affordable machine that
could record and play music on Compact Cassettes. As
discussed in Section 8.2, researchers worked on improving
the magnetic substance on tape, creating chrome tape in
1970. This tape was superior in a wide range of applications
and succeeded in expanding the existing recording and
playback bandwidth of 10kHz to around 15kHz, which could
comfortably be called Hi-Fi. In terms of compatibility, a new
“Chrome Position” (later Type-II) was defined, with a high-
frequency playback time constant changed from 120μs to
70μs to match the rise in high-frequency sensitivity. While
the greater recording and playback performance of chrome
tape played a major part in Compact Cassette machines being
accepted as audio equipment, the surface of the tape was
harder than ferric oxide tape and caused problems with wear
on the heads. To solve this problem, developers brought out
an abrasion-resistant ferrite head (Fig. 9.5). Since ferrite is
made of compression-moulded powder, it has relatively low
manufacturing costs. It forms a hard core material following Fig. 9.7. F&F Head (7)
sintering, but this is easy to grind or cut and therefore easy
to achieve dimensional accuracy. As well as being very 9.3.2 Sendust Heads for Metal Tape
hard and resistant to wear, ferrite heads also offer a very Metal tape appeared in 1978 at the onset of the digital audio
dimensionally stable gap, with glass layers fused between era. This tape was the music tape trump card for the Compact
layers of ground core material. They maintain their initial Cassette, able to record and play back sounds that required
properties for a very long time and are extremely stable even a high resolution and a large dynamic range, like computer
with changes in temperature and humidity (Fig. 9.6). music. While it was understood that metal tape had ground-
breakingly superior magnetic properties because it used a
magnetic substance of metal powder rather than oxide, this
contravened the Compact Cassette policy of “maintaining
Sendust Ferrite compatibility”.
Amount of wear (μ)

and amo
rphous In short, metal tape used a strongly magnetic substance.
Compared in terms of coercive force (saturation flux density)
Per

Ha
ma

rd Hc and maximum residual magnetisation Br, the values for

pe
llo

rm
all the existing chrome (cobalt) music tape were in the vicinity
y

oy
of Hc=600-700Oe, Br=1500G, while the values for metal
tape were almost double at Hc=1000Oe, Br=3000G. Hc
represents the high frequency recording level (the quality of
Running time (hours) the high-frequency response) as well as the ease of erasing or
the strength of the magnetic field required for magnetisation.
Fig. 9.5. Wear properties according to head material (5) The ferric oxide tape first used in Compact Cassettes had an
Hc of 350-400Oe. While this value was higher for chrome
tape, the existing heads were still adequate for erasing and
recording. However, to record at full capacity on Hc=1000Oe
Glass-fused gap metal tape required a stronger magnetic force and a greater
bias current in the head. Since the existing head materials
Ferrite head
(permalloy or ferrite) had a low saturation flux density, any
increase in current flowing through them would simply
convert to heat rather than provide any effective increase
in magnetic flux. Likewise, there was a fatal compatibility
Fig. 9.6. Ferrite head gap structure (6) flaw for erasing, as the existing erase heads would not erase
the tape. A discussion commenced on whether or not to
Sony had used ferrite heads in open-reel machines from a change the high frequency time constant for chrome tape
very early stage. It used ferrite not only for the core material, from 70μs to 50 or 35μs to make a marked improvement in
but also the entire contact surface of the head, including the high-frequency response during playback. One opinion said
dummy segment. This rugged and highly abrasion-resistant that the latest technology should be actively incorporated,
head was called the “F&F Head” (Fig. 9.7) and also became because fussing over standards and compatibility prevented
widely used for Compact Cassettes. technological progress, but this meant that the compatibility
that was such an important factor in the Compact Cassette
would be likely to come undone. However, the latest
improvements in performance were sought after in the music
scene and could not be ignored. The EIAJ (now JEITA)
formulated an international standard in a short space of time
with the help of international organisations such as IEC and
metal tape Compact Cassettes were introduced. The playback Sendust, thus making the gap area highly magnetic, while
time constant was set at 70μs, the same as for chrome tape. the rest, which did not need to be so strongly magnetic, was
Although the compatibility policy had been closely adhered made out of ferrite, which has hardly any high-frequency
to for playback, such as maintaining playback on existing loss. The gap area had more or less the same structure as that
machines, a new head (with more efficient materials and of a ferrite head (Fig. 9.10), with the abrasion-resistance of
design to supress heat and prevent saturation even with a Sendust rivalling that of ferrite. The product was welcomed
high bias current) was absolutely necessary for recording. as a highly reliable, long-life device. Sony, Matsushita and
While ferrite was used in large quantities in high- other companies made this type of head; these were widely
performance heads due to its superior abrasion-resistance used in high-performance cassette tape recorders from the
and the ease and low cost of manufacture and production, it metal-tape era onwards.
was unsuitable for metal tape due to its low saturation flux
density of around 5000G. Sendust gained much attention at
this stage (Table 9.1). Sendust is an iron-aluminium-silicon
alloy invented in 1935 by Dr. Hakaru Masumoto and others
at the Tohoku University Institute for Materials Research
and used as a magnetic powder core before ferrite was Shield
discovered. Although it has superior magnetic properties Non-magnetic
and has cost benefits due to the abundance of raw materials
mask
Hard quartz
for it, it has limited uses as it is extremely hard and brittle
glass Sendust
Metal core
as a metal (alloy) and difficult to roll out like permalloy.
Ferrite core
row-welded
area
Nevertheless, it gained immediate attention with the advent
Fig. 9.8. S&F Head structure (9)
of metal tape. The worst characteristic of Sendust was its
difficulty in processing. While vacuum-melted Sendust
ingots were cheap, it was expensive to grind and polish them Sendust mask R channel coil Shield case
to make heads. Usually, heads had a laminated structure,
made up of ground and polished cores 0.2-0.3mm thick. Shield

This thickness was a compromise to keep processing costs Sendust

down; even thinner layers would have been better for high- Ferrite
frequency response. Various attempts were trialled to make
a thinner product, such as the method of melting at high Sendust core Ferrite
temperatures and then rapidly cooling the alloy in ribbons
Permalloy shield case L channel coil

(ribbon Sendust) or an attempt at rolling the alloy, but it was Fig. 9.9 S&F Head magnetic circuit (10)
not suitable for mass head production due to the difficulty
in handling the brittle ribbon. One possible method to curb
high-frequency loss was the composite S&F Head (Figs. 9.8,
9.9), with the tip of the head made out of a small block of

Table 9.1. Characteristics of Magnetic Head Core Materials(8)

Initial permeability μi Magnetic Coercive Specific Core
Hardness Density Magnetostriction
Material flux density force Hc resistance thickness
1kHz 10kHz 100kHz (HV) (g/cm3) constant λs (x10-6)
Bs (gauss) (Oe) (μ-Ω-cm) (μm)
Rec/Play 10,500 9,700 8,800 4,500 0.03 106 680 5.0 5.0
Ferrite 9
Erase 3,500 3,300 3,300 5,000 0.14 10 700 4.9 2.0
Popular 39,000 11,700 2,000 7,800 0.012 55 110 1.5 50
Permalloy Hard 45,000 10,000 2,100 6,600 0.013 65 200 8.7 100
HiB 15,000 4,300 930 8,100 0.03 55 150 100
Popular 15,000 3,800 810 8,500 0.007 85 500 1.0 150
Sendust
HiB 11,800 3,200 720 10,000 0.025 85 480 6.8 1.0 150
HiB 20,000 9,000 3,000 11,500 0.02 140 850 8.1 0 30
Amorphous
Hiμ 50,000 40,000 9,000 8,000 0.012 140 850 7.7 0 30
 heads took over from Sendust heads, first used in high-end
Glass-fused gap area
Sendust core machines such as three-head decks, then in other devices
Hard quartz glass competing for high sound quality (Fig. 9.14).
Ferrite head
Pressurised gas
for pouring

Crucible
Special metal High speed Molten alloy
rotating cooler
Ultra-rapid cooled
(a) F&F Head (b) S&F Head alloy ribbon

Fig. 9.10. Comparative gap areas structures (11)

Fig. 9.12. Diagram of the rapid cooling principle (13)

Fig. 9.11. S&F recording/playback head (12)

Head for metal tape compatible cassette deck

9.3.3 Adoption of Amorphous Alloy Head Material

Although a lot of Sendust was used in heads for metal tape,
its saturation flux density was slightly reduced, as other
elements such chrome and molybdenum were being added to
Fig. 9.13. Amorphous alloy ribbon (14)
it to increase its durability as an audio head. While successive
studies were made on how to improve it by modifying the
type or amount of additives, it was impossible to achieve a
saturation flux density any higher than 10,000G.
Amorphous alloys emerged as a more effective head
material that could transcend this limitation. Non-crystalline
amorphous alloys differed in various ways from existing
metals with a crystalline lattice structure. When metals
melt at high temperature, they have a completely random
arrangement of atoms; if they are rapidly cooled, they retain
this property even at normal temperatures, thus forming an
amorphous alloy. The cooling rate to achieve this is around
10,000-1,000,000ºC/s. In practice, amorphous alloys are Fig. 9.14. Amorphous head (15)
made by pouring molten metal from a fine nozzle over a
cooling roller rotating at high speed, thus creating a ribbon
(Fig. 9.12). At around 30-50μm, this ribbon is of a suitable
thickness for use as a head material; it is easy to make into a
laminate core by layering it (Fig. 9.13). References
Soft magnetic amorphous alloys are made from a 1) Saishin Ōdio Gijutsu [Latest Audio Technology],
combination of ferromagnetic metals such as iron, cobalt Ohmsha, April 1991, p. 156.
and nickel, and metalloids necessary for amorphisation, 2) – 15) Takahashi, Shiro. “Jiki Heddo Zairyō no
such as phosphorus, carbon, boron and silicon. Harder than
Saikin no Dōkō [Recent Trends in Magnetic Head
ferrite at Hv=800+ and with the same or slightly higher
Materials]”, JAS Journal, 1981, Vol. 21, No. 10.
abrasion-resistance than Sendust, they are perfectly suitable
material for audio heads. The higher performance amorphous
10 Development of Three-Head Compact Cassettes

Advantages of the Three -Head to check for any flaws in the basic components, such as the
10.1 Format tape or heads, thus providing a very effective way to prevent
mishaps. Monitoring during recording can only be achieved
The two-head type is generally thought of as the standard by having a three-head system with dedicated recording and
Compact Cassette. The idea is that the cassette is vertically playback heads. This is the “three-head” format. For open-
symmetrical and both sides can be used by turning the reel systems, the head arrangement could be freely designed
cassette over. This basic concept is very important, as it to suit the required performance and functions.
rapidly boosted usability, providing tape recorders with a
T h re e - H e a d Fo r m a t fo r Co m p a c t
necessary and sufficient function. The basic specifications,
10.2 Cassette
such as tape speed, width and magnetic properties, were
also thought to provide sufficient functions for the expected The Compact Cassette running system serves as a tape
users and usage environment. Compact Cassette machines, recorder by inserting heads and a pinch roller into the
which had started out as simple “memo tape recorders”, cassette. Fig. 10.1 shows the main components of a typical
had successfully become the de facto standard. Once they Compact Cassette tape recorder running system. There are
came to be regarded as mainstream tape recorders, rapid three large apertures (generally called “windows”) on the
technological developments took place to improve their face of the cassette for inserting the heads and the pinch
sound quality and performance. When improving the roller. The central window has a felt-like component called
performance of open-reel tape recorders, developers had been a pad behind the tape, held in place by a leaf spring. When
quite free to select any tape speed as well as the shape and the head is inserted, this pad pushes the tape against the
number of heads. Since it was straightforward to use heads head to ensure contact is maintained between the tape and
optimally designed for recording, playback and erasing, it the head. Fig. 10.2 shows the face of a cassette. The left
was inevitable that a three-head system was adopted. Of and right windows, for the erase head and the pinch roller,
course, even for open-reel machines, two-head systems were are symmetrical, so that when the cassette is turned over,
more typical among popular-model machines and simple they each insert into the opposite window on the so-called
head arrangements, such as DC erasing, were used in small, B side. These pinch roller windows are the large windows;
battery-operated machines. However, one major advantage in there are also smaller apertures between these large windows
all of these machines, from popular-model machines to high- and the central head window. These are the small windows;
performance machines and even business machines, was that while they are designed to have various uses, such as using
there was free choice in terms of heads. In practice, most tape tension to detect the end of the tape and detecting the
stereo tape decks used the three-head format. transparent leader tape (the start and end of the reel of tape,
While the main aim of the three-head format was to improve mostly with no magnetic substance on it), they are hardly
the sound quality when recording, a major advantage was ever used.
that running the playback head during recording made it
possible to have a “recording monitor”. When recording
on ordinary two-head tape recorders, the sound from the
microphone or line in was adjusted as necessary using
a preamplifier then sent to the recording amplifier. The
sound monitored during recording was the output from the
preamplifier, or the “sound being recorded”. Of course, some
machines had level meters for adjusting the volume and other
functions that made it easier to produce a better recording,
such as automatic levelling functions, but ultimately, the
recording could only be checked by rewinding and playing
back the tape after recording. While this presented no real
problems in general use, in instances where the recording
was vital, such as live recording, being able to monitor
the recording, or the “recorded sound”, during recording
provided a definite way to check the recording levels and
 Although this format meant that heads very similar to the
Pad existing recording/playback heads could be used as playback
heads, it was difficult to get any performance out of the
Reference
holes recording head, as it had to be made smaller in order to fit
into one of the small windows. Since the small windows had
Tape guide
no tape pads, it was also difficult to maintain contact between
Tape the head and the tape. As a result, a high-end running system
guide
called a closed loop dual capstan had to be implemented to
Capstan
maintain tape tension within the loop (the area between the
two capstans) to ensure recording performance. The erase
Erase head
head was placed on the outside of the upstream capstan; this
Recording/ Pinch roller
head also had to have quite a special shape to prevent it from
playback head
interfering with the pinch roller.
Fig. 10.1. Diagram of the relative positions of the cassette
This three standalone head system was first incorporated into
and structural components (1)
the Nakamichi 1000 (Fig. 10.4) by Nakamichi Corporation.
This was an ultra-high-end tape deck with a price tag of
Large
over ¥200,000 when it first went on sale in 1973. Major tape
windows recorder companies such as Sony and Matsushita were also
working on similar developments around the same time;
Sony released the TC-6150SD (Figs. 10.7, 10.8) in 1973,
while Matsushita released the RS-690 (Figs. 10.5, 10.6) in
Small
1975, both decks with three standalone heads. This proved
windows that the Compact Cassette could have the same level of
Fig. 10.2. Apertures on the face of a cassette performance as open-reel machines. Users gained confidence
that it could cover all areas from taking memos to high
Given these constraints, it is difficult to implement a three- performance, again boosting the popularity of the Compact
head format on a Compact Cassette and work out which Cassette.
head to put where. While various companies investigated
various proposals (Fig. 10.3), the first format implemented
used a system of standalone heads as shown in Fig. 10.3 (1).

Playback
Recording Tape guide (1) Three standalone heads format
head head
Erase head
- Optimal head performance
- Requires specially-shaped heads

Recording/playback (2) Combination head format

Erase head combination head - Easy to access each head
- Manufacturing of a combination head is key

Tape guide (3) Monitor head format

Recording/ - Recording/playback performance identical to the
playback Monitor head
Erase head head two-head format
- Monitoring function during recording has been
added

Fig. 10.3. Proposed three-head arrangements (2)

 Capstan Capstan

Erase head

Playback Pinch roller

Recording head
Flywheel head Flywheel
Pinch roller

Fig. 10.8. Schematic diagram of the TC-6150SD

running system and head arrangement (7)

The three standalone heads format was optimised for

Fig. 10.4. Nakamichi 1000 (1973) (3)
performance. While it answered the call for the Compact
Upright style with the cassette inserted upside down
Cassette to function as a music player, cost was a major
limitation due to the special head shape; it was difficult
to develop a low-cost model. As the recording head was
inserted through the small window, it was sandwiched in
the relatively narrow space between the guide pins on the
cassette side, making it difficult to maintain precision in tape
operation and contact between the head and the tape. As a
result, the cassette was susceptible to azimuth loss during
recording and playback and spacing loss during recording.
The difficulty in maintaining mechanical precision and the
adjustment processes required during manufacture only
added to the cost. If a three-head system could be achieved
using heads similar in size to the standard recording/
playback head, then the same mechanism could be used,
Fig. 10.5. Matsushita RS-690 (1975) (4) meaning a major reduction in cost. A “recording/playback
Mechanism and amplifier are separate
combination head” was developed, integrating the recording
and playback heads in one casing; this later became the main
three-head system in use. While contact between the tape
and the heads relied on a central pad, as it had previously,
the pad was smaller than before, with a width of 4-5mm.
It was therefore necessary to reduce the gap between
the heads to around 2-3mm, which required advanced
Erase head Recording head Playback head head processing technology. In the 1970s, the design and
Fig. 10.6. Heads used in the RS-690 (5) manufacturing technology for such electronic devices was
quite advanced in Japan, meaning it was possible to produce
a superior combination head (Fig. 10.9). The combination
head had to accurately integrate the respective track heights
(positions) for recording and playback, while at the same
time eliminating any difference in head protrusion (front
position) and also preventing azimuth loss by minimising the
relative angle deviation between the two gaps. Accuracy had
to be maintained on all these fronts during manufacturing
and assembly. Another type of head – the “independent
suspension type” – required such precise processing methods
as well as azimuth adjustment following assembly (Fig.
10.10).
Fig. 10.7. Sony TC-6150SD (1973) (6)
The standard horizontal cassette deck of the day
 References
1) Tēpurekōdā no Kiso [Tape Recorder Basics]. Sony
(Inc.) Technology Education Center, May 1985, p.
285.
2) Oki et al. National Technical Report Vol. 22, Panasonic

Fig. 10.9. Early combination head (8) (Inc.), August 1976, p. 425.
3) “JAS Jānaru Tokubetsu-gō: Tokushū Ōdio no Seiki
[JAS Journal Special Issue: A Century of Audio]”, JAS
Journal, 2001, Vol. 41, No. 10, p. 58.
4) Oki et al. National Technical Report Vol. 22, p. 423.
5) Hirota, Nakata. National Technical Report Vol. 22,
Panasonic (Inc.), August 1976, p. 367.
6), 7) Provided by Sony Corporation.
8) Hirota, Nakata. National Technical Report Vol. 22, p.
Fig. 10.10. Independent suspension combination head (9) 367.
Factors such as track position and head protrusion
9) Takahashi, Shiro. “Jiki Heddo Zairyō no Saikin no
are integrated into the assembly, then the record
head azimuth is adjusted after the set is completed
Dōkō [Recent Trends in Magnetic Head Materials]”,
JAS Journal, 1981, Vol. 21, No. 10.
11 Noise Reduction Systems

I n t ro d u c t i o n o f N o i s e R e d u c t i o n the ear. This side effect was a relatively minor problem if

11.1 Systems there were favourable noise conditions to begin with, but
the strict Compact Cassette standards meant that they were
Compared to the popular open-reel tape recorders, the
very noise-prone. This made the sound distorted and muddy,
early Compact Cassette machines performed too poorly
which was difficult to correct by a masking effect alone. The
at recording music to be placed among the ranks of
Dolby A system was also complex in its circuitry, with the
serious audio equipment. Chapters 8 to 10 discuss the
frequency range divided up and different operations for each
active development undertaken to improve the heads and
bandwidth. Another issue was that this also cost a lot. The
the magnetic substance on the tape in order to boost the
sensitivity of the human ear to different frequencies is well
recording performance. However, one major factor in
understood through the so-called “Fletcher-Munson curves”;
Compact Cassette machines gaining acceptance as proper
there is actually a limited bandwidth that the ear hears
audio equipment was the success of the noise reduction
well. Fig. 11.1 shows that humans are sensitive to sounds
systems that began to be used in household tape recorders as
around 1-6kHz and less sensitive to higher or lower sounds.
a means of increasing the dynamic range by expanding the
The Dolby B system achieved effective noise reduction by
signal to noise ratio (S/N). When listening to sound recorded
targeting and compressing/expanding sounds in this range
on tape, there was sometimes a bothersome hissing noise.
of sensitivity as a countermeasure for the tape recorder hiss
This was often particularly noticeable when the music or
noise.
audio was very quiet (low level); this is called a hiss noise
and is quite audible because it largely comprises high-
frequency components. The simplest way to reduce this
noise is to cut out the high frequencies with a filter; however,
this also cuts out the high-frequency component of the
Intensity level [dB]

signal (music), resulting in a muffled sound with a narrower

frequency response. One characteristic of the human ear is
that background noise is very audible when listening to low-
level sounds, although it is hardly noticeable when listening
to loud sounds. It is possible to utilise this effect when
recording quiet sounds by increasing the volume during
recording and then decreasing the volume during playback,
effectively playing back the sound in its original state and Frequency [Hz]
suppressing only the noise. In other words, this is a process Fig. 11.1. Fletcher-Munson equal-loudness contour (1)
of compressing/expanding the sound during the recording
and playback processes. US company Dolby Laboratories, Input Output
Inc. applied this principle and perfected a system that could
Level

be put to use in a business tape recorder. In 1966, British

company Decca introduced the system for their in-house
master tapes. This system, called the Dolby A, split the
20Hz-20kHz frequency range into four bandwidths, gaining a Frequency
10-15dB improvement in the S/N ratio through compression
Frequency
and expansion in each bandwidth.
Fig. 11.2. Decoding using the whole-bandwidth level
compression method (2)
11.2 Dolby B

The Dolby A system worked by compressing/expanding

the entire sound bandwidth. While this method was easy
to implement, it meant that the whole bandwidth would be
manipulated even if only one frequency band had a high-
level signal. This meant that the background noise would
audibly fluctuate, resulting in a sound that was unnatural to
 Input * When a signal-compressing/expanding noise reduction
Output
system such as the Dolby encounters a signal that varies
Level

greatly at a certain frequency, the noise reduction effect

fluctuates as compression/expansion is carried out in
response to this signal. This results in a fluctuation in
background noise, which is unnatural to the ear. This
Frequency phenomenon is called breathing.
Frequency

Fig. 11.3. Decoding using the sliding-band method (3) Growing Popularity of Dolby Noise
11.3 Reduction (NR)
Fig. 11.2 shows the playback frequencies when the whole-
bandwidth level compression method is used. The signal is The Dolby B noise reduction (NR) system was first released
expanded irrespective of frequency. In such cases, if there as a standalone unit, but it soon became incorporated into
is a high-level signal at particular frequency, the entire cassette decks. The first cassette deck with an inbuilt Dolby
bandwidth is subject to compression/expansion, resulting in system was put out by TEAC in 1971 (Fig. 11.5). The Dolby
less effective noise reduction. By contrast, Fig. 11.3 shows B system suddenly grew in popularity as a standard cassette
the playback frequencies when the “sliding-band” method deck feature, with Sony releasing its first cassette deck with
adopted by the Dolby B system is used. The high-frequency an inbuilt Dolby system, the TC-2250SD (Fig. 11.6), in 1972.
range is expanded a fixed amount according to signal level.
Even if there is a loud signal in the low- and mid-frequency
range, a fixed amount of attenuation is ensured in the high-
frequency range, which also suppresses other side effects,
such as breathing*.
By keeping compression/expansion to a minimum, the Dolby
B system prevented other side effects and was also relatively
cost effective. As a consequence, it became widely used as a
noise reduction system for the Compact Cassette. However,
since it manipulated the signal in a relatively moderate
manner, the resulting noise reduction effect was not all that
large, usually around a 10dB improvement in the S/N ratio.
As the digital audio era approached, further competition
ensued to develop more effective noise reduction systems.
Fig. 11.5. Cassette deck with inbuilt Dolby B system
Fig. 11.4 shows a comparison between the effect produced
TEACA-350 (1971)
by the Dolby B and the more effective Dolby C, which was
introduced later.

0dB=160mWb/m
1/3 octave band noise level [dB]

NR OFF

Dolby•B

Dolby•C

Metal tape

Frequency [Hz]

Fig. 11.4. Dolby noise reduction effects (4)

 ANRS system not long after the Dolby B appeared. Although
ANRS was JVC’s own technology, it operated very similarly
to the Dolby B system and the two were thought to be
compatible. Dolby carried out negotiations with JVC on the
ANRS format in order to promote standardisation and ensure
patent licencing fees, but in the end it accepted the originality
of ANRS and formally acknowledged its compatibility with
Dolby B. Many JVC ANRS cassette decks had NR switches
labelled “ANRS/Dolby B”, indicating that there was
compatibility between the two.
Fig. 11.6. Sony TC-2250SD (1972)

Following the development of chrome tape, the Dolby 11.4.2 dbx

NR system played a huge part in improving recording dbx is a noise reduction format developed and released by
and playback performance. It later became monumental American company dbx, Inc. in the early 1970s. It started
in tape recorder development history as having elevated out as a high-performance noise reduction system for
the Compact Cassette from a memo recorder to a serious business machines to rival the Dolby A system. Designed
piece of audio equipment. While compressing/expanding to work across a wide range of frequencies and levels, its
noise reduction systems such as the Dolby are expected to compression/expansion worked in a logarithmically linear
have a greater effect and ensure a better sound quality than manner. Fig. 11.7 shows input and output using the dbx
simply cutting noise with a filter, tapes with compressed format. Since any signals above 0dB are attenuated, it could
recordings on them lose their compatibility, as they must compensate for any tape saturation and could produce drastic
be expanded and played in a predetermined manner. noise reduction, meaning it was superior in many ways.
When the Dolby B came to the fore, it had no obvious However, it was very difficult to incorporate the system into
rivals; it had the good fortune to take hold as the standard any popular-model tape recorders, as the circuit was complex
system in a relatively smooth manner. While Dolby and costly and uniform compression/expansion was carried
Laboratories, Inc. started out in technology development, out regardless of signal level or frequency, meaning it would
the company also became well-known for its successful be susceptible to breathing in machines with poor basic
licencing business model, having employed some clever performance. An increasing number of manufacturers began
technology agreement strategies when the Dolby NR to use it in high-end cassette decks due to the good sound
system became popular. Although various other systems quality and drastic noise reduction effect; to some extent, it
were later developed for noise reduction and some market gained a reputation as offering higher-end NR than Dolby. It
competition ensued, the Dolby B continued to be used gained relatively wide acceptance in the world of business
throughout as the standard NR system. The fact that its machines and was often used by companies such as recording
successor, the Dolby C, kept a number of rivals at bay studios. While the introduction of music tapes presented no
and maintained its position as the standard system was obstacle to the system, it was never put to use in consumer
probably due to a sense of security associated with the machines and gradually disappeared off the market.
name “Dolby”.

11.4 Other Formats

Output level [dB]

ine
nl
While the Dolby B gained popularity as the de facto
2) o
(1/ u cti
sor ed
standard system, other competing systems were developed
t)

s r
pu

pre ise
)
(in
m l

m no
r (2
ste al

Co
and put to use, as outlined below.
sy ver

dB
-60
e
O

and
Exp

11.4.1 ANRS Interim transmission

noise -60dB (assumed)
JVC developed its own four-channel stereo record, the
“CD-4”. It also developed its own noise reduction system
in the ANRS (Automatic Noise Reduction System) format Input level (dB)
as a means to reduce the noise of the difference signal
Fig. 11.7. Input and output properties using dbx format (5)
recorded in the UHF range to produce a rear signal. JVC
cassette decks started being produced with an inbuilt
 became digitised and the Compact Cassette sound quality
11.5 Noise Reduction Development
competition came to a standstill, although the Dolby C kept
its popularity in the field of high-end machines.
The Dolby B, ANRS and dbx systems were incorporated This competition between NR systems prompted the
into cassette decks relatively early on. While this contributed development of secondary functions in cassette decks to
to the Hi-Fi capabilities of the Compact Cassette, as the make NR systems work more accurately, thereby playing
adoption of digital audio became an increasing reality another role in improving the performance of cassette decks.
from the late 1970s onwards, the Compact Cassette had to Compact Cassette noise reductions systems all worked on
further expand its dynamic range, in other words, increase the basis of compressing and expanding analogue signals.
its noise reduction effect. Every Japanese manufacturer at The operating principle was that tape recorders had uniform
the time developed and released its own noise reduction recording and playback properties, that is, the signal level
system, working on its own developments as well as joint during recording and playback was identical and that the
developments with manufacturers in the West (Fig. 11.1). frequency response was even. When this assumption was
Meanwhile, the veteran company Dolby announced the disproved, there was a fear that the difference in levels would
Dolby C, the successor model to the Dolby B. The Dolby C increase through compression/expansion. Any disparity in
system ran two B-type operations in stages, expanding its frequency response potentially meant that the NR could
noise reduction range to lower frequency areas, producing malfunction. While there was a certain degree of tolerance
a noise reduction effect of 20dB or more. Comprising two in the precision and stability of Compact Cassette machines,
B-type circuits together, as shown in the block diagram in if different tapes were to be used, there would be subtle
Fig. 11.8, the C system could also operate as a B-type system differences in sensitivity and frequency response, depending
by running only one phase on one circuit. Not only was it on the tape. To prevent this variability, the drawback of noise
easy to switch between B and C operation, there were also reduction, and to ensure high sound quality through precise
obvious cost benefits to combining it all in an integrated operation, high end machines appeared equipped with a
circuit. While it offered less in terms of noise reduction and “calibration function” for each tape. These machines had a
tone sensitivity compared to other formats, it performed at standard signal generator inside them and could provide level
an adequate level to be used as a Compact Cassette noise adjustment for recording and playing back each tape; the
reduction system in the digital audio era. Given the degree frequency response could also be adjusted according to the
of familiarity with the “Dolby” name, many manufacturers amount of bias. Some of these sets were operated manually,
deemed it beneficial to adopt the Dolby C system; thus, the while some sets were developed that used a CPU to make
Dolby C secured its place as the de facto standard system. these adjustments automatically.
When CDs appeared in 1982, the audio world immediately

Fig. 11.8. Dolby C block diagram (6)

 Table 11.1. Performance Comparison of Various NR Systems(7)

NR Format Dolby B ANRS Super ANRS DNL dbx II Adres High-Com II Super D Lo-D Compander
Telefunken / Sanyo
Developer Dolby Lab. (UK) JVC Philips (Netherlands) dbx (USA) Toshiba Nakamichi Hitachi
Hitachi /
Local brand Various Victor Toshiba / TEAC Aurex Nakamichi Otto Lo-D
Aiwa
Nakamichi

30dB (10kHz)
NR Effect 10dB (5kHz+) 10dB (5kHz+) 15dB (10kHz+) 30dB+ 20-25dB 35-40dB 20dB+
20dB (1kHz)
5dB (1kHz) 5dB (1kHz)
17dB (100Hz)
Relative Expansion only Linear Linear
Variable Variable (variable) Linear Variable Variable
level
Compression / Relative Variable Variable Variable No Variable Variable No No
frequency
expansion
Compression 1:2 1:1.5/1:1 1:2/1:1 1:2 1:1.5
properties rate
High-level No No +6dB (10kHz) No 1:2 1:1.5 1:2 1:2 1:1.5
compression
No Single band Single band Split in two Split in two Single band
Frequency division No Wide-range only control control (48kHz) control
Level detection RMS RMS RMS RMS RMS RMS Peak response Peak level

Level detection channel LR separately LR separately LR separately LR separately LR separately LR separately LR separately L+R
Emphasis Fixed + variable Fixed + Variable Fixed Variable Variable Fixed No
variable

1 several ms 1 High-level: fast

Attack time (ms) 1.5-2 Low-level: slow

Encoding 200
Recovery time (ms) 300 100 100 200
Decoding 400

Level matching Required Required Not required Not required Required Required Not required Not required
Emphasis Reduce Reduce Reduce
Breathing compression compression ratio compression ratio Reduce
Not required Not required Not required high-level ratioVariable Bandwidth compression
countermeasures recording emphasis division Bandwidth division ratio

Fast attack time Fast attack time Weighting Weighting High-level

Clipping Limiter Fast attack time Fast attack time circuit fast attack
Weighting circuit circuit time

Used in decks Bandwidth Low-level

with good frequency Variable Bandwidth slow attack
Other split in two split in two time safeguards
response and level emphasis Variable emphasis group delay
variations
References 6) Takasu, Daihachiro. “Waga-Sha no Noizu Ridakushon
1) Saishin Ōdio Gijutsu [Latest Audio Technology], Shisutemu: Tiakku [Our Company’s Noise Reduction
Ohmsha, April 1991, p. 15. Systems: TEAC]”, JAS Journal, 1981, Vol. 21, No. 10.
2), 3), 4) Shirai, Tatsuro. “Waga-Sha no Noizu Ridakushon 7) 50 Years of Audio. Japan Audio Society Publishing,
Shisutemu: Nihon Bikutā [Our Company’s Noise December 1986, p. 512.
Reduction Systems: JVC]”, JAS Journal, 1981, Vol.
21, No. 10.
5) Kogure, Takuyo. “Waga-Sha no Noizu Ridakushon
Shisutemu: Matsushita Denki Sangyō [Our Company’s
Noise Reduction Systems: Matsushita Electric
Industrial]”, JAS Journal, 1981, Vol. 21, No. 10.
12 Advances in Driving Motors
reel tape recorders. It was also very important for record

12.1 Early Mechanisms and Motors players and tape recorders to maintain an accurate rotation
speed, so hysteresis synchronous motors, which could rotate
The early Compact Cassette tape recorders were released in sync with the power frequency, were well suited to audio
with single-motor mechanisms, aimed at maximising equipment.
functional performance, downsizing and simplifying (Figs. Rapid improvements were made to the overall design of
12.1, 12.2). Since the overall machines could be made both the deck-type and portable-type machines. The main
smaller than the open-reel systems and could get by with driving mechanism in both types changed from an AC
the minimum necessary power to drive the tape, developers motor to a DC motor, due to the development of servo
used low-output DC motors in them. However, the high- motor technology to maintain a steady rotation speed
performance cassette deck followed on the tail of these and successive developments on DC motors designed to
machines and grew in popularity. To have the performance suit audio equipment. This resulted in greater reciprocal
and function of serious audio equipment, these tape recorders interaction: the mechanism design required the motor to be
had to meet higher standards than the small-scale machines high-spec, as it was the core device; in turn, the mechanism
in terms of the accuracy and reliability of the machine itself. had to be more advanced to handle the new motor. The
While they still had the same tape recorder mechanisms Compact Cassette size restrictions would have been
to play Compact Cassettes, these new machines were the another factor, as this would have naturally played a part in
successor models. The early deck-type machines were determining the size of the mechanism and prompted the
intended for use in the home; many of them had the AC use of small-scale DC motors. Among other factors, suitable
motors that were in standard use in the open-reel machines. motors for audio equipment had to run smoothly and silently
When the Compact Cassette appeared, DC motors were with no rotational irregularities; they had to guarantee a long
used in toys and trivial consumer electronic goods; they had operating life of at least 1000 hours under a certain load; they
hardly ever been used in audio equipment. By contrast, there had to produce minimal electromagnetic noise and readily
were already a number of superior AC motors designed for produce a prescribed rotation speed.
audio systems, having been used in record players and open-

Fig. 12.1. Inside of an early cassette tape recorder (1)

 Capstan motor
Reel stand L Reel stand R

Flywheel

Fig. 12.2. Basic single-motor tape deck mechanism (2)

12.2 Servo Motor Development

Many of the DC motors used in the early Compact Cassette

machines had mechanical governors as a means to attain
fixed speeds. A mechanical governor is a switch that uses Fig. 12.3. Mechanical Governor (3)
centripetal force generated in proportion to rotation speed The governor motor had limitations to the constancy of speed
to automatically turn the power supply to the motor on or it could produce; it also generated electrical noise and was
off (Fig. 12.3). The counterweighted governor is directly somewhat unreliable. In light of these factors, efforts were
connected to the motor’s rotational axis; as the rotation speed made to introduce servo technology, as this was capable of
increases, the centripetal force makes the counterweights producing a higher-performance motor. Servo motors work
move along the outer circumference, thereby braking by detecting rotation speed with a sensor and then using
a connection. The current stops and the rotation speed that information to perform feedback control on the driving
decreases. If the rotation speed drops below a certain limit, current. A frequency generator (FG) was developed to be
the centripetal force decreases and the connection is made; used as a sensor, working on the same principle as an AC
the current resumes once more. Repeated tens to hundreds generator. The FG principle comprises a multiple-pole ring
of times per minute, this operation serves to maintain a magnet being rotated to induce an alternating current of a
fixed rotation speed. Although it is a relatively simple, low- frequency corresponding to the rotation speed in a coil wound
cost mechanism, it is prone to generating electrical noise as around a comb-shaped sensor. If the number of N poles is
the connection joins and breaks. Furthermore, if constant designated as N and the rotation speed as X rps, the current
speed is a strict requirement, it becomes very complicated to generated corresponds to N x X Hz. Figs. 12.4 and 12.5 show
regulate contact pressure and other factors, which affects the the structure and principle of FG. Fig. 12.6 shows the internal
reliability and longevity of the device. While only average in workings of an actual motor with a FG incorporated.
performance, such motors were often used in popular-model
tape recorders because they were simple and cheap.

Fig. 12.4. Complete FG and comb-shaped

sensor component structure (4)
 The FG output signal varies as shown in Fig. 12.7 (1) as
450(rpm)=7.6(rps)
7.6(rps)×90=684(Hz) the rotation speed varies. It takes the form of a combination
of AM modulation, in which the amplitude changes in
90 pairs of magnetic Arm
poles formed within Head (90 pairs of

proportion to the rotation speed, and FM modulation, in

a ring-shaped magnet magnetic poles in total)

which the frequency changes in proportion to the rotation

speed. The AM control signal method was often used
in devices where cost was a major factor, as it could be
achieved with a relatively simple electronic circuit, but it
was not capable of demonstrating the full capabilities of the
highly-anticipated FG. By contrast, the method shown in Fig.
12.7 used to achieve a control signal through FM was called
frequency control. It was often used in high-end machines
Fig. 12.5. Diagram of the FG principle (5)
such as tape decks as, although costly, it was fully capable of
high servo performance.
Cassette deck mechanisms started out as basic, single-
motor devices and developed into two-motor devices with
independent motors for driving the reels, as shown in Fig.
12.8. This format enabled the dedicated use of the capstan-
driven motor, which was key to precise tape feeding, making
it possible to achieve high performance. A “direct drive”
type was also developed, which had the capstan directly
FG component connected to the motor axis.

Fig. 12.6. Example of a standard DC motor (6)

Reel stand L
Capstan motor
The size and frequency of the voltage generated are in Reel motor
Reel stand R
proportion to the rotation speed and either can be used as a
control signal. By increasing the number of magnetic poles,
it is possible to increase the accuracy of the sensor and gain
a high-frequency signal even with a low rotation speed.
However, if there are an excessive number of magnetic
poles, the output decreases and the S/N ratio gets worse,
thus reducing the reliability of the sensor. Consequently,
an appropriate FG with an appropriate output suited to the
rotation speed used should be incorporated into motor design
and assembly.

Flywheel
(1) FG output
signal wave Fig. 12.8. Basic two-motor tape deck mechanism (8)

12.3 Direct Drive Motors

The direct drive system, with the capstan directly connected

to the motor axis, was suited to audio equipment, as it
could produce a low rotation speed with minimal vibration
or operating noise. It was also simpler and more reliable
than other indirectly-driven systems, which used a power
transmission mechanism such as a belt or idler as a
reduction drive for the capstan. However, indirectly-driven
Standard voltage Vs
(2) Control signal systems allowed the rotation speed to be set at a more
efficient rate and made it easier to maintain driving torque
output wave

through deceleration. They were likely to be used in small,

Fig. 12.7. FG output signal processing (section) (7)
inexpensive motors, giving a greater freedom of choice with the NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories
in motor selection. On the other hand, since intermediary to produce the DL-103. Although they developed this
components were used in power transmission, the overall cartridge in 1964 as a business-use device for use in FM
structure of servo driving systems was more complex, stereo broadcasting, it brought in a lot of interest from
making it a little more difficult to operate the control system audiophiles who were impressed by the high sound quality
to its full capacity. Direct drive systems were quite the of the FM stereo broadcasts. The MC cartridge was released
opposite: they were mechanically simple and readily allowed in 1970 for consumer use and became well-loved throughout
accurate servo control. A large-diameter flywheel could the world as a high-performance device. Incidentally, it is
not be used where there was a low rotation speed, or in a still being sold to this day. As well as developments to the
Compact Cassette tape recorder, so moments of inertia were components in the transducer unit, such as the cartridge and
not a reliable option. It was therefore necessary to design the the tonearm, developments were also taking place on the
motor making the output frequency of the FG that detects turntable drive mechanism, with remarkable improvements
the capstan rotation speed as high as possible, widening being made in performance, such as progressing from the
the servo bandwidth and making the rotation as smooth as idler drive to the belt drive and introducing servo technology.
possible. This required a brushless motor, which, although it Matsushita developed a low-speed brushless DC motor quite
was not cost-effective, was designed for use in high-end tape early on to be used in record players, announcing its brushless
recorders. DC direct drive phono motor technology in 1969. While
Open-reel machines had quite spacious mechanisms, with a Sony also developed a direct drive phono motor around the
greater degree of freedom in terms of the drive system design same time, this was an AC motor. Although Matsushita was
and choice of motor; hardly any of them used a direct drive the first to announce direct drive technology, Sony released
system. Direct drive motors were probably first developed the TTS-4000 (Fig. 12.12) and the PSE-4000 record player
for use in record players. Matsushita developed a low-speed system incorporating it in 1970, about one month earlier
brushless motor for record players quite early on; this “direct than Matsushita released the SP-10 (Figs. 12.10, 12.11).
drive” technology was then able to be used in the smaller The world’s first direct drive phono motors appeared one
cassette decks at an early stage as well. In 1970, the RS- after another in Japan. For the first time, original Japanese
272U (Fig. 12.9) became the world’s first cassette deck with technology was appearing on the world audio market.
an inbuilt direct drive system.

Fig. 12.10. Matsushita direct drive turntable SP-10 (1970) (10)

Fig. 12.9. Matsushita RS-275U (1970) (9)

While record players already held the dominant position as

the main audio playback machines, a flurry of new technology Position detection rotor
Position detection coil Turntable
and product developments after the Second World War for
all components accompanied major breakthroughs such as
LP records and stereo-capable machines, making the record
player the most important item of home audio equipment. For Rotor (magnet)
instance, while manufacturers in the West had always supplied Stator
Turntable shaft
the best pickup cartridges, arguably the most essential
Fig. 12.11. Cross-section of a SP-10
component for playback, many cartridge manufacturers
DC direct drive phono motor
appeared in Japan from around 1960 and began to produce
cartridges that were just as good as their counterparts made
in the West. In particular, Denon, which had played an active
role in the disc-style recorder industry before the war, worked
 Development of the DC Brushless
12.4 Motor

As AC motors used induced currents and eddy currents,

induced in a rotor by a magnetic field, they had greater
torque uniformity. While this was good for sound, it meant
they lacked controllability. By contrast, DC motors were
more controllable, but they had greater fluctuations in torque
Fig. 12.12. Sony AC servo-type direct drive phono motor
caused by the timing with which the magnetic poles turned to
TTS-4000 (1970) (11)
keep the motor rotating. To prevent this required increasing
the number of magnetic poles, thereby evening out the torque
Armed with the DC direct drive motor, Matsushita was generated by multiple poles. Accordingly, although the DC
able to take the top share of the world record player market. motor presented more manufacturing issues than the AC
It was also able to apply the same low-speed DC servo motor due to greater complexity in the field winding
motor technology to make a direct drive system for the structure, it was easier to increase its efficiency. As the DC
tape recorder, thereby creating the world’s first direct drive motor control circuit did not have to deal with large AC
cassette deck. It also applied the technology to a single- currents, it was very compatible with transistor circuits. It
capstan, closed-loop, open-reel machine, releasing the high- lent itself to being made smaller and lighter, making it a good
end, high-performance RS-1500U (Fig. 12.13) in 1976. Fig. candidate for small-scale devices. In fact, DC motors started
12.14 shows internal and external views of the direct drive being used in most of the audio-visual equipment that was
motor used in the RS-1500U. brought out after this. In 1970, Sony released the world’s first
direct drive phono motor using AC to ensure rotational
torque stability. While this was used in basic player systems
for a time, the DC motor steadily became the standard.
With the move to DC, studies began on how to suppress
the fluctuation in torque occurring with polarity changes in
the magnetic field. A driving method was developed that
generated torque in a theoretically linear manner rather
than increasing the number of magnetic poles. Generally,
the torque generated by a DC motor corresponds to the
product of the magnetic flux density (in the gap) between
the rotor and the stator and the current flowing through the
coil interacting with the magnetic flux in the gap. Where
the rotor is a thin, cylindrical magnet with multiple poles
Fig. 12.13. Matsushita RS-1500U (1976) (12)
magnetised in a sine wave in the radial direction, the stator
coils are positioned so that the two sets of poles have a
phase difference of 45º. A Hall effect sensor is used as a flux
detector to ensure that the current flowing through the two
coils corresponds to the magnetic flux of the rotor. When the
current is linearly altered rather than switched, the torque
generated by the first coil-magnet pair corresponds to the
square of sin θ (where θ represents the turning angle of the
rotor). The remaining coil-magnet pair has a phase difference
of 45º, so the torque generated there corresponds to the
square of cos θ. In theory, the torque then remains uniform,
since the torque generated between the two corresponds to
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 (Fig. 12.15). This type of motor is called
the BSL (Brush & Slotless) motor; it was developed to be the
main motor used in mid- to high-end audio equipment. First
Fig. 12.14. RS-1500U capstan motor (internal and external views) (13) used as a direct drive phono motor for record players, its
scope of use soon expanded to cassette deck standard motors
(Fig. 12.16) and direct drive capstan motors. An OTM (one
sensor two phase) type was also developed, which combined simple as possible, with mechanical governors for speed
this with a pole detection sensor; this arrangement was used control and back EMF control. However, the standard
to slim down the Walkman. iron-core motors were limited in terms of their size and
electricity consumption. It was deemed necessary to
increase the performance of the set with each enhancement
Direction of rotation
N.S. formation magnetised
in functionality. Small-diameter, coreless motors were
Ferrite rotating
by the rotating body body (rotor) developed around this time and began to be used in handheld
Coil force (Turns together)
tape recorders. The overall performance of the motor rapidly
(Coil affixed to base)
improved, not only in terms of electricity consumption, but
also in terms of less mechanical and electrical noise and
greater reliability. This greatly boosted the product value of
Hall effect sensor
(Switches coil the small-scale tape recorder.
current direction)
While the rotor in an ordinary small-scale DC motor consists
of a coil wrapped around a core, the rotor in a coreless motor
Coil affixed to metal base
consists of a cylindrical, “cage-like” coil; this is also called a
(Two black coils and two white coils form a set.
Arrows show the current direction.) moving coil (MC). As no eddy-current loss (core loss) occurs
when the rotor turns, it is theoretically more efficient. Other
Fig. 12.15. Diagram of the BSL motor principle (14)
changes were incorporated into the design to make it more
efficient overall, such as using rare-earth magnets to generate
torque even with small diameters, or narrowing the space in
which the rotor turns to increase the magnetic flux density.
These were also produced with inbuilt FGs and also used in
servo control (Fig. 12.17). For more information on small-
scale, handheld devices using small-scale coreless motors,
see the discussion in Chapter 6 on product developments
related to the Walkman.

Rubber isolator

Yoke

Rotor coil

Vibration-proof,
Fig. 12.16. Standard BSL motor soundproof casing

Rare-earth magnet
Frequency
generator magnet
Coreless Motors for Por table
12.5 Machines
Frequency generator coil

Brush
Small-scale tape recorders made good use of the size of the
Commutator
Compact Cassette, developing into far more fascinating
products than had been seen in the open-reel era. This
Fig. 12.17. Structural diagram of a small-diameter coreless motor
new type of small-scale tape recorder focused on being
small, lightweight and easy to use rather than being Hi-
References
Fi capable. They were also mostly battery-operated, so
1) Mori, Yoshihisa, et. al. Onkyō-Gijutsu-Shi [History of
electricity consumption was a major factor for consideration.
Reducing the electricity consumption of the motor was Sound Recording], Tokyo University of the Arts Press,
a very significant issue. To start with, standard iron-core March 2011, p. 91.
brushed DC motors were used in small-scale tape recorders. 2) Saishin Ōdio Gijutsu [Latest Audio Technology],
Motors were selected on the basis of being as small and as Ohmsha, April 1991, p. 171.
3) Tēpurekōdā no Kiso [Tape Recorder Basics]. Sony 8) Saishin Ōdio Gijutsu [Latest Audio Technology],
(Inc.) Technology Education Center, May 1985, p. 173. Ohmsha, February 1995, p. 171.
4) Ibid., p. 209. 9), 10), 12), 13) Provided by Panasonic Corporation.
5) Ibid., p. 209. 11) Provided by Sony Corporation.
6) Ibid., p. 207. 14) Tēpurekōdā no Kiso, p. 220.
7) Ibid., p. 217.
13 Towards the “Headphone Stereo”
in the world. Commercial broadcasting began in 1951 and
Popularity of R adio and Home
13.1 Audio
further developments continued on music broadcasting in
Japan.
Thus far, listening to music on audio equipment had been * AFN: Broadcasts for American troops, known as the FEN (Far
a pleasure to be enjoyed at home. Ever since Edison and East Network) in Japan until 1997.
Berliner invented the phonograph and gramophone, music
had been listened to in the living room, recorded on the
medium of records. Of course, venues such as restaurants
13.2 Higher Quality Radio Broadcasts
and bars also used music products to entertain their guests,
providing background music or music for dancing. Certain LP records were released in Japan in 1951. These records
shops also specialised in providing certain styles of music were highly regarded by audiophiles not only for their
for listening, such as jazz or classical. In any case, whether longer playing time, but also for their high-quality sound.
it was played for the purpose of listening to “good music” or High-quality music playback became popular immediately,
for creating a “pleasant environment”, it was always played resulting in a growing dissatisfaction with the quality of radio
indoors on large, bulky equipment. broadcasts. At the time, radio broadcasts were medium-wave
Radio broadcasts began in the 1920s and rapidly gained AM broadcasts. While various efforts were made to raise
popularity throughout the world, starting in the West and the quality, such as introducing stereo broadcasts using two
spreading to Japan. Broadcasting was done through cutting- AM stations, as television broadcasts gained in quality, AM
edge wireless technology; it was a ground-breaking means radio music programmes ended up being mainly so-called
of transmitting information to the masses and people became “disc-jockey” programmes intended for car radio or portable
enthralled by radio news broadcasts. Radio broadcasts radios. High sound quality was delegated to FM broadcasts.
could also transmit music, something that was absolutely By 1940, there were already around 30 FM radio stations
impossible through paper media such as newspapers, so it operating in the United States. FM broadcasting began to
was not surprising that listeners readily welcomed musical spread in earnest from 1955, when the FCC (the United
broadcasts from the beginning. While the gramophone and States Federal Communications Commission) approved
SP records had already enjoyed some degree of popularity the transmission of news and background music using
before radio broadcasts began, playing music had not really FM multiplex broadcasting sub-channels. In Europe, West
become a true form of mass entertainment, as one record Germany planned to cover the entire country with FM,
could only play for ten minutes or less and gramophones having had its medium-wave frequency allocation reduced
and records were expensive. When radio broadcasts began, following its defeat in the war. These broadcasts began in
the record industry was afraid that radio was encroaching 1945 and soon their superior sound quality attracted the
on its domain; however, the outcome was the complete attention of countries such as the United Kingdom and
opposite: repeated radio programmes were very popular France, thus spreading the popularity of FM broadcasting.
with listeners and prompted a major increase in gramophone In 1957 and 1958, the NHK opened experimental stations
and record sales. Trend-setting radio broadcasts and records in Tokyo and Osaka, while experimental commercial station
for playing music had a mutually beneficial effect on each FM Tokai started broadcasting in 1960. The Japanese had
other, creating a “home audio” culture. While pre-war radio greater hopes for high-quality broadcasts than the noise-
broadcasts in Japan focused on providing information, and interference-ridden broadcasts in the West; Japanese
such as news broadcasts, after the war there was a growing broadcasters set their sights on Hi-Fi music broadcasts from
interest in musical broadcasts, inspired by the AFN (American the start. In 1956, the 45/45 stereo LP record took hold in
Forces Network)* for American troops in Japan. Not long the industry, but stereo records were very highly priced
after the war, the AFN became a major presence in Japan, for everyday users at the time. Many audiophiles eagerly
having given rise to a large number of music fans and awaited FM stereo broadcasting. On 17 December 1963,
audiophiles. At this time, the AFN was drawing on disc- the NHK made its first FM stereo broadcast. The first song
style records recorded in the United States for its source of was Mozart’s Symphony No. 40, performed by the Vienna
music; Japanese audio engineers were profoundly inspired Philharmonic Orchestra and conducted by Herbert von
by listening to the tremendous radio sound quality afforded Karajan. The preparations for FM broadcasting in earnest
by American recording and broadcasting technology, the best had thus been steadily laid. From 1969 to 1970, the NHK and
commercial broadcasters began proper broadcasts, ushering the younger generation; programmes aimed at these young
in Japan’s FM age in earnest. people introduced new musicians and the latest pop music
from overseas, playing a major role in in the spread of music

13.3 Music Broadcasts and Recorders culture and the expansion of the record industry. There was
a growing interest in FM and FM stereo broadcasts from
The commencement of proper FM broadcasting coincided users accustomed to listening to music on small-scale radios
almost perfectly with the appearance of Compact Cassette seeking a better and more impressive sound. While they
tape recorders. These tape recorders received much preferred high-quality radios and stereos, the price of proper
attention as being capable of recording high-quality musical audio equipment was too high for young people to personally
broadcasts. The NHK and many other interested parties had afford.
put a lot of effort into the sound quality of FM broadcasts, Consequently, although music was growing in popularity,
while Japanese audio manufacturers had competed ruthlessly young people could not afford records and audio equipment.
to develop the receivers. As a result, FM broadcasts were This all changed with the appearance of the “radio cassette”.
a fairly high quality source of music. At the time, high- This machine could have been called a modern gramophone
end, open-reel tape recorders were considered suitable – a device incorporating a small-scale Compact Cassette tape
for recording music and the use of a deck-style machine recorder and a radio capable of FM reception together in one
in conjunction with stereo equipment became a favourite unit with an inbuilt amplifier and speaker. This concept and
among audiophiles. Since FM stereo broadcasts have a the attractive price meant that it received tremendous backing
19kHZ stereo pilot signal and acoustic properties extending as a personal audio device for young people. It could reliably
to approximately 15-16kHz, (in terms of specifications) the record FM broadcasts onto Compact Cassette and play them
open-reel machines had to perform in four-track stereo at back quite simply for repeated listening. Such ease of use
19cm/s. Reverse machines were also well-received, capable was one of the major advantages to this device. It continued
of long, continuous recording of music broadcasts. Open- to develop into a serious piece of sound equipment,
reel decks reached a height of function and performance in successively incorporating stereo capabilities, loud volume,
the early 1970s, when the so-called unattended recording double cassettes and CDs. The progress from radio to radio
function was added to record desired programmes from FM cassette player was one clear step in the personalisation of
broadcasts. By contrast, the Compact Cassette served as a audio. The image of audio equipment for individual use
memo recorder and was thought to be incapable of proper shifted from that of tape recorders for recording or radios for
Hi-Fi music recording. However, its ease of use, potential information gathering to that of devices for enjoying music
for downsizing and firm position as the de facto standard by oneself. The radio cassette player progressed into a small-
were enough to show promise for the future. Efforts were scale personal combo (a stereo for a child’s room); music
redoubled to produce technology capable of high quality recorded on Compact Cassette could be built up into a wealth
sound and somehow rival that of the open-reel machines. of soft assets at the user’s disposal.
Within a short time, the Compact Cassette had earned its own
place as a serious piece of audio equipment. (See Chapters 8
to 12.)

13.4 Transition towards Personal Audio

Another factor contributing to the popularity of radio

broadcasts was the personalisation of the audience. Listening Fig. 13.1. Matsushita RX-D30 stereo radio cassette player (1981) (1)
to the radio or playing music on records was entertainment The first double-cassette type
enjoyed in the living room together as a family. For a long
time, it was normal to have one piece of audio equipment per
household. When stereos started becoming popular in Japan,
most of them were bulky pieces of household furniture,
whether they were ensemble devices or separate devices.
However, Japan took the lead in downsizing this equipment
using transistors, opening up a market for portable audio
systems quite early on. Once these portable radios became
affordable in the 1960s, disc jockey programmes in the form
of late-night broadcasting became immensely popular with
 Creation of the “Headphone
13.5 Stereo”* R e p r i n t e d f r o m “ Wa l k m a n Te n - Ye a r A n n i v e r s a r y
Publication”, Sony Public Relations Office, ed. (1989)
The Compact Cassette was rapidly improving in performance Walkman a Success in Product Planning
and becoming established as the main tape recorder for Akio Morita, Chairman of Sony Corporation (at the time)
music. Users were building up collections of recorded Was it 1978? One day, Mr. Ibuka came into my office
music at their disposal. Music appreciation was becoming carrying a remodelled cassette player and a pair of
more personalised in style and individuals increasingly headphones and said, “I wonder if you could listen to a stereo
had exclusive use of their own equipment. The idea of a while you’re walking.” At the time, stereos and headphones
“headphone stereo” clearly fulfilled people’s aspirations to were too big and heavy to listen to while walking. But when
“listen to music, anytime, anywhere” and would certainly I listened to the sound on Mr. Ibuka’s remodelled player,
have a decisive effect on the audio environment of the there was definitely something better about it than listening
future. When these devices came out, some people viewed to music through a speaker. You could also listen to it by
the idea of a tape recorder that could not record as being yourself. I thought, “Well, this is quite fun!” After that, I
half-finished. However, the Compact Cassette tape recorder started thinking about where people listened to music. Young
had an acceptable level of performance and sound quality people had stereos in their rooms, cars had car stereos—but
and happened to serve the purpose of having “music you couldn’t listen to music while walking down the street. I
anytime, anywhere”. A tape recorder becoming the first thought of how I had seen people from time to time walking
of these “headphone stereos” was clearly quite by chance, along carrying a radio cassette player with them. “Young
and the concept of portable audio devices continued to people want to listen to music all the time,” I thought. I
change and develop as advances were made in CDs, MDs, started thinking with more interest about the cassette player
semiconductors and media. The greatest success factor was Mr. Ibuka had brought in to me.
in the planning of a product that enabled people to “listen to Mr. Ibuka had also suggested remodelling the popular
music, anytime, anywhere”. The goal to achieve a portable “Pressman” cassette recorder and taking out the recording
device came down to the matter of making a simple machine unit and speaker. I asked everybody, “Wouldn’t it be more
that was small, lightweight and low in energy consumption. fun if we could make a stereo much lighter?” Most of them
As there was a pre-defined tape size and mechanism for said, “That would never sell.” There was no support from
the Compact Cassette, various mechanical innovations anyone in our acoustics division either. This was because “we
and clever circuitry had to be incorporated into the tape had never sold a tape recorder that could not record”. But
“headphone stereo”, but developers finally managed to when I thought about it, we sold a lot of car stereos and they
achieve the ultimate in downsizing. could not record. So I thought, “All you need when you’re
*
“Headphone stereos” refers to a general category of devices walking is a player. Let’s definitely make one.” I got serious
perhaps better known by the pet name for the first model: the and gave the order to build a prototype. Super-express
“Walkman”. The term is used without distinction in this report. development got under way, with the strict aim of launching
it on 1 July 1979.
During that time, I was thinking, “We have to come up
with a good name for it.” One day, when I came back from
a business trip, Mr. Kuroki, who was head of the Product
Planning Center at the time, told me, “We’ve decided on the
name ‘Walkman’.” “Walkman? That’s an odd name. Aren’t
there any better names than that?” I asked. “Sorry, it’s too
late. All the packaging and posters say Walkman, so we can’t
change it. Please, will you accept it?” was his reply. “In that
case, we can’t do anything about it,” I said. It went on sale
Fig. 13.2. Sony TPS-L2 (1979) The first Walkman (2) on 1 July 1979 under the name of “Walkman” (TPS-L2). Of
course, at the time, we had no idea it would become such
a big business. I did, however, have some confidence and
In 1989, Akio Morita, the chairman of Sony Corporation thought to myself, “We can do this.” This was because I
at the time, wrote a thought-provoking passage in a knew that young people could not do without their music.
commemorative publication celebrating the Walkman’s Another reason was my own home situation: my children
tenth anniversary, outlining what sparked the creation of the were always pounding the stereo, but if they had this kind of
Walkman, the planning behind it, the naming of it and other device, I could have some quiet in the house!
matters. The passage is reproduced below for reference. When we tried to market it overseas and took it to SONAM
(Sony Corporation of America), they said, “‘Walkman’ is
weird – it’s not English. We’re not going to use that name.” 13.6 Advances in the Walkman
The name SONAM came up with was “Soundabout”. I
thought, “That’s a strange name, but we’re selling it in The first “headphone stereo” that appeared under the name of
English-speaking countries, so let’s go with what the people “Walkman” was a handheld TCM-100 recorder remodelled
in those countries say,” and decided to market it with into a playback machine. While opinions were divided as to
that name in the United States. But then Sony UK said, whether it would sell or not, product developers adopted a
“‘Soundabout’ is no good!” The English have a certain pride design that took full advantage of existing products to reduce
in being the originators of their language and they were not the risk. Since the same casing was used, the design was
satisfied. So in England, the product was marketed as the almost exactly the same in outward appearance as existing
“Stowaway”. I didn’t really know what this meant, either, but models, except for the blue exterior, which drew attention
when in Rome, do as the Romans do. to the device’s new image. The accompanying headphones
However, the Walkman got very popular in Japan and were a new, small, lightweight type that had been developed
visitors from other countries would buy them to take home and commercialised at the same time. Marketed this way,
as keepsakes. As this happened, the name “Walkman” started there was overwhelming support for the product and it
becoming known overseas. The name was easily understood became wildly popular in no time. With the huge success of
by non-English-speaking people and use of the name started the TPS-L2, planning immediately started on new dedicated-
spreading throughout the world. So I decided, “If that’s the playback models, aimed at coming up with an original design
case, let’s just call it ‘Walkman’ everywhere in the world.” I that would fully embody the “headphone stereo” concept.
gave the presidential order (I don’t really like that word) to When the Walkman came out in 1979, the market for
change the name to “Walkman” in the United Kingdom and standalone, small-scale tape recorders was smaller than the
the United States as well, uniting the “Walkman” across the radio cassette player market; there had been no investment in
world. the development of dedicated personal devices, so existing
The Walkman soon became a global hit and we put out new devices had to be used for design miniaturisation and design
models one after another. The appearance of the Walkman support. In 1981, the second “Walkman” WM-2 (Fig. 13.3)
changed the way people listened to music, which had a major was launched. This monumental model was the first to be
impact on the world. I know that when other companies later designed exclusively as a Walkman, expressly embodying
put out their own stereos with headphones, everyone called the “headphone stereo” concept and showing the way of
them Walkmans as well. the future. Competition then ensued between many other
When I was awarded the Albert Medal by the United manufacturers as well as Sony to develop a product that was
Kingdom Royal Society of Arts in 1982, I said in my speech “smaller, lighter and played for longer”. The “headphone
that “although Sony has created various new products, we stereo” fundamentally changed the way people listened to
are actually not limited to manufacturing products. We also music.
innovate with words and have made ‘Walkman’ into an
English word.” I was given a standing ovation! But what
made me happiest of all was when “Walkman” appeared in
the Oxford English Dictionary, the most authoritative English
dictionary in the world.
This means that “Walkman” has been recognised as an
English word. In the past ten years, we have given the world
50 million Walkmans, a new word and a way to listen to
music that they didn’t have before. I think we can be very
proud of that.
The brilliance of the Walkman is in its product planning.
Cassette players and headphones already existed. However, Fig. 13.3. Sony WM-2 (1981) (3)
what made the Walkman such a hit was the immense The first Walkman specifically
creativity in the product planning. While new inventions and designed as a “headphone stereo”
discoveries are important, the Walkman has proved that if we
have the sense to come up with a completely new product
using existing technology, it can develop into an entire
industry of its own.
 the head was mounted, including the battery compartment,
13.7 The challenge of miniaturisation had to be pulled out in order to load a tape and some people
would have inevitably thought of the device as a bit of a
Once headphone stereos had gained popularity, fierce gimmick. However, the cassette-case-sized Walkman WM-20
competition ensued to further enhance what were the portable (Fig. 13.4) was launched in 1983, and made a huge impact
device's most appealing features: small size and light weight. with its size. It was truly an epoch-making point in Walkman
Since the tape size was already predetermined, the devices miniaturisation history.
could not be made any smaller than this. However, one goal The ultimate miniaturisation challenge was to make the
was to make a device that was the same size as the case that perfect cassette-case-sized machine, even though it was not
the tape was put into, but this size was absolutely impossible actually possible to make a machine the exact same size as
to achieve using existing tape recorder designs. The greatest a cassette case, as the mechanism protruded a little when in
obstacle to making a tape player the same size as a tape case use. The AA battery was a constant hurdle to downsizing, so
was the size of the motor and the battery. Sony’s challenge developers worked on a new, thin, rechargeable “gumstick
was to make full use of the characteristic properties of a battery”. They also worked on other developments to
dedicated playback machine to make the ultimate small-sized downsize individual components, such as developing new,
machine. Compact Cassettes had a difference in thickness special-shaped heads that were smaller in size. The expansion
between the area into which the heads were inserted and the of the “headphone stereo” market and the significant
area where the tape was wound. This difference was around development investment that was being put in meant that it
1.5mm on each side. The first idea was to put the motor was economically worthwhile to work on these components.
into this area, so an ultra-thin, dedicated brushless motor This created a virtuous cycle in which developers actively
was developed. The standard design had two AA batteries; worked on new components, which in turn increased the
however, the developers made a detailed study of the appeal of the overall product. The WM-101 (Fig. 13.6) was
magnetic circuit in the motor and other areas and perfected released in 1985. Loaded with these new components, it
a design that could operate on one AA battery. Of course, truly was the size of a cassette case, marking the end of the
this required a new amplifier design that could run on 1.5V. size competition (Figs. 13.7, 13.8). Progress continued on
Even though there was only one AA battery, it was no simple the Walkman in various ways, such as improved function
task as to where to put it. This is where the design capitalised and performance, increased variation in models and more
on the characteristic properties of a dedicated playback advanced designs. For a long time, it remained the favourite
machine: the solution was to store the battery where the choice of portable audio device, while the cassette deck
erase head would have gone (Fig. 13.5). While this design remained the machine of choice for recording on Compact
achieved the ultimate in downsizing, it meant the unit where Cassettes.

Fig. 13.4. Sony WM-20 (1983) (4)

The first cassette-case-sized machine
Basic performance improvements continued on the cassette
deck and new technology standards were set and standardised
for it, meaning that it now could record to a very high level of
quality despite the strict specifications in place. Developers
had made good use of the characteristic nature of dedicated
playback machines and focused their efforts on making the
“headphone stereo” smaller, which added to its product
appeal. Of course, the success of the “headphone stereo”
was undeniably the very concept itself, which fundamentally
changed the way people listened to music.

Fig. 13.6. Sony WM-101 (1985) (6)

The first machine to have a gumstick battery

Fig. 13.5. WM-20 structure (5)

Motor position

Battery position

(Year)

Fig. 13.7. Changes in Walkman motor and battery positions (7)

 TPS-L2

Machine miniaturisation
(Volume ratio: where 1 is the volume of the TPS-L2)

WM-DD

WM-2
Volume (cm3)

TPS-L2

Weight (g)
WM-20 WM-101
WM-501
WM701C

Machine weight reduction

(Weight ratio: where 1 is the weight of the TPS-L2)

200

(Year)

Fig. 13.8. Progress of making the Walkman smaller and more lightweight (8)

13.8 Production Innovation the final product. This approximately halved the usual cost,
thereby boosting the line-up of low-priced products aimed at
Since the creation of the Walkman, many of the costs the global market with these domestically-produced products.
involved making it smaller and more energy efficient as
well as improving its sound quality and other functions
and performance. This work and its strong product appeal
meant that it had remained relatively highly-priced. While
the high-performance, small-scale, sleekly-designed models
were well received in Japan, the structure of the overseas
market meant that cheaper machines would sell better, even
though they were slightly bigger and had fewer features.
Accordingly, lower-priced machines, produced by latecomer
manufacturers, continued to occupy a large share of the
market. Around the mid-1980s, Sony decided to work on a
product that was competitively low-priced and launched its Fig. 13.9. P-Project mechanism (9)
“P-Project”, aiming to create a Walkman after the manner References
of disposable cameras (also called “throwaway cameras”),
1) Provided by Panasonic Corporation
which sold for ¥980.
2), 3), 4), 5), 6), 9) Provided by Sony Corporation
In an all-out cost-cutting move, the company discarded its
7), 8) “Walkman Ten-Year Anniversary Publication”, Sony (Inc.),
existing system of assembling mechanisms and electronic
circuit units separately and then putting them together. 1989.
Instead, it devised a system of directly incorporating the
mechanism unit onto a printed circuit board and dispensing
with the mechanism chassis. This system was a success.
Other success factors were the use of a lot of plastic parts and
the fact that this system used around half the usual number
of parts. The company also achieved a more streamlined
assembly process, with a one-way automated assembly
design that involved four mechanisms being made on one
printed circuit board and then separated afterwards to create
14 Invention of Digital Audio Tape Recorders (DAT)
recorders by improving the key components, such as the

14.1 Dawn of Digital Audio heads, or the hardware, such as the driving system, or varying
the optimum recording levels, this achieved little in the way
Major technological developments took place on the of improvements, which meant that nothing significant could
Compact Cassette throughout the 1970s and 1980s and it really be expected to be achieved.
finally reached a point of completion as a magnetic recording Having clarified the limitations of the existing analogue
system that performed adequately for consumer use. The machines, it was necessary to somehow come up with a
appearance of the Walkman in 1979 rapidly boosted the completely different solution. A proposal was made in the
usefulness of the Compact Cassette, making it a vital part laboratory to try applying digital technology to audio. At
of the establishment and development of a new genre of the time, digital technology was being used in computers
audio products: portable audio. At the same time, tangible and communication technology. When researchers applied it
results were being seen in the development of practical to audio recording, they could see how it was theoretically
applications for digital audio and it was considered a matter possible for the expected performance to far outperform that
of course that Compact Cassette systems would also progress of the existing analogue machines. However, while the idea
to being digital. The digitalisation of audio started with the of digital audio recording – storing the waveform of a signal
development of magnetic tape recording systems and the as a numerical value – was relatively simple, implementing
end result was the DAT (R-DAT for consumer use). The it in an actual machine was no simple matter. A vast amount
development history of the DAT is very important to digital of data had to be recorded in a far greater volume than for
audio. analogue recording; this had to be recorded and played back
Research on the use of digital technology in recording at very high speeds. The existing analogue tape recorders
and playing back audio signals began in the late 1960s, could not cope with such demands. To solve this issue, an
under Heitaro Nakajima at the NHK Technical Research idea was put forward to use a video tape recorder (VTR),
Laboratories. This was around the same time as talk of FM which was being developed for business use at the time.
broadcasts coming to the end of the experimental stage and VTRs were designed for recording video signals; they used
starting in earnest. FM broadcasts were stereo capable, had rotary head technology to record a greater volume of signals
acceptable sound quality and were very appealing to amateur at a higher speed than that of an audio tape recorder. The
music enthusiasts and audiophiles. However, there was still first audio prototype was completed in 1967, incorporating
room for improvement, as the sound quality was not quite an A/D-D/A converter and a signal processing circuit into
perfect. The question of how to improve the sound quality of the VTR mechanism (Fig. 14.2). While the prototype was
FM broadcasts triggered the development of digital audio in mono, the properties of the sound were sufficient to show
Japan. Researchers started out first by reviewing the current the great potential of digital audio. The development team
situation: completely reconsidering and reassessing every concentrated on further improvements to put it to practical
element that went into FM broadcasting, from programmes use, completing a second prototype that was capable
to transmitters and receivers. The transmission itself as of stereo. In May 1969, a general-audience playback
well as the master tape recorders used in the various parts demonstration was held at a public event hosted by the NHK
of production, such as compiling and editing sound, clearly Technical Research Institute (now NHK Science & Technical
affected the overall performance. It was clear that improving Research Laboratories). The fresh sound and lack of noise
the performance of these master tape recorders was of utmost stunned many industry stakeholders and general listeners in
importance to improve the quality of FM broadcasts. Fig. the audience. Incidentally, the demo music was an overture
14.1 shows the dynamic ranges at each stage from recording from the Rimsky-Korsakov opera The Golden Cockerel,
to transmitting. Magnetic recorders, enclosed by a dotted performed by the NHK Symphony Orchestra, a fitting song
line, had the smallest dynamic range and therefore limited choice to usher in the beginning of the digital audio era.
the overall performance of the entire system. Despite the fact The demonstration of digital audio to the public was a huge
that the master tape recorders of the day all used analogue success, but there was no means of editing the sound. The
recording, they were high-performance business machines devices were still in their early stage and would be difficult
and many of them were highly praised for their sound quality, to downsize; they also had their own digital countermeasures
even by famous recording studios. While various attempts for noise (largely because of inadequate error correction).
were made to improve the performance of these master tape The machines were not yet perfected enough to be of any
 Relay circuit
High frequency distortion 1%
(modulation distortion 3%)

Transmitter
100% modulation

Limiting amplifier

Adjustment amplifier

Adjustment amplifier

Preamplifier output

Preamplifier input

Modulation distortion 1% Standard adjustment level

Magnetic recorder
High frequency distortion 3% level
Harmonic frequency distortion 3% level Level regulation signal

Disc-style recorder
Maximum amplitude of 30 types of record Velocity
amplitude Noise level (A curve)
Average maximum amplitude of 30 types of record
Noise level (full bandwidth)

Microphone
Okay up to about 130? Equivalent sound Equivalent noise level (A curve)
pressure
Equivalent noise level (full bandwidth)

Studio
Maximum peak of 36 orchestra pieces Sound Noise level (A curve)
Average maximum peak of 36 orchestra pieces pressure Noise level
(full bandwidth)

Fig. 14.1. Assumed dynamic ranges of the entire FM broadcasting system (1)

practical use as master tape recorders for broadcasting.

The NHK put the development of digital audio recorders
on hold for the time being, perhaps because it had deemed
that it would take vast resources to address the issues in
question. However, Nippon Columbia, which had worked on
improving the sound quality of records by direct cutting, had
a technical interest in digital audio and its potential. It took
over the research and development of the technology and was
able to create a master tape recorder with it. The machine
used a so-called four-head VTR, with two-inch tape, as its
recorder, complete with a 47.25kHz sampling frequency and
13-bit linear quantization. LP records that were mastered and
produced on this digital master tape recorder went on sale
in 1972 under the name of “PCM Records” (Fig. 14.3). The
superior sound quality was highly regarded and became all
the rage among audio enthusiasts.
Fig. 14.2. Digital audio recorder prototype 1 (2)
 price and propensity to break down. In 1977, US company
Soundstream remodelled the tape recorder, developing and
announcing a four-channel DAT, but this, too, failed to gain a
commercial footing and disappeared within a few years.
While DATs started out using VTR rotary head mechanisms,
many stationary-head systems were developed because
they were thought to be more beneficial for multi-track
recording and editing. Both manufacturers and producers
were rather conservative and felt uneasy with the rotary head
mechanisms that had been developed for VTR and their ease
of use; they already had certain underlying assumptions of
what tape recorders should be like. Table 14.1 shows the
Fig. 14.3. Japan’s first PCM record (1972)
stationary-head digital tape recorder systems for business use
Recorded on a digital recorder independently
announced by each company. Compatibility required at least
developed by Nippon Columbia and used as a
a minimum level of collaboration; accordingly, discussions
master record
were held at AES to define the Digital Audio Stationary
Head (DASH) format in 1983. In 1985, the Professional
Competition over the Development of
14.2 Stationary-Head Machines for Business Use
Digital (PD) format was also proposed as a rival to DASH.
Before long, fierce competition spread throughout the world
of digital master tape recorders. Both systems had been
Digital audio was unveiled for the first time in a public independently developed by Japanese manufacturers, and it is
demonstration in 1969, taking major electrical manufacturers no overstatement to say that the technology was completely
by surprise at its tremendous potential. Inspired by the Japanese and that Japan was leading the world in digital tape
development of the digital audio tape recorder (DAT), major recorders for business use (Fig. 14.6). This accumulated
electrical manufacturers hastened their development of technology and success with new audio equipment, such
master tape recorders for business use in the early 1970s. as the “headphone stereo”, the radio cassette player and
Production technology at recording studios and other music the small-scale stereo, were major factors behind Japanese
production sites became more sophisticated, with multi- manufacturers leading the world in developing DATs for
track recording and more complex mixing processes. In consumer use.
turn, this required higher levels of sound quality with a
greater dynamic range and higher S/N ratio than the existing
analogue equipment. The audio genre began to make rapid
progress as an industry; advanced recording and playback
equipment became essential to audio device manufacturers
for assessing and analysing their machines. Given these
demands, fierce competition ensued to develop a DAT
for business use. Several fairly-perfected systems were
proposed right at the end of the 1970s (Table 14.1). Most
of the systems proposed at this time were “stationary-head”
machines, with open reel tape drive systems and heads with
multiple recording tracks on them. These were very similar
in appearance to the existing analogue master tape recorders.
Although a number of major Japanese manufacturers,
such as Sony, Mitsubishi, Hitachi and Matsushita, worked
on developing this technology together with NHK, it was
the BBC in the United Kingdom that developed and test-
built a digital recorder with a stationary head like the
ordinary analogue machines around 1972 (Fig. 14.4). The
technology was taken over by US company 3M, which used
it in a 32-channel machine using one-inch tape and a four-
channel machine using half-inch tape. Production of these
machines stopped after several years, due to their high
 Fig. 14.4. BBC stationary-head DAT prototype (1972) (3) Fig. 14.5. Sony 24-channel stationary-head DAT prototype (c. 1977)(4)

Fig. 14.6. Sony PCM-3324 DASH format 24-channel DAT (5)

Table 4.1. Comparison of Stationary-Head Prototypes for Business Use (6)

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Year announced 1972 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1978 1978 1978

BBC Sony Hitachi Mitsubishi Sound Matsushita Mitsubishi

Announced by stream Sony Toshiba
Tape width (inches) 1/2 2 1/2 1/4 1 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4
No. of channels 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2
No. of tracks 8 28 6.5 4.5 6 30 3.5 4 16
(per channel)
Tape speed (cm/s) 38 76 38 38 76 38 38 38 38
Sampling frequency 32 52 35.7 48 50 49.152 50 50
44.1
(kHz)
Quantisation (bit) 13 13 12 13 16 12.7 curve 12 15 14.7 curve
Modulation method MFM NRZ MFM MFM MFM Biφ MFM MFM Biφ
Linear recording density (kbpi) 4.4 1.73 5.55 12 3.3 17.9 17.64 3.3
2-bit parity CRCC 1-bit parity
2-bit parity Double Parity CRC Adjacent adjacent Previous
Error control winding interpolation correction Double winding code code value hold
 making it big. Machines capable of recording 1-2 hour TV
14.3 PCM Processor Concept programmes entered the market at affordable prices. These
were superior products with much thought put into their user-
Many stationary-head DATs for business use were introduced friendliness, such as having a relatively small cartridge size
as vital pieces of equipment to recording studios and other with half-inch tape. Admittedly, earlier VTR cartridges had
music production sites. The Sony DASH machines and been seen, in the form of the “U-matic” cartridge in 1971.
Mitsubishi PD machines were competing for the market and At ¾-inch, the tape in these machines was wider than in the
quickly replaced the analogue master recorders and multi- Betamax and VHS machines. This meant that the cartridges
channel tape recorders from the West that had dominated and machines were larger and more expensive, so they did
the field of business-use recorders. The following are the not become popular for home use. Nevertheless, they began
main reasons why Japan became a major power in the age of to be used by businesses such as broadcasters and came to
digitalisation. play a leading role in Electronic News Gathering (ENG).
- There were many parts manufacturers with precision The team at Sony’s research and technology division began
machining technology able to develop and supply the to wonder whether a digital audio recorder could be made
high-precision, specialised components needed for using a household VTR as a recorder. The first DAT trialled
building advanced tape running systems by the NHK was a business-use VTR; while it was not the
- Superior head processing/assembling technology usual use for the VTR mechanism, with a little effort the
to incorporate multiple narrow track cores onto a VTR itself could be made to record a digital signal. While
single head (including thin films heads made with the price of household VTRs was expected to eventually go
semiconductor manufacturing technology, etc.) down, the necessary alterations to make them into dedicated
- Technology to develop and manufacture superior DATs meant that there would probably be no cost benefits
magnetic substance and tape suitable for digital recording to mass production. Development promptly began on a
- Technology to develop and manufacture high-density, standalone digital audio circuit, with the idea that if such a
high-performance, dedicated semiconductors (signal machine could be simply used as a recorder without touching
processing, AD/DA converters, microprocessor control, the VTR technology, the result would be a household DAT
servo LSI, etc.) that was affordable to general users. Since the purpose of
- Studies on the logical aspects of signal processing, such VTRs was to record television signals, they had horizontal
as error correction and modulation method, and rapid and vertical blanking intervals; this meant that they were in
adaptation to hardware principle not really suited to recording continuous signals
- High precision general electronic components and such as audio signals. Digital audio involves treating an
mechanical parts audio signal as data, meaning that compression/expansion
Tape recorders became increasingly digitalised throughout occurs relatively freely on the time axis. In practice, however,
the world of business machines; by the mid-1980s, studios it was more difficult than expected due to digital data
and broadcasters throughout the world had replaced their processing taking up a lot of memory and costing more than
machines en mass. There were also growing opportunities anticipated. Furthermore, the idea of error correction had not
for consumers to experience digital audio sound. While been thought through. Dropout (signal loss) on a VTR has
appreciation for digital audio steadily grew among music no major effect on the picture, but it produces a catastrophic
lovers, developing the technology for consumer use was amount of noise. However, although the latest digital
considered too difficult. DATs for business use were far more technology was still lacking in many areas, Sony released
expensive than the existing analogue machines, requiring the consumer-use PCM processor in 1977, which worked
far more parts. Being open-reel machines, they were also directly connected to a VTR, kicking off the popularisation
lagging behind other consumer-use machines in terms of of digital audio machines for general users (Fig. 14.7).
their user-friendliness. There was no real expectation that
they would ever become popular-use machines. Despite
having developed stationary-head machines for business use
and gained major footholds in the business market with their
DASH and PD formats, even Sony and Matsushita struggled
to develop a machine for consumer use.
At the same time, VTR for home use was entering its final
stage of development. “Betamax” was announced and
released in 1975, followed by “VHS” the following year in
1976. Home-use VTR made its debut with high hopes of
 user-friendliness of the DAT. This led to the proposal of new,
highly-advanced, highly-desirable specifications. In terms
of performance, the DAT outdid the CD with a sampling
frequency of 48kHz and 16bit quantisation. It also offered
two hours of continuous recording on a cartridge smaller
than the Compact Cassette – it truly was a dream machine.
However, companies worked on it separately, meaning a
large number of incompatible formats, which prevented it
Fig. 14.7. The world’s first PCM processor, Sony PCM-1 from becoming popular. A major factor to the success of the
(¥480,000) (1977) (7) Compact Cassette was maintaining strict compatibility; all
companies involved understood the importance of having
unified standards. Accordingly, the industry organised
a “DAT Discussion Panel” in 1983 to work on unifying

14.4 Creation of Consumer-Use DATs standards. A comparison was made between the R-DAT and
S-DAT formats and uniform standards were formulated for
both formats. Around two years later, in 1985, technical
Digital recording had been limited to the world of business, specifications were issued (Tables 14.2, 14.3) for S-DAT and
but the advent of the PCM processor meant that it could R-DAT, based on the results of various investigations and
now be enjoyed in the home as well. As general users came experiments. Having compared the two formats, a comment
into increasingly more frequent contact with digital audio was passed acknowledging the advantage of R-DAT in terms
with this machine, its sound quality began to receive more of short-term implementation. Consequently, R-DAT was
attention in publications such as audio magazines. This first commercialised as a DAT for consumer use (Figs. 14.10,
earned recognition of digital audio as something with appeal 14.11). The following section discusses the development of
and potential, and raised expectations regarding it. Around each DAT format for consumer use.
the same time, the audio world was ablaze with news of
developments and format disputes in relation to digital audio
discs, which later led to the Compact Disc. As expectations
regarding digital audio grew, naturally, so did the idea
to digitalise the Compact Cassette, the leading magnetic
recording system for consumers. In fact, as the CD was being
developed, audio companies were researching digital tape
recorders for consumer use; however, by the early 1980s,
none of them had made it any further than the laboratory
stage. Even amidst this race to develop a digital tape recorder
for consumer use, competition was raging between the
stationary-head (S-DAT) format, which focused on the audio Fig. 14.8. Sony S-DAT prototype (1981) (8)
aspect, and the rotating-head (R-DAT) format, which aimed
to improve on the existing VTR technology (Figs. 14.8,
14.9).
The CD – a digital version of the existing analogue records
– entered the market in 1982 and immediately took hold as a
music storage medium. CDs and CD players were a system
with overall appeal that not only offered good sound quality,
but also a novel shape, superior digital operability using TOC
data and the convenience of random access. The successful
introduction of the CD intensified the race to develop digital
recorders for consumer use. The term “DAT (Digital Audio
Tape-recorder)” seems to have taken hold around this time to Fig. 14.9. Sony R-DAT prototype (1982) (9)
refer to digital audio tape recorders for consumer use.
Developers thought up ideas to combine the far superior
sound quality of digital audio with an extra recording area for
additional information, called sub-code, to vastly improve the
 Table 14.2. Main S-DAT Specifications (10)
Recording/Playback Mode
Mode Pre-recorded
Standard Option 1 Option 2 Option 3
(1) No. of channels 2 2 2 2 2 2

(2) Sampling frequency (kHz) 48 32 32 32 44.1

(3) Quantisation (bit) 16 16 12 12 16

(4) No. of data tracks 20 20 20 10 2 20

(5) Tape speed (cm/s) 4.76 3.17 2.38 4.76 4.37

(6) Transfer rate (MBPS) 2.4 1.6 1.2 1.2x2 2.205

(7) Linear recording density (kBPI) 64

double Reed-Solomon code
(8) Error correction code C2: (29, 27, 3) C1: (40, 32, 9)

(9) Modulation method 8-10R

(10) Redundancy (%) 36

(11) Sub-code rate (kBPS) 128 85.3 64 64x2 117.6

(12) ID code rate (kBTS) 10 6.66 5 5x2 9.19

(13) Cassette dimensions (mm) 86x55.5x9.5

(14) Maximum recording
time (minutes) 90 135 180 90 98
(tape thickness 10μm)

Table 14.3. Main R-DAT Specifications (11)

Recording/Playback Mode Dedicated Playback Mode

Mode
Standard Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Normal Track Wide track
(48k mode (32k mode) (32k-4 CH mode) (32k-4 CH mode) (44k mode) (44k-WT mode)
No. of channels (CH) 2 2 2 4 2 2
Sampling frequency (kHz) 48 32 32 32 44.1
Quantisation (bit) 16 (linear) 16 (linear) 12 (non-linear) 12 (non-linear) 16 (linear) 16 (linear)
Linear recording density (kbpi) 61 61 61 61.1
Areal recording density (Mbpi2) 114 114 114 76
Transfer rate (Mbps) 2.46 2.46 1.23 2.46 2.46
Sub-code capacity (kbps) 273.1 273.1 136.5 273.1 273.1
Modulation method 8-10 modulation method
Correction method double Reed-Solomon code
Tracking method Area split ATF
Cassette size (mm) 73x54x10.5
Recording time (minutes) 120 120 240 120 120 80
Tape width (mm) 3.81
Tape type Metal powder Oxide tape
Tape thickness (μ) 13±1μ
Tape speed (mm/s) 8.15 8.15 4.075 8.15 8.15 12.225
Track pitch (μ) 13.591 13.591 20.41
Track angle 6° 22'59.5'' 6° 23'29.4''
Standard drum specifications φ30, contact angle 90°
Drum rotation speed (r.p.m.) 2000 1000 2000 2000
Relative speed (m/s) 3.133 1.567 3.133 3.133 3.129
Head azimuth angle ±20°
Notes Always equipped with dedicated Always equipped with dedicated
Always equipped Half-speed option
Option for PCM music tape mode music tape mode
with standard 4ch option
broadcast recording for long recordings Playback only; Playback only;
recording mode
cannot record suitable for contact printing

Fig. 14.10. Sony DTC-1000ES, the first R-DAT machine (1987)

Fig. 14.11. Portable R-DAT Sony TCD-D3

 Format Competition in Developing recording density could be compensated for with “data
14.5 DATs for Consumer Use compression technology”. This was a second-generation
DAT with sound quality rivalling that of the CD. The
Confident in its accumulation of tape recorder technology, cassettes were also compatible with the Compact Cassette
Sony’s research and technology division set about system and there was a standard in place to ensure that a
researching and developing a consumer-use DAT in earnest DCC machine could record and play DCCs as well as play
in the late 1970s. At the time, the question of what Compact Cassettes. However, the DCC lost out to the MD
technology could be used to achieve a consumer-use DAT and disappeared off the market within a short space of time
was a topic of heated debate among audio engineers. There (Fig. 14.13).
was no obvious answer, which in itself often let to sharply
opposing views among engineers. There were several
opposing groups of engineers at Sony, each advocating its

Tapeline
centre line
own opinion. The path Sony took was to have these groups

Tape
centre
develop three separate formats concurrently.

14.5.1 Stationary Heads

This was the archetype for the S-DAT format, based on the
same tape running system as the existing cassettes. This head
could record multiple tracks at once, meaning it was capable
of handling the necessary volume of data. The main aim of
this development was to produce an ultra-precise recording/
playback head capable of recording around 20 tracks per
side with a 3.8mm tape like the Compact Cassette. To read
an accurate signal from the countless number of narrow
tracks, the playback head used the magnetoresistance (MR)
effect. Developers worked on an MR head that could read the
Tape edge
line

changes in magnetism on the tape as changes in resistance

Tape

in the MR element. Both the playback head and recording

head utilised a new innovation called the “thin film head”,
made with semiconductor processing technology. This Fig. 14.12. S-DAT track pattern (12)
manufacturing process was later used to create multichannel
DAT heads for business use. Fig. 14.12. shows the S-DAT Recording Playback

track pattern.
Philips later developed the S-DAT idea into the Digital
Compact Cassette (DCC) system. Since the S-DAT system
had 20 tracks for the main audio data, it required a very
precise tape running system and advanced signal processing. Digital
recording/playback
The DCC system had less than half the number of tracks,
allowing the heads and the overall system to be simplified. Analogue playback
Any performance limitations due to the reduced

Fig. 14.13. DCC track pattern (13)

14.5.2 Rotary Heads

The so-called R-DAT format was used by a minority of
companies in the industry who hoped to produce a consumer-
use DAT with this format. The key part in the rotary head
system was the rotary drum, which included the heads. This
required redeveloping the entire system from scratch. It was
a major hurdle for manufacturers to develop a dedicated
mechanism when they had only ever built the existing style was working on another DAT format. The aim of this design
of tape recorders and had never worked with a helical scan was not just the minimum necessary development to improve
tape drive system. Generally, it takes time to develop a new sound quality through digitalisation, but rather to create an
mechanism, building up experience and testing prototypes. ambitious new product that used digitalisation technology to
There was much more involved in this development than for its maximum potential to achieve a level of miniaturisation
the stationary head, which only required remodelling existing thought impossible in a tape recorder, thus creating new
parts to make them smaller and concentrating on producing value in the product. The product was the NT system, with
a multi-channel head. Sony was working on an 8mm a sampling frequency of 32kHz and 12-bit quantisation,
video around the same time and pushed forward with DAT capable of two hours of digital recording on an ultra-small
development in this format. It was fairly straightforward cassette the size of a postage stamp. It was launched in 1992
for the audio engineers to learn and use the unfamiliar as the “NT-1”. Housed in a tiny casing and powered by a
rotary head technology, such as the various components single AA battery, the device was packed with a mechanism
and the tape drive technology. The developers worked as small and precise as a watch as well as a circuit for
on a dedicated audio mechanism using VTR rotary head every function from recording to playback to digital signal
technology, taking care to simplify and downsize it to make processing. The small size of the specially-developed tape
it more appealing (Fig. 14.14). By making maximum use of was astounding; it even appeared in the 1994 Guinness Book
existing technology, they were able to keep the development of World Records as “the world’s smallest mass-produced
reliable and rational. The R-DAT system became a tape” (Fig. 14.15).
significant piece of recording equipment in its day. It had The mechanism developed for this machine made full use of
good functionality and performance and reached an adequate the distinct nature of digital data with a non-tracking rotary
level of completeness as a consumer product quite early on, head system that traced the signal-recorded area (track)
becoming recognised as the first DAT for consumer use. It multiple times, reading only the necessary information
was made into a series of products: decks, portable machines without fully tracing the entire track. The mechanism then
and professional equipment, and was sold all over the world. re-aligned this digital data along the time axis, producing
the correct signal. The product name “NT” was an acronym
for “Non-Tracking”. The ultra-small cassette itself had a
number of clever ideas incorporated into it. The device also
had a non-loading mechanism, whereby the drum on which
the rotary heads were mounted was inserted into the cassette.
The mechanism had to be miniaturised to achieve this (Fig.
14.16). With low electricity consumption in its electronic
circuits as one of its goals, it offered astounding performance
by running on a single AA battery. While this was a very
technically ambitious development that fully incorporated
digital technology and mechatronics, it did not succeed as a
business venture. This was perhaps because the greater the
detail, the more time it took to develop. It was released in
1992, the same year as the MiniDisc (MD); this was the era
of second-generation digital recording systems using digital
compression technology. The MD made full use of this
Fig. 14.14. R-DAT mechanism
Drum diameter: 30mm compression technology and showed great promise for the
Winding angle: 90º future. This provided a good opportunity to get a number of
No. of heads: 2 interested parties thinking about the possibilities in switching
No. of motors: 4 to semiconductor memory recording media, which was still
quite expensive at the time.
14.5.3 NT Format
The stationary-head S-DAT prototype (Fig.14.8) was
announced in 1981, followed by the rotary-head R-DAT
prototype (Fig. 14.9) in 1982. These formats continued
to develop and were put up for examination at the “DAT
Discussion Panel” with the aim of standardisation. While
these developments in the digitalisation of the Compact
Cassette continued, Sony’s research and technology division
 a time-shift function. Music/video copyright holders were
becoming increasingly nervous about the growing spread of
machines capable of making copies. Hardware developers
for consumer-use DATs had given this matter some
consideration; the first machine released had its specifications
set in such a way that it could not digitally record at 44.1kHz,
the sampling frequency of CDs. However, this created a
discord between those creating the content and those creating
the hardware. It was difficult to dispel users’ doubts and
misgivings, thus tripping the DAT up in its initial sprint.
The hardware and content factions entered into a number of
negotiations over what was arguably the world’s first digital
copyright issue; by 1990 they had reached an agreement. The
two essentials of the agreement were as follows.
Fig. 14.15. Sony NT-1 and exclusive tape (1992) (14)
(1) Serial Copy Management System (SCMS) technology
that restricts copying shall be used when making digital
Tape guide copies, preventing unlimited copies being made.
Roller (2) Each country shall develop legislation to apply a private
copying levy system to digital recording equipment and
Tape running
direction media (such as tape).
Rather than determining whether a single copy was
Roller
Tape guide prohibited/permitted, the SCMS prohibited/permitted
Tape Capstan copies according to the source of the recording. The system
determined whether or not a digital copy was prohibited/
Drum
permitted according to what the original source of a digital
copy was. This meant that first-generation protected works
Fig. 14.16. Non-loading mechanism (15) (such as CDs) could be copied, but following generations
could not be copied. The goal of this was to prevent a flood
of “copied works of the same quality as the original”, which

14.6 Copyright Issues was one of the advantages of digital recording. This was a
compromise to uphold consumers’ right to private copying as
Given its overwhelming recording and playback capabilities, well as alleviate the threat digital copying posed to copyright
the appearance of the consumer-use DAT was an epoch- holders. Combining this system with a private copying levy
making event in tape recorder history. The nature of system resulted in agreement over the first digital copyright
digital recording meant that the content would not become issue in history.
corrupted through copying, which sparked a debate over Around the time that CDs were announced, Sony and
so-called digital copyright issues. In 1987, CD shipments Philips came up with a unified standard for transferring
were outselling analogue records; CDs had become a major data between digital audio machines. This was called the
revenue source for the record industry. The appearance Sony Philips Digital Interface (SP-DIF) and was used in
of the DAT, which could record CDs without losing any business machines. After CDs hit the market, the standard
sound quality, inevitably presented a major threat to those was developed into the international standard IEC958 (now
with financial interests in the music content. Although IEC60958) for consumer use. Specific SCMS information
tape recorders had typically been used up until that time was transmitted along with audio data according to standard
to copy records onto Compact Cassette and listen to them IEC958; this additional information included information
on “headphone stereos” or car stereos, the established pertaining to the generation of the content (music) being
interpretation of music copyright in Japan allowed private played. The information also determined the source machine
recordings to be made for use within the household. A and the destination machine and distinguished what kind
decision by the Supreme Court of the United States in the of machine the digital data came from. This information
so-called “Betamax case” in 1984 held that home use of a determined the behaviour of the recorder receiving the
VTR does not constitute copyright infringement. Rather digital data. Tape recorders could of course record non-
than permitting copying, the decision interprets that it is copyrighted works. Material recorded privately by users with
lawful for consumers to use a VTR as technology that offers no copyright claims to it could be freely digitally transferred
and copied on SCMS machines. This agreement allowed References
digital copying from first-generation CDs only. In 1990, the 1) Mori, Yoshihisa, et. al. Onkyō-Gijutsu-Shi [History of
DAT re-emerged as an SCMS-compatible device and was Sound Recording], Tokyo University of the Arts Press,
welcomed as the ultimate tape recorder by audiophiles, semi-
March 2011, p. 143.
professionals and even fully-fledged professionals. Later,
2) Ibid., p. 144.
second-generation digital recorders for MD, DCC and other
media, aimed at a wider range of users, also started using this 3) Ibid., p. 145.
system that had been established for the DAT. The transition 4) Onkyō-Gijutsu-Shi, p. 145.
to SCMS was relatively smooth and a definite market for 5), 7) 14) Provided by Sony Corporation.
these recorders developed within a short space of time. 6) Onkyō-Gijutsu-Shi, p. 146.
The digital copyright debate started with the emergence of 8), 9) Ibid., p. 148.
the DAT. The debate continued as computer technology and
10) Ibid., p. 149.
digital video technology (DVD, BD) advanced, with the
11) Ibid., p. 150.
protection and use of digital content becoming a major topic
of concern. 12) Ibid., p. 152.
13) Ibid., p. 153.
15) Ibid., p. 154.
15 Conclusion
The most common style in which people listen to music today unsuitable for music recording, one of the main purposes
is of listening to music stored in a semiconductor memory for recorders. Various Japanese manufacturers worked hard
on a small-scale, portable device through headphones. to solve this issue, developing new magnetic substances
Small-scale, battery-operated devices enable people to for the tape, new head materials, more precise mechanism
listen to music while on the move, at a destination point, or designs, smaller motors for sound applications and improved
individually at home through headphones. Making music technology for rotation control. These developments
personally accessible anytime, anywhere is quite a recent culminated in the cassette deck, proving that the Compact
achievement that only became possible around 30 years ago Cassette could perform satisfactorily as a music recorder and
with the appearance of the portable “headphone stereo”. The boosting the confidence of users and manufacturers alike
“Walkman” at that time was a dedicated playback tape player in the potential of the Compact Cassette. While adhering to
that used the very successful Compact Cassette format. This standards that emphasised compatibility in some respects
historic product revolutionised the style in which people prevented any short-lived innovations, working on precise
listened to music and took hold with a culture of its own. developments in limited conditions to achieve superior
Music listening developed as a means of household function and performance perhaps suited the Japanese style
entertainment as technology developed in the 20th century. of product development. Japanese manufacturers, brimming
Related equipment and service industries were also very with confidence at having made major contributions to the
successful. It was not all that long after sound was first development of the Compact Cassette, were competent
recorded on Edison’s phonograph that listening to music enough to draft new standards and even formulated their own
recordings on disc-style records became a popular style of standards for the Microcassette and Elcaset in the 1970s.
enjoying music at home. As the record industry rose to the Japanese-made music equipment had its beginnings in the
forefront of the times, there was a flurry of development to transistor radio. By the early 1970s, it had become a major
try to improve the sound quality of recording and playback export industry, with Japan sending out audio equipment far
machines. As electrical technology advanced, research and wide on the global market. Manufacturers of mechanical
continued on the disc-style records to improve their sound and electrical components for the Compact Cassette tape
quality and lengthen their playing time. This work reached recorder developed their technical capabilities, which boosted
completion in the late 1950s with the stereo LP record, which the potential for the product. The pace of product planning
then came to play a long leading role in home audio. and development quickened, aimed at expanding the range
The theory behind the gramophone (record) was that of of possible uses for the tape recorder by making it smaller
recording sound on mechanically etched grooves in the and lighter. As the idea of portable audio made possible
medium. The idea of “magnetic recording”, wherein sound by a smaller and lighter product began to take hold, the
changes are captured as electrical changes and recorded development of integrated products such as the radio cassette
as changes in induced magnetism, had been proposed player enabled users to build up their music collections on
and the steel wire magnetic recorder invented at the end Compact Cassette. It was in these circumstances that the
of the 19th century. Magnetic recording developed in the Walkman was created: a product designed to enable people
form of the tape recorder in Germany prior to the Second to “listen to music, anytime, anywhere”. Although the
World War. Following the war, the United States and other Walkman was a type of tape recorder, the essential point
countries worked tireless on technology development, was the concept of “listening to music, anytime, anywhere”.
resulting in a superior recording machine, as discussed Other products using other media, such as CDs or MDs, were
in Chapters 3 and 4 of this report. Research on magnetic also developed along the same concept and continued to be
recording was carried out in Japan quite early on as well, popular. According to a report by Sony, it had shipped out a
with results rivalling those of other countries, such as the cumulative total of 220 million personal tape players and 120
discovery of AC bias and the development of new magnetic million personal CD players by 2009.
substances. Undoubtedly, this research and the accumulation By expanding the range of uses for Compact Cassette
of technology laid the foundation for developing the machines, Japan began to lead the world in tape recorder
domestically-produced tape recorder into a major post-war technology and products. As the age of digitalisation
industry. The Compact Cassette appeared in the mid-1960s approached, Japan was in a position to spearhead the
and started on its journey towards becoming the de facto development of technology and determining of policies.
standard. The Compact Cassette performed poorly alongside While digital audio technology, with its ground-breaking
the open-reel machines of the time and was thought to be sound quality capabilities, radically altered the face of
audio products, it was tape recorders that paved the way Cited Works
for digitalisation. Business-use tape recorders improved * Other than the literature cited in the “References”
dramatically in performance; these were used for recording section at the end of each chapter.
high-quality master copies of music content. This contributed 1) Nakagawa, Yakuzō. Dokyumento Nihon no Jiki
greatly to the creation and development of the CD. Chapter Kiroku Kaihatsu [Documented Japanese Developments
14 recounts the history of development of the Digital
in Magnetic Recording], Diamond, 26 January 1984.
Audio Tape-recorder (DAT). The consumer-use DAT was
2) Nakajima, Heitarō and Odaka, Kentarō. Zukai DAT
the ultimate tape recorder system, achieving a level of
performance that had not been possible in the analogue era Dokuhon [Illustrated DAT Reader], 25 July 1988.
on a cartridge smaller than the Compact Cassette. This was 3) Sekai no Ōdio: Tekunikusu [World Audio: Technics],
the result of a winning combination between Japan’s precise Stereo Sound Publishing, 20 May 1978.
mechatronics and semiconductor technology and its ability 4) Sekai no Ōdio: Sonī [World Audio: Sony], Stereo
to develop basic components, such as tape heads – a skill Sound Publishing, 31 October 1978.
learned and refined during the competitive development of
5) Ya s h i m a , K ō k i . S o n y C h r o n i c l e 2 0 1 0 , S o n y
Compact Cassette machines. Digital audio afforded a greater
Magazines, 10 March 2010.
degree of freedom in signal processing than analogue. The
compression process meant a reduced volume of media; it 6) Sony ES Review© Rinji Zōkan-gō (ES Review Sonī
was also possible to transfer music data without the use of Sōritsu 35 Shūnenkinen-gō) Audio 35 Years [Sony ES
storage media. The beginning of the chapter mentions that Review © Special Issue (35 Year Anniversary Issue)
the modern style of listening to music came about through Audio 35 Years], Sony Corporation.
the development of digital technology. While the role of the
tape recorder has been taken over by recording devices with
hard disks or semiconductor memory, in terms of the way
in which music is appreciated, there has been no change
in the basic concept embodied in the Walkman. Just as the
Compact Cassette “headphone stereo” revolutionised the way
in which people listened to music, the hope is that Japan’s
development and product planning capabilities will transform
digital audio with a new breakthrough that will offer users
unexpected, new experiences and enjoyment.

Acknowledgements
The author received invaluable materials and information
from many sources when preparing this “Systematic
Examination of Tape Recorder Technology” report.
The author is very grateful for having been able to ask
contributors for more detailed descriptions and accounts and
expresses his heartfelt gratitude to the following people in
particular.
Tape Recorder Flow Chart

1990 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

1857 Scott de
Martinville Invention
of the Phonautograph 1931 Blumlein Invention
of the stereo record
1877 Edison Invention of 1925 Bell Laboratories Invention 1948 Columbia Release 1982 Release 1992 Release
the cylinder-style Phonograph of electrical recording of the LP record of the CD of the MD
1949 RCA Victor 1958 RCA Victor Release
1887 Berliner Invention of
Release of the EP of the stereo record
the disc-style Gramophone
record

Gramophones and Records

Magnetic Recording in its Infancy Creation of Second Popularisation of Appearance and development Creation of
Digital audio era
Creation of the wire recorder the tape recorder World War open-reel machines of the Compact Cassette the Walkman

1888 Oberlin Smith Concept

of magnetic recording published
1898 Poulsen Invention 1928 Pfleumer Proposal of a
of the Telegraphone tape-style magnetic recorder 1977 Release of the PCM 1987 Release of R-DAT
1948 Ampex Release of the 1962 Philips Release processor for consumer use
1935 AEG Release
Ampex 200 for business use of the Compact Cassette
of the Magnetophon

Magnetic Recorders
1950 Totsuko Release of the G 1979 SONY Release
model, the first domestically- of the Walkman
produced machine
Downsizing of portable cassette machines

Improved performance of cassette decks

Small brushless
DC servos
DC bias AC bias DD motors
Essential technology for
the modern tape recorder
Stereo Dolby B NR Dolby C NR

Evaporated tape
Recording media Steel wire/ribbon Iron oxide tape Chrome tape Metal tape

Recording/playback heads
Ring heads Permalloy heads Ferrite heads Sendust heads

Three heads

Progress in component technology

Three standalone heads
using combinations

NAB Compact Cassette

standardisation standard 1962
Timeline
Year Event related tape recorders Event related to recording/broadcasting
Scott de Martinville invents the “Phonautograph”,
1857
the world’s first sound recorder
Thomas Edison invents the “Phonograph”, the
1877
world’s first cylinder-style recorder
Emil Berliner invents the “Gramophone”, a disc-
1887
style recorder
1888 Oberlin Smith publishes the idea of magnetic recording
Valdemar Poulsen invents the “Telegraphone”, the world’s first
1898
magnetic recorder
1902 Poulsen and Pedersen apply for a patent for DC bias

1920 Commercial radio broadcasts begin in the United States

1921 Carlson and Carpenter apply for a (US) patent for AC bias
1925 Radio broadcasts begin in Japan
Fritz Pfleumer completes the “Sound Paper Machine”, a tape-
1928
style recorder

1934 AEG completes the “Magnetophon”

Nagai, Igarashi and Ishikawa apply for the “Nagai Patent”, a

1938
(Japanese) patent for AC bias
1939 Wooldridge applies for a (US) patent for AC bias
1940 Weber and von Braunmühl apply for a (German) patent for AC bias
1941 Camras applies for the “Camras Patent”, a (US) patent for AC bias
1948 Ampex releases the Ampex 200 Columbia announces LP records
Totsuko releases the G model, Japan’s first
1950
domestically-produced tape recorder
1951 Totsuko completes the M-1, a portable tape recorder
1958 RCA Victor releases the RCA Cartridge system RCA Victor releases the 45/45 stereo record
1962 Philips test-releases the Compact Cassette
1963 Grundig, Telefunken and Blaupunkt release the DC International format
Philips EL-3301 becomes the first Compact Cassette machine
1965
to be released in Japan
1969 Proper FM broadcasting begins in Japan
1970 BASF releases chrome tape
Matsushita releases the RS-275U, the first direct-drive cassette
1970
deck
TEAC releases the A-350, the first cassette deck with inbuilt
1971
Dolby NR
Nakamichi releases the Nakamichi 1000, a three-head cassette
1973
deck
1973 Sony releases double-coated DUAD tape
1973 Sony releases the TC-2850D “Cassette Densuke”
1975 Consumer-use VTR “Betamax” appears
1976 Consumer-use VTR “VHS” appears
1977 Sony releases the PCM-1, the world’s first consumer-use PCM processor
1978 3M releases Metafine metal tape

1978 Matsushita releases Ångrom evaporated tape for microcassette

1979 Sony releases the TPS-L2, the first Walkman

1982 Compact Discs (CDs) appear
1983 Cassette-case-sized Walkman WM-20 released
1987 Consumer-use DATs appear
1992 MiniDiscs (MDs) appear
Tape Recorders
List of Registered Devices

Year Location Resource

No. Name manufactured Status Reason for Selection
The world’s first “headphone stereo”. The combination of a dedicated playback tape
recorder and lightweight headphones drastically changed the way in which people all
1 TPS-L2, the first Walkman 1979 Sony Archives On display over the world listened to music; the good sound quality and the concept of listening to
music anytime, anywhere was especially appealing to young people. The pet name
“Walkman” was even accepted into the Oxford English Dictionary.
Japan’s first domestically-produced open-reel tape recorder for home use. There were
2 G model open-reel tape recorder 1950 Sony Archives On display two types: the A type, with a limiter (limiting amplifier) and the B type, without a limiter.
The tape was developed at the same time and consisted of iron oxide on a paper base.
Panasonic The world’s first record turntable system to have a DC direct-drive motor developed and
3 SP-10, the world’s first direct-drive turntable 1970 On display incorporated into it. It incorporated control technology for slow rotation speeds and
Museum became the basis for direct drives in other AV equipment.
TC-50, a handheld A small-scale tape recorder with an inbuilt microphone capable of being operated with
4 1968 Sony Archives On display one hand. This model maximised the small size of the Compact Cassette and was used
Compact Cassette recorder by the crew aboard the Apollo 10 spaceship.
A small, battery-operated tape recorder for home use, with a dedicated reel called the
RQ-303 MySonic, a small-scale, Panasonic On display No. 4 and a tape speed of 4.8cm/s. Its piano-key buttons made it very easy to use. It went
5 1963 Museum on sale at a price of ¥10,000 at a time when popular-model, home-use machines were
battery-operated, open-reel tape recorder
being sold for around ¥20,000. It became very popular and took a large share of the market.
An audio unit enabling PCM digital recording and playback at home in connection with home-use
6 PCM-1, the world’s first PCM Sony Archives On display VTRs in the Betamax and U-matic formats. The harbinger of digital audio, giving consumer
processor for consumer use 1977 machines an ultra-high quality of sound that would have been difficult to achieve with analogue
technology. Priced at ¥480,000.
A battery-operated, portable stereo tape recorder capable of recording in stereo. Used Dolby NR
“Cassette Densuke” TC-2850SD, Sony Archives other features to achieve a level of sound quality rivalling that of ordinary tape decks. A popular
7 1973 On display and
model with an inbuilt microphone amplifier, playing a major role in starting the “live recording boom”.
a portable stereo recorder
Priced at ¥52,800.
Panasonic The world’s first high-level cassette deck with a direct-drive capstan motor. Improved tape
8 RS-275U, the world’s first Compact 1970 Company In storage feed precision improved factors such as wow and flutter; this contributed to the improved
Cassette deck with a direct-drive motor History Office performance of later Compact Cassette machines.
Panasonic A high-grade open-reel tape deck that achieved stabilised tape running performance with
9 RS-1500U, a zero-loop, Company In storage a zero-loop tape running system. Equipped with a DC direct-drive system on the capstan
open-reel tape recorder 1976
History Office developed for turntables.
National Museum of Nature and Science
Systematic Examination of Technology Report, Volume 17
20 August 2012

Editor: National Museum of Nature and Science (Independent Administrative

Institution)
Center of the History of Japanese Industrial Technology
(Under charge of: coordinating editor: Takayuki Nagata; editor: Toshihiko Okura)

Publisher: National Museum of Nature and Science (Independent Administrative

Institution)
7-20 Ueno Park, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-8718
Tel: 03-3822-0111
Printer: (Japanese version) Shinkousoku Printing, Inc.
Translation and