EXERCISE 7.

I.

1. 1 Bertie probably isn’t home. 2 His car isn’t in the driveway, and 3 there are no
lights on in his house.

2. 1 No members of the volleyball team like rap music. 2 Andrea is a member of

the volleyball team. So, 3 Andrea doesn’t like rap music.

3. 1 Don’t copy off Sturdley’s exam. 2 He’s one of the worst students in class. 3
My roommate told me he’s bombed every test this semester.

4. 1 Affirmative action in higher education is morally justifiable because 2 it

compensates for past discrimination, 3 provides valuable role models or women
and minorities, and 4 promotes multicultural understanding.

5. 1 This is either my car or Sandy’s car. 2 If it is my car, my key should fit in the
lock. But 3 my key doesn’t fit in the lock. So, 4 this is Sandy’s car.

6. 1 Wexford College is a really great college. 2 The students are friendly. 3 The
faculty really care about the students. 4 The campus is beautiful, and 5 the
athletic facilities are great.

7. 1 Only three people could have stolen the CD: Danny, Stacy, or Patrick. But 2
Stacy couldn’t have stolen the CD because 3 she was out riding her bike. 4
Patrick couldn’t have stolen the CD because 5 he was at a friend’s house.
Therefore, 6 Danny must have stolen the CD.

8. 1 Something is a square only if it is a rectangle. But 2 this isn’t a rectangle.

Look, 3 it has only three sides, and 4 some of the sides aren’t even straight. So,
5 this can’t be a square.

9. 1 Lasse speaks fluent Finnish. 2 It is likely, then, that Lasse was born in
Finland. 3 Anyone born in Finland is a Finnish citizen. So, 4 Lasse is likely a
Finnish citizen. 5 Finnish citizens are entitled to European Union travel
privileges. So, 6 Lasse is probably entitled to European Union travel privileges.

10. 1 Several states have abolished the insanity defense as a defense against
criminal responsibility. 2 This may be popular with voters, but it is morally
indefensible. 3 Insanity removes moral responsibility, and 4 it is wrong to punish
someone who is not morally responsible for his crime. Moreover,5 it is pointless
to punish the insane because 6 punishment has no deterrent effect on a person who
cannot appreciate the wrongfulness or criminality of their actions.

11. 1 Jeremiah is a bullfrog. It follows—since 2 all bullfrogs are amphibians —that

3 Jeremiah is an amphibian. 4 All amphibians can drink wine. So, 5 Jeremiah can
help me drink my wine.

12. 1 It’s foolish to smoke cigarettes. 2 Smoking is expensive, unhealthy, and

obnoxious to many nonsmokers. 3 I wouldn’t date anyone who smokes cigarettes.

13. 1 If today is Saturday, then tomorrow is Sunday. 2 If tomorrow is Sunday, then

we’ll be having pasta for dinner. 3 If we’ll be having pasta for dinner, then I should
pick up some red wine today because 4 in this state wine can be purchased only at
liquor stores, and 5 the liquor stores are closed on Sundays. 6 Today is Saturday.
Therefore, 7 I should pick up some red wine today.

14. 1 It makes no sense to ask God for things in prayer. 2 The thing you ask for is
either good or it is not. 3 If it is good, God will do it anyway. 4 If it is not, he
won’t. 5 In neither case can your prayer make any difference.

15. 1 If Amy isn’t dating Sturdley, she’s dating Mel or Steve. 2 Amy isn’t dating
Sturdley because 3 she doesn’t date anyone who uses drugs, and 4 Sturdley sniffs
glue practically every weekend. Thus, 5 Amy is dating Mel or Steve. 6 Amy won’t
date anyone who isn’t a football player, however, 7 nor will she date anyone who
isn’t good-looking. 8 Both Mel and Steve are good-looking, but 9 Steve isn’t a
football player. Consequently, 10 Amy is not dating Steve. We can logically
deduce, therefore, that 11 Amy is dating Mel.

II.

1. Since 1 our feelings, desires, and preferences can be either beneficial or harmful,
noble or ignoble, praiseworthy or damnable, and since 2 they can be either in
harmony or in conflict with other people’s feelings, desires, and preferences, 3 they
are obviously not accurate tools for analysis of moral issues or trustworthy
guidelines to action. (Vincent Ryan Ruggiero, The Moral Imperative, 2nd ed.)

2. 1 Suppose you had one sheep which fell into a ditch on the Sabbath; is there one
of you who would not catch hold of it and lift it out? And 2 surely a man is worth
more than a sheep! 3 It is therefore permitted to do good on the Sabbath. (Jesus,
Matt. 12:11–12)
3. 1 Wealth is not sought except for the sake of something else, because 2 of itself
it brings us no good, but only when we use it, whether for the support of the body
or some similar purpose. Now 3 the highest good is sought for its own sake, and
not for another’s sake. Therefore 4 wealth is not man’s highest good. (St. Thomas
Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles)

4. 1 School tests should be abolished. 2 Tests introduce competition where it does

not belong. 3 They deny the individuality of students’ talents and interests. 4 They
degrade education by encouraging passivity, mindlessness, and triviality. Finally, 5
they send the wrong messages about what is valuable in education and in life.
(stated but not endorsed in E. D. Hirsch Jr., The Schools We Need and Why We
Don’t Have Them)

5. 1 The rule of equal incomes is socially impracticable. 2 It would deter the great
majority of the more efficient from putting forth their best efforts and turning out
their maximum product. As a consequence, 3 the total volume of product would be
so diminished as to render the share of the great majority of persons smaller than it
would have been under a rational plan of unequal distribution. (John A. Ryan,
Distributive Justice, 3rd ed.)

6. 1 Many that live deserve death. And 2 some that die deserve life. 3 Can you give
it to them? Then 4 do not be too eager to deal out death in judgment. 5 For even
the wise cannot see all ends. (Gandalf, in J. R. R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings)

7. 1 Everything eternal is necessary. But 2 whatever God wills, He wills from

eternity, for 3 otherwise His will would be mutable. Therefore, 4 whatever He
wills, He wills necessarily. (stated but not endorsed in Saint Thomas Aquinas,
Summa Theologica)

8. 1 A square must have exactly four corners, and 2 a circle must have exactly zero
corners. So 3 a round square must have exactly four corners and simultaneously
have exactly zero corners. But 4 this is plainly impossible; hence 5 there cannot be
a round square. (Erik J. Wielenberg, God and the Reach of Reason)

9. 1 If a body moves, either it must move in the place where it is or in the place
where it is not. But 2 it cannot move in the place where it is, and 3 it cannot move
in the place where it is not. Therefore, 4 no body can move. (Zeno, “Paradoxes”)

10. 1 Education implies teaching. 2 Teaching implies knowledge. 3 Knowledge is

truth. 4 The truth is everywhere the same. Hence 5 education should be everywhere
the same. (Robert Maynard Hutchins, The Higher Learning in the United States)
11. 1 All humans have equal positive value. 2 There is no morally relevant
difference between humans and some animals (such as mammals). Therefore, 3
some animals have equal positive worth with humans. 4 Moral rights derive from
the possession of value. Since 5 humans have rights (to life, not to be harmed, and
so forth), 6 animals have those same rights. (Louis P. Pojman, Global
Environmental Ethics)

12. 1 True/false and multiple-choice tests have well-known limits. 2 No matter

how carefully questions are worded, some ambiguities will remain. 3 The format
of the questions prohibits in-depth testing of important analytic skills. 4 Students
can become so “test savvy” that objective tests measure test-taking skill as much as
subject-matter content. (Douglas J. Soccio, Instructor’s Manual for Archetypes of
Wisdom, 3rd ed.)

13. 1 Planetary exploration has many virtues. 2 It permits us to refine insights

derived from such Earth-bound sciences as meteorology, climatology, geology and
biology, to broaden their powers and improve their practical applications here on
Earth. 3 It provides cautionary tales on the alternative fates of worlds. 4 It is an
aperture to future high technologies important for life here on Earth. 5 It provides
an outlet for the traditional human zest for exploration and discovery, our passion
to find out, which has been to a very large degree responsible for our success as a
species. And 6 it permits us, for the first time in history, to approach with rigor,
with a significant chance of finding out the true answers, questions on the origins
and destinies of worlds, the beginnings and ends of life, and the possibilities of
other beings who live in the skies—questions as basic to the human enterprise as
thinking is, as natural as breathing. (Carl Sagan, Broca’s Brain: Reflections on the
Romance of Science)

14. 1 Creation has no place in a science class because 2 it is not science. Why not?
Because 3 creationism cannot offer a scientific hypothesis that is capable of being
shown wrong. 4 Creationism cannot describe a single possible experiment that
could elucidate the mechanics of creation. 5 Creationism cannot point to a single
prediction that has turned out to be right, and supports the creationist case. 6
Creationism cannot offer a single instance of research that has followed the normal
course of scientific inquiry, namely, independent testing and verification by
skeptical researchers. (Douglas J. Futuyma, Science on Trial: The Case for
Evolution)

15. 1 Nonhuman animals lack linguistic capacity, and, for this reason, 2 lack a
mental or psychological life. Thus, 3 animals are not sentient. 4 If so, of course,
they cannot be caused pain, appearances to the contrary. Hence, 5 there can be no
duty not to cause them pain. (Christine Pierce and Donald VanDeveer, “General
Introduction,” in People, Penguins, and Plastic Trees: Basic Issues in
Environmental Ethics, 2nd ed., eds. Christine Pierce and Donald VanDeveer
[slightly paraphrased])5

16. 1 All students should study a foreign language. 2 It improves mastery of

English. 3 It helps to avoid cultural provincialism by expanding the cultural
experience of students. 4 It is useful for travel and commerce. 5 It makes it
possible to do advanced work in a foreign language, including the study of the
major literary works in that language. Finally, 6 the ability to read, speak, and
think in a second language is a source of pleasure and satisfaction even if this
language is not used for travel and business and even if it does not become a field
of further study. (Geraldine Van Doren and Charles Van Doren, “A Foreign
Language,” in The Paideia Program: An Educational Syllabus, ed. Mortimer J.
Adler [slightly adapted])

17. 1 No belief is justified if it can be fully explained as the result of irrational

causes. 2 If materialism is true, then all beliefs can be explained as the result of
irrational causes. Therefore 3 if materialism is true, then no belief is justified. 4 If
no belief is justified, then the belief “materialism is true” is not justified. Therefore
5 materialism should be rejected. (Victor Reppert, C. S. Lewis’ Dangerous Idea
[slightly adapted])
EXERCISE 7.2

1. Most Californians are friendly.

2. Someone who complains or causes problems is more likely to receive attention

or help than someone who stays quiet and does not cause problems

3. Humans should not be murders

4. Human beings are the only rational creatures (on Earth).

5. It is futile worrying about something when it is too late to do anything about it

6. Natural born citizens…shall be eligible to the Office of President

7. Having a lot of money is not the secret to true happiness.

8. If I don’t see you, it means I want to break up with you

9. Most people are born equal

10. Because a well-regulated citizen militia is necessary to the security of a free

state, the right of individual citizens to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.

11. He’s used to getting hurt like it’s normal

12. With reference to your yesterday’s electronic-mail communication, I would

urge you to take into consideration that because the Jefferson Street Parking
Garage is currently closed for repairs, there are no parking facilities within close
proximity to the convention center now

13. Common sense tells us that long-established governments should not be

changed without compelling reasons. That is why, as all experience shows, people
tend to be willing to endure political abuses, while those abuses are tolerable,
rather than correct them by abolishing the forms of government to which they are
accustomed. But when a long series of abuses and injustices, all with the same
purpose, makes clear that the government is attempting to establish a complete
dictatorship, it is their right and duty to throw off the government and provide new
safeguards for their future security.

EXERCISE 7.3
I.

1. Missing premise: All Mazda Miatas are convertibles.

2. Missing conclusion: This Beetle is fuel efficient

3. Missing premise: Tahoes are not made by Ford

4. Missing premise: This is not a Honda.

5. Missing premise: This is either a Camaro or a Mustang.

6. Missing premise: Odysseys are vans

7. Missing premise: This is a Toyota.

8. Missing premise: This car doesn’t get good gas mileage

9. Missing conclusion: This is either a Honda or a Nissan

10. Missing premise: Some Fords are Rangers.

II.

1. Missing premise: Most people from Singapore speak English.

2. Missing premise: Most dangerous sports are banned

3. Missing premise: Most Swedish are blonde

4. Missing premise: It is not cold.

Missing premise: It is not snowing.
Missing conclusion: Uncle Fred will be coming over for dinner.

5. Missing premise: Students graduated from Princeton are smart.

Missing premise: Most smart people can solve this logic puzzle in the time
allotted.
6. Missing premise: Bill Gates is the former chairman of Microsoft.

Missing premise: I’m not rich

7. Missing premise: Today is Thursday.

Missing premise: Zoe is not on the golf course.

8. Missing premise: My life and all the consequences of my life are things in this
world

Missing premise: Things that will come to an end are meaningless

9. Missing premise: Bugsy didn’t drive the getaway car

Missing premise: Sparky was not working for Curley

Missing premise: Sparky didn’t commit the robbery

10. Missing premise: Jay is a Hampton College student.

Missing premise: Anyone who voted the straight Republican ticket in the last
election and regularly attends meetings of the Young Republicans is probably a
Republican.

Missing premise: Most Republicans favor a constitutional amendment banning

abortion.

EXERCISE 7.4

1.

1.
Asking the question “Will this be on the exam?” indicates that your main
interest is in getting through the course with a good grade rather than in
learning what the instructor has to teach.

2. The question is insulting to the teacher, who has worked hard to put you in a
position to appreciate the material—its intrinsic interest, its subtlety, and its
complexity.
3. Thus, the question “Will this be on the exam?” infuriates many instructors, and
rightly so. (from 1 and 2)

4. Therefore, you should not ask, nor be tempted to ask, the question “Will this be
on the exam?” (from 3)

2.

1. Science seeks to explain only objective knowledge, knowledge that can be

acquired independently by different investigators if they follow a prescribed course
of observation or experiment

2. Many human experiences and concerns are not objective and so do not fall
within the realm of science (from 1)

3. As a result, science has nothing to say about aesthetics or morality. (from 2)

4. The functioning of human society, then, clearly requires principles that stem
from some source other than science. (from 3)

3.

4.

1. All sorrow or pain is either for something that is truly evil or for something that
is apparently evil, but good in reality.

2. There is something worse than pain or sorrow for that which is truly evil,
namely, either not to reckon as evil that which is really evil or not to reject it.

3. Thus, pain or sorrow for that which is truly evil cannot be the greatest evil.
(from 2)

4. There is something worse than sorrow or pain for that which is apparently evil,
but really good, namely, to be altogether separated from that which is truly
good.

5. Thus, pain or sorrow for what is apparently evil, but good in reality, cannot be
the greatest evil. (from 4)

6. Therefore, it is impossible for sorrow or pain to be man’s greatest evil. (from 1,

3, and 5)
5.

6.

7.

1. Something can harm us only if it can exist at the same time we do.

2. So long as we are alive, our death does not exist.

3. When we are dead, we no longer exist.
4. Thus, we and our death never exist at the same time. (from 2 and 3) 5. Thus,
death can’t harm us. (from 1 and 4)
6. We shouldn’t fear something if it can’t possibly harm us.
7. Therefore, we shouldn’t fear death. (from 5 and 6)

8.

1. If God does exist and we have lived a religious life, then we will be rewarded
with eternal happiness

2. If God does exist and we have not led a religious life, then we will be punished
and lose our chance of eternal happiness.

3. If it turns out that there is no God, then it won’t matter a great deal whether we
have lived a religious life or not

4. So even though we can’t know whether God exists or not, we should “bet” that
he does, because we have so much to gain if God does exist and little or nothing to
lose if he does not. (from 1,2 and 3)

EXERCISE 8.2

II.

1. Accept: Africa is full of wild animals and it is reasonable to assume that tigers
also live in Africa

2. Accept: The Park is so huge that it is possible that wolves live there

3. Don't accept: There is no example or evidence that shows black cats bring bad
luck.
4. Don’t accept: Don’t know who said that and what the statistics are about

5. Don’t accept: There is no evidence that shows nobody sells for less and probably
having somebody sell for less

6. Accept: It is said by an astronomy instructor who has experience in astronomy

field

7. Don’t accept: There is no evidence that proves he fought in World War II

8. Don’t accept: We know that smoking is addictive. And It’s said by a tobacco
company executive who probably has motive to lie or mislead

9. Accept: Although it doesn’t come from credible source, it is true

10. Accept: It is true and it’s also said by a geography instructor who has
experience in geography field

11. Don’t accept: It’s said by a paid sports celebrity who probably has motive to lie
or mislead

12. Don’t accept: There is no evidence that proves he read the entire Encyclopedia
Britannica last summer

13. Accept: It’s said by the late TV evangelist Jerry Falwell who has experience in
this field

14: Don’t accept: There is no evidence and it’s also a statement on anti–gun
control web page, this source is incredible

15. Don’t accept: It’s from a tabloid headline, this source is incredible