History of Electricity

Chapter 1
Electromagnet Induction
History of Electromagnet
Faraday’s law of induction (1831)
Briefly, Faraday's law is a basic law of
electromagnetism predicting how a
magnetic field will interact with an
electric circuit to produce an
electromotive force (EMF). A
phenomenon known as
electromagnetic induction. It is the
fundamental operating principle of
transformers, inductors, and many
types of electrical motors,
generators, and solenoids.
Electromagnetic Force (EMF)
Faraday's law states that the EMF is also given by the rate of change of
the magnetic flux:

Factors affecting the Magnitude

of the EMF:
1. Change in Magnetic Flux
2. Time in which the Flux
changes
Number of Wires
N = number of wires
More wire → more EMF

Factors leading to increased Current in the

Coil:
1. By using a strong magnet
2. Increasing the motion of the magnet
3. Increasing the Area or the Number of
Turns of the coil

Lenz’s Law: The direction of the induced current will be such that it produces
a magnetic field that opposes the change in the magnetic flux present
Lenz’s Law

When magnet is inserted

into the solenoid, a North
pole will be induced on the
right side of coil to oppose
the incoming North pole. direction of induced
(vice versa) magnetic field

direction of magnet
from outside
Lenz’s law obeys Newton’s third law of motion which states that to every action
there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
Process Diagram
Mechanical work is done against the opposing force experienced by the moving magnet, and this
work is converted into electrical energy as indicated by induced current flowing in the circuit.

Lenz’s law also obeys the law of conservation of energy. It states that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed, therefore the sum of all the energies in the
system is a constant.
History of Electricity
Chapter 2
AC vs DC
The Current War
Thomas Alva Nikola Tesla
Edison
Westinghouse Electric
Owner of Edison Company with its CEO
Electric Light Westinghouse using
Company (now Tesla patents and
General Electric). assistance

After the invention of the lamp, the demand for Tesla had anticipated the propaganda, he continued to
electricity to homes and businesses increased sharply. improve the system. To convince the public at that
Some of them are installed with AC power. Then in
1882, Edison introduced low-voltage DC electricity time, Tesla stood on the stage and streamed AC
which was designed for business and residential electricity through his body. Edison's propaganda was
places. not proven and eventually admitted that he was
Edison started calling out propaganda that AC power wrong in estimating the electric potential of AC.
was dangerous. The reason is because in the
transmission process, this AC power uses a very high After the War of Currents, Westinghouse won the
voltage. DC electricians say that although the system is auction for a power plant project utilizing the Niagara
less efficient, it is much safer because it doesn't use Falls. Westinghouse and Tesla built the world's first
high voltages. One of the propaganda carried out was
by electrocuting animals such as dogs and horses large hydropower plant.
using AC electricity until the animals died.
Alternating Current (AC)
θ = 90 θ=0

Cos θ = the angle formed between the normal line (N) and the magnetic line (B)
Cos 0 = 1 → magnetic flux is maximum
Cos 90 ≈ 0 → magnetic flux is minimum
Since the magnetic flux is near zero the magnetic field will increase and induce the electricity.
According to Lenz’s Law: The direction of the induced current will be such that it produces a magnetic field that opposes the change
in the magnetic flux present
Alternating Current (AC)
Induced
Magnetic
Field
B
A
C
D

Induced
Magnetic
Because the wire spins and enters a different magnetic polarity periodically, the
voltage and current alternates on the wire
C Field
When the magnet completes one full rotation, the electrons will have moved all
D the way forwards and then all the way back to their original position. We call this a
cycle
B
A
We measure cycles in the unit of hertz or Hz.
50Hz = 50 full rotations/second. Electrons change direction 100 times/second
60Hz = 60 full rotations/second. Electrons change direction 120 times/second
 Disconnect Current (DC)
Commutator
Loop DC is defined as the "unidirectional"
(split ring) flow of current; current only flows in
one direction. Voltage and current
can vary over time so long as the
direction of flow does not change.
To simplify things, assume that
Brush voltage is a constant.
Armature

The arrangement, with brushes and

split rings provides that current flows
in the same direction. So, the
frequency is always zero because it
never changes direction
Comparison Table
Item Comparison Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)
When an alternating current flowing When a direct current flowing
The direction of flow of current through a circuit, it reverses its through the circuit, it will not
direction. change the direction.
The frequency of alternating current
decides how many times it reverses The frequency of the direct current
Frequency its direction. If the frequency is 50 is always zero. Because it never
Hz, it means the current changes changes its direction.
direction 50 times.
Electrons keep changes its direction Electrons move only in a forward
Movement of Electron
from forward to backward direction.
The magnitude is constant at each
The magnitude of the instantaneous
Current magnitude instant of time for pure DC. But it is
current is varying with time.
variable for pulsating DC.
Comparison Table
Power Factor It ranges between 0 and 1. It is always 1.
Impedance (Combination
Passive Parameter Resistance only.
of Reactance and Resistance).
Sinusoidal, Trapezoidal, Square,
Types Pure DC and Pulsating DC
Triangular
In a power system, the conventional In a power system, most emerging
method to transmit power is the technology for transmission systems
Transmission of electrical energy HVAC transmission system. The is the HVDC Transmission system.
losses are less but more than The losses are very less in the HVDC
the HVDC transmission system. transmission system.
It can convert from DC supply with It can convert from AC supply with
Convert
the help of Inverter. the help of a rectifier.
It can connect with the resistive,
It can connect only with the
Type of load inductive and capacitive type of
resistive type of load.
load.
Comparison Table
Source AC Generator DC Generator and battery
But it is more dangerous than AC for
Dangerous It is dangerous.
the same power rating.

Waveform

Most of the household, industrial Cell phones, Electric

Application and commercial equipment operate Vehicle, Electroplating, Flashlight,
on DC. etc.
Question
An AC generator consists of 8 windings and a cross-sectional area of
0.09 m2. The total resistance in the wire is 12 ohms. The coil rotates in
a 0.5 T magnetic field with a frequency of 60 Hz. What is the maximum
emf and what is the maximum current?
History of Electricity
Chapter 3
3 phase Electricity
Why there is no more phases?
The lamps are almost always at its
maximum brightness, so the
lighting is nearly constant. there are
still some small gaps between the
phases, and anyone could keep
adding more and more phases to fill
these gaps, but this will become
To improve lamp flicker, we can add more and more expensive to keep
another set of coils or a second phase into running all these cables. So, three-
a generator. and then connect this up to
another lamp. this rotation means that phase became widely accepted, as
the coils will experience the changing of it's a good compromise between
the intensity of the magnetic field at power provided and cost to build.
different points in time.
VRMS and VMax
Vrms
Vmax

Vrms 120V 220V 230V 230V 240V

Vmax 170V 311V 325V 325V 339V
Instantaneous Voltages (Vi)
Calculate Max. Voltage from Vrms Because the sine wave passes through the same points in both
Formula: 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 × 2 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 positive and then negative ½ cycle, we get the same V Root Mean Square
North America120𝑉 × 2 = 170𝑉 instantaneous voltages along the cycle. 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2
(02 + 1702 − 02 + −170 2 )
Europes 220𝑉 × 2 = 311𝑉 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
Added together: 0V + (+170V) + 0V + (-170V) = 0V 4
India 230𝑉 × 2 = 325𝑉 (02 + 28900 − 02 + 28900)
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
Australia 230𝑉 × 2 = 325𝑉 4
Need another way to calculate it. 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 14450
Utd Kingdom 240𝑉 × 2 = 339𝑉 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 120𝑉
AC Generator
3-phase electric generator is a generator
consisting of 3 coils with a degree angle
difference of 120 degrees. because
there is a difference in starting time
between the three so its wave form will
be the same, but it will be delayed.
 Basic Calculation
𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑥 π
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 =
180

𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑀𝑎𝑥 × sin(𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠)
Segment 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 𝑉𝑖=30° = 170𝑉 × sin(0.524)
𝑉𝑖=30° = 85𝑉
Degrees
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Rotation
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑀𝑎𝑥 × sin(𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 − (120 × 𝜋 ÷ 180))
Radians 0.0 0.52 1.04 1.57 2.09 2.61 3.14 3.66 4.18 4.71 5.23 5.76 6.28 𝑉𝑖=30° = 170𝑉 × sin 0.524 − 120 × 𝜋 ÷ 180
𝑉𝑖=30° = −170𝑉
Phase 1 Vi 0 85 147 170 147 85 0 -85 -147 -170 -147 -85 0
Phase 2 Vi -147 -170 -147 -85 0 85 147 170 147 85 0 -85 -147 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑀𝑎𝑥 × sin(𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 − (240 × 𝜋 ÷ 180))
𝑉𝑖=30° = 170𝑉 × sin(0.524 − (240 × 𝜋 ÷ 180))
Phase 3 Vi 147 85 0 -85 -147 -170 -147 -85 0 85 147 170 147 𝑉𝑖=30° = 85𝑉

To find single phase voltage, first square the voltage of each segment in
that phase

Average of phase 1 Vi^2 = 14,400

14,400 = 120V

To get more power, connect with more phases. In this case, 3 phases.
Phase 1 Vi^2 0 7200 21600 28800 21600 7200 0 7200 21600 28800 21600 7200 0
Average per phases: Phase 1 Vi^2 = 14,400, phase 2 Vi^2 = 14,400, phase
3 Vi^2 = 14,400
Phase 2 Vi^2 21600 28800 21600 7200 0 7200 21600 28800 21600 7200 0 7200 21600
𝑉𝑖12 + 𝑉𝑖22 + 𝑉𝑖32 = 43,200 = 208V
Phase 3 Vi^2 21600 7200 0 7200 21600 28800 21600 7200 0 7200 21600 28800 21600
Grid to Home
Three phase three wire system: This type of
distribution system is used for feeding balanced
three phase loads only e.g., three phase motors. As
there is no return path for out-of-balance current, in
case of unbalanced star loads, the load will get
unequal voltages in its phases. In case of extreme
unbalance, phase voltage across a load may become
almost equal to line voltage which will be hazardous.
Three phase four wire system: This system can feed
both balanced three phase loads as well as
unbalanced three loads and single-phase loads. The
neutral wire provides a path for out-of-balance
current. Therefore, even though currents are
unbalanced, phase voltages are balanced.

Three phase four wire system is the common

Voltage line phases, R-S-T on three distribution system for domestic supplies because it
gives a choice of single-phase voltage as well as three
phases are nomenclature for phase voltages; and allows unbalances too.

connection voltage lines as U-V-W on

IEC standards. Depends on region,
country or standard appliance.
History of Electricity
Chapter 4
Power Factor
What is Power Factor
The power factor is a crucial property of AC
electrical systems. It is dimensionless in
nature. It is used for both single and three-
phase AC circuits. It is the ratio of true or
actual power to the apparent power in the
ac systems.
What causes poor PF
Inductive Loads (most of)
• 90% of the industrial load consists of Induction Machines (1-ϕ and 3-ϕ). Such machines draw
magnetizing current to produce the magnetic field and hence work at low power factor.
• For Induction motors, the pf is usually extremely low (0.2 - 0.3) at light loading conditions and it is
0.8 to 0.9 at full load.
• The current drawn by inductive loads is lagging and results in low pf.
• Other inductive machines such as transformers, generators, arc lamps, electric furnaces etc work
at low pf too.
Variations In Power System Loading
• Today we have interconnected power systems. According to different seasons and time, the
loading conditions of the power system vary. There are peak as well as low load periods.
• When the system is loaded lightly, the voltage increases, and the current drawn by the machines
also increases. This results in low power factor.
Leading vs Lagging
When the circuit is
inductive, the pf is
lagging.
The loads such as
induction motors, coils,
lamps, etc are inductive
and have Lagging pf.

Power factor is unity (i.e. 1) for ideal

When the circuit is capacitive, circuits.
the pf is leading. When current and voltage are in
Capacitive loads such as phase, PF = 1
Synchronous condensers, Power factor cannot be more than
capacitor banks etc draw unity.
leading current. Such circuits
have leading power factor. Practically, it should be as close to
unity as possible.
Why fix poor PF
• Load current
Poor power factor means more power is drawn (I=P/V cosθ)
• Losses
for low pf, the current drawn is high. Hence copper losses (I^2R losses) will also be high. This decreases the
efficiency of the equipment.
• Overheating the Equipment
I^2R losses produce heat (Joule's law). Hence, the temperature rise will be relatively more for low PF which will
further increase the stress on the insulation.
• Size of Conductor
Low power factor causes higher load current. If the load current increases, the size of the conductor required
will also increase. This will further increase the conductor cost.
• Voltage drop
It is defined as the difference between sending and receiving end voltage per unit sending end voltage. When
power is transferred from one end to another, the voltage drops due to several reasons. This voltage drop
should be within permissible limits.
Capacitor Calculations
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Total apparent power =
𝑃𝐹
50 𝑘𝑊
Total apparent power = = 64.1 kVA
0.78
Total reactive power = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 2 − 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 2
Total reactive power = (64.1𝑘𝑊)2 −(50𝑘𝑊)2
Total reactive power = 1608.81 𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑟 = 40.1 kVar

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Target total app power =
𝑃𝐹
50 𝑘𝑊
Target total app power = = 52.1 kVA
0.96
Total reactive power = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 2 − 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 2
Total reactive power = (52.1𝑘𝑊)2 −(50𝑘𝑊)2
Known:
Total reactive power = 214.41 𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑟 = 14.6 kVar
Total load = 50 kW
Capacitor size
Current PF = 0.78 Target PF = 0.96
40.1 kVar – 14.6 kVar = 25.5 kVar
Arranging PV Module
 Series Connection
There is one drawback to the series connection of solar cells. This is the case when
there is a current mismatch among the connected cells. Even if one solar cell gets
faulty or is partially or fully shaded from the sunlight, all the solar cells gets affected
simulating a condition as if all the solar cells are shaded and thus resulting in loss of
power output. There is also a possibility that the full current from rest of the solar
cells is passing through the shaded or faulty solar cell causing the overheating and
forming the “hotspot”. Thus, it is really important to avoid shading on the PV
Panels.
To counter this effect when the performance of the entire panel goes down or
shading results in formation of “hotspots” even when a single cell is shaded or gets
faulty, Bypass Diodes are connected in parallel to each solar cell. The bypass diode
is used to limit the voltage across the faulty/shaded cell in its reverse bias to pass a
definite amount of current. The bypass diode conducts and thus allow the current
to flow in the external circuit as shown in the figure below. The maximum reverse
over voltage across the faulty/shaded cell is reduced to about a single diode drop so
that the larger voltage differences cannot arise in the reverse-current direction
across the cell, thus limiting the current flow and preventing the overheating due to
dissipation of less power.

Wiring solar panels in parallel causes the amperage

to increase, but the voltage remains the same.
How to wire solar panel?
When solar panels are wired in series, the
voltage of the panels adds together, but the
amperage remains the same.

As we have seen the impact of shading in case of series

connection of solar cells, the parallel connection of solar
cells is less sensitive to this type of shading mismatch.
Though similar to the problem of current mismatch in case
of series connection, in parallel connection of solar cells we
have voltage mismatch when the cells are not identical. This
mismatch of voltage is generally not a problem when the net
current output is low however as the net current increases,
the damaged cell stops generating power and starts
dissipating power thus reducing the output voltage of the
solar panel.
How many module?
Before arranging the PV
modules, we should know the
specification of the inverter and
the PV module.
We can see from the picture
Max. Input Voltage of the
inverter is 1100V
Max. Power Voltage (Vmp) from
module is 40.63V
So, in series we can add up to
1100V/40.63V = 27
modules/string
Connection Tools
MC4 connector is the most
usual tools to connect male
and female (+/-) between
module or module to the
inverter
Why not have both?
When solar panels are wired in series, the voltage of the solar system
will increase which means more efficient in transferring the current.
Wiring solar panels in parallel allows you to have more solar panels
without exceeding an inverter’s voltage limit.
Cable Sizing
Cable Construction
You will have noticed that cable used in vehicle electrical systems is very flexible in contrast to the cable you
would find in the the walls of your home, which is fairly stiff. The reason for this is that copper, although quite
ductile, is susceptible to 'work hardening' when subject to vibration and mechanical shock, such as is
experienced when installed in a vehicle. This work hardening causes the metal to become more brittle which
could, over a long period of time, cause a stiff, solid conductor to crack and fail.

This problem is overcome by manufacturing the core from many small diameter strands of copper wire to make
up the desired cross-sectional area, rather than using a single wire. This type of cable is (unsurprisingly) known
as 'stranded' cable and provides much more flexibility, which means improved resistance to work hardening
making it better suited to use in vehicles. The difference in cross sections is shown in the diagram below:
Cable Spesifications
Property Description
Expressed in mm² and describes the total cross-sectional area of the
copper conductor. You will sometimes see cable described as 1mm or
2mm cable without the ² sign, but it is important to note that this
Cross sectional area of the conductor does not mean the diameter of the cable. This can often lead to
confusion so just remember that the main specification for a cable will
be its conductor's cross-sectional area and cable will never be
referred to by its diameter alone
Expressed as the number of conductors of a given diameter. So,
Conductor number and size 28/0.30 means that there are 28 strands, each with a diameter of
0.30mm
Expressed in Amperes (Amps or A) and is the maximum continuous or
Nominal current rating
'working' current that the cable can safely carry.
This is the diameter including the insulation and usually expressed in
Overall diameter
mm.
This is the resistance of the conductor expressed in Ohms per meter
Resistance
(Ω/m) and is important when determining voltage drop.
Ampacity
Wire ampacity is the maximum electrical current (Amperes or “Amps”)
that safely exist in a given size of conductor. Wires are made of 2 basic
components: a copper conductor and the wire insulation that
surrounds it. The temperature of the conductor will rise as the current
level increases. The wire ampacity calculation is critical in that it will
determine the wire size and temperature rating of the wire insulation
required for the application. Choose a conductor that is too small for
the given electrical load and you could end up with an overheating
condition that could lead to wire insulation damage, shortened lifespan
and ultimately melting of the wire insulation causing an electrical fire.
Voltage Drop
Voltage drop is the decrease of electrical potential along the path of a
current flowing in an electrical circuit. Or more simply, a “drop in
voltage”. Voltage drops occur due to the internal resistance of the
source, passive elements, across conductors, across contacts, and
across connectors are undesirable because some of the energy
supplied is dissipated.

The voltage drop across an electrical load is proportional to the power

available to be converted in that load to some other useful form of
energy. Voltage drop is calculated through Ohm’s law.
Short Circuit Resistance
A common type of short circuit occurs when the positive and negative terminals of a
battery are connected with a low-resistance conductor, like a wire. With a low resistance in
the connection, a high current will flow, causing the delivery of a large amount of energy in
a short period of time.

A high current flowing through a battery can cause a rapid increase of temperature,
potentially resulting in an explosion with the release of hydrogen gas and electrolyte (an
acid or a base), which can burn tissue and cause blindness or even death. Overloaded wires
will also overheat causing damage to the wire's insulation or starting a fire.
A short circuit may lead to formation of an electric arc. The arc, a channel of hot ionized
plasma, is highly conductive and can persist even after significant amounts of original
material from the conductors has evaporated. Surface erosion is a typical sign of electric
arc damage. Even short arcs can remove significant amounts of material from the
electrodes. The temperature of the resulting electrical arc is very high (tens of thousands
of degrees), causing the metal on the contact surfaces to melt, pool and migrate with the
current, as well as to escape into the air as fine particulate matter.
Cable Termination
Function
The function of power cable termination is to be assembled to the
head and end of the cable line to complete the connection with other
electrical equipment. There are outdoor terminal heads, indoor
terminal heads, elbow terminal heads, etc. It integrates waterproofing,
stress control, shielding, and insulation. It has good electrical and
mechanical properties and can be used for a long time under various
harsh environmental conditions.
Low and High Cable

Phoenix spring cage terminals with bare and ferruled wires High Voltage cables are often built with an earthed
Low voltage cables are usually terminated with crimps, or ferrules (to sheath. This constrains the electric field within the
control the individual cores mechanically) and then connected to screw or cable, reducing all sorts of problems near the cable.
bolted terminal cages or posts. It is possible to use the stripped cores The presence of a high voltage gradient between the
without termination, and cage clamp or spring leaf terminals are designed
to accept these without damage. There are also hundreds of multipin terminal lug and this sheath means that a carefully
connector systems that used crimped, soldered, or IDC terminations. engineered termination is required to avoid creepage
or flashover. This is normally called a stress cone.
Cable Tools
Cable Cutter
You will need a variety of cable cutting tools
depending on the size of cable you are working with.
For small cables, a diagonal flush cutter or round
cable cutter works best. Larger cables require a high
leverage cutting tool or even a ratcheting cable cutter.

Sheath Removal
Tool/Wire stripper
Punchdown Tools
Crimping
Crimping tool
Crimping is the most
commonly used method of
wire termination and is
most efficient for high-
volume wire termination.
The terminations are fast, Cable Schoen/Lug and vinyl
clean and mechanically
strong

Cable gland
Also known as cable fittings. Used for smooth connection of
cables and equipment. Used in electrical connection and
protection systems, including explosion-proof glands, stainless
steel cable glands, metal cable waterproof joints, etc.
MC4 Connector
MC4 connectors are used
for connecting solar panels.
MC4 connectors ensure
solar panel wire does not
disconnect accidentally
when the cables are pulled.
2 panel MC4 T-type
connector connects 2 solar
panels from 10 watts to 400
watts. IP 67 rating makes it
waterproof and dustproof
for outdoor use.
Method
•a
Grounding System
Definition
Electrical devices are “grounded” when they connect to grounding
devices for safety reasons. Grounding provides a safe “path of least
resistance” for stray voltage to follow. Grounding systems direct stray
voltage into the ground where it discharges safely instead of building
up in places where it will be dangerous.

Without grounding, power surges or equipment damage could render

electrical circuits dangerous or destructive. They could damage
attached electrical appliances, shock nearby people, or even start fires.
Grounding is an important safety feature for any structure’s electrical
system. In fact, electrical codes require it for all new construction.
Grounding options
• Single rod
Most common use
• Grid
Typically consist of multiple ground rods connected together. Often used for
substations and similar structures. Creates equipotential zone for facility
• Other
Grounding plate
Ufer grounding
Chemical electrodes
Soil enhancers
Causes of Faults
• Natural:
Storms
Humidity
Temperature variation
• Man made:
Poor construction
System overstress
Industrial accidents

Most occur due to corrosion and general degradation of equipment over

time
Grounding systems
• Must operate efficiently to prevent damage caused by faults
• Must have low resistance connection to earth
• Must be designed with soil resistivity in mind
Surge Arrester
A surge arrester is a device to protect
electrical equipment from over-voltage
transients caused by external (lightning) or
internal (switching) events. Also called a
surge protection device (SPD) or transient
voltage surge suppressor (TVSS), this class of
device is used to protect equipment in power
transmission and distribution systems. (For
consumer equipment protection, different
products called surge protectors are used.)
The energy criterion for various insulation
material can be compared by impulse ratio. A
surge arrester should have a low impulse
ratio, so that a surge incident on the surge
arrester may be bypassed to the ground
instead of passing through the apparatus.
Connecting ground cable

Make sure all the Connect all the Connect all the
grounding cable
devices has door and also from the device
grounding cable frame to frame and frame to the
connected joint main existing
grounding system
Continuity Test
2021
Overview
• Continuity is the presence of a complete path for current flow. A circuit is complete when it’s switch is
closed.
• A digital multimeter’s Continuity Test mode can be used to test switches, fuses, electrical connections,
conductors and other components. A good fuse, for example, should have continuity.
• A DMM emits an audible response (a beep) when it detects a complete path.
• The beep, an audible indicator, permits technicians to focus on testing procedures without looking at the
multimeter display.
• When testing for continuity, a multimeter beeps based on the resistance of the component being tested.
That resistance is determined by the range setting of the multimeter. Examples:
• If the range is set to 400.0 Ω, a multimeter typically beeps if the component has a resistance of 40 Ω or less.
• If the range is set 4.000 kΩ, a multimeter typically beeps if the component has a resistance of 200 Ω or less.
• The lowest range setting should be used when testing circuit components that should have low-resistance
value such as electrical connections or switch contacts.
Main Function
A continuity tester is an item of electrical test
equipment used to determine if an electrical
path can be established between two points
that is if an electrical circuit can be made.
The circuit under test is completely de-
energized prior to connecting the apparatus.

Tools: Multimeter, Megger

Method Statement
Insulation tester
Alwi Widiastomo
Overview
• In a perfect world, all the electrical current sent along a conductive wire would reach its intended
destination. However, in the real world some of it is lost along the way for various reasons. Wires
are insulated with a resistant sheathing to contain the conductivity of the typically copper or
aluminum core, but even with this insulation in place, some of the current still manages to
escape.

• Much like a leak in a water pipe, an imperfection in the insulation of a wire allows a steady flow of
electricity to escape, which can be detrimental to electrical circuits and machinery. However,
testing can help to determine whether the insulation is performing at an effective and safe level.
Routine testing can identify problems before they result in injury or equipment failure.

• Insulation is subject to many elements that can cause it to perform at a less-than-acceptable

level. Excessive heat or cold, moisture, vibration, dirt, oil, and corrosive vapors can all contribute
to deterioration. For this reason, routine insulation testing is necessary.
Total Current
• Testing the integrity of insulation requires measuring its resistance to
current flow across it. A high level of resistance means that very little
current is escaping through the insulation. Conversely, a low level of
resistance indicates a significant amount of current may be leaking
through and along the insulation.
• By pressurizing a conductor with a given voltage, it's possible to use
Ohm's Law (R=V÷I) to apply a numerical value to resistance
measurements. Divide the voltage by the current that escapes
through the insulation and returns to the meter. This total current
that flows through and along with the insulation during a test is the
result of capacitive current, absorption current, and leakage current.
Method Statement
Electrical Inspection
Chapter 5
Earth Resistance Test
Definition
In an electrical system, effective grounding ensures a safe working
environment as well as proper equipment performance. This is why electric
utilities attempt to provide adequate grounding of the electric distribution
system, so consumers can enjoy the benefits of electric power in safety.
Ground:
a conducting connector by which a circuit or equipment is connected to
earth.
used to establish and maintain as closely as possible the potential of the
earth on the circuit or equipment connected to it
Provides path for fault currents
Soil Resistivity
Soil resistivity measurements are useful for many reasons.
Geological: data from soil analysis used as an aid in identifying ore locations,
depth of bedrock, and other phenomenon.
Pipelines: a decrease in resistivity relates to an increase in corrosive activity.
Grounding systems: key factor that determines what the resistance of a
grounding electrode will be, to what depth it must be driven in order to
obtain low earth resistance, and even the type of grounding system that
should be designed for the location
The resistivity of the soil varies widely throughout the world and changes
seasonally. Soil resistivity is determined largely by the content of electrolytes
consisting of: moisture, minerals, and dissolved salts
Wenner Test
The simplest way to measure soil
resistivity is known as the Wenner
method. This involves placing four
equally spaced and in-line
electrodes into the ground. The
two outer electrodes, called the
current electrodes, inject current
into the soil. The two inner
electrodes, called the potential
electrodes, measure voltage,
which is then used to calculate soil
resistance
Ground Tester

Step:
1. Turn dial to ρ
2. Enter distance between electrodes
3. Press START
4. Read data

R = 15.1 Ω
ρ = 289 Ωm
Soil Resistivity Calculation
If the tool cannot measure the soil resistivity automatically then we
should calculate it manually:

ρ = 2π𝑅𝐴
ρ = soil resistivity
π = 3.14
R = Resistance (instrument reading)
A = Distance between electrode
What kind of rod?
Resistance Formula: Example
1 500 8 × 1.2
𝑅𝑟 = × 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 −1
1 ρ 8𝐿 1 2π × 1.2 0.015
𝑅𝑟 = × 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 −1 𝑅𝑟 = 362.17
𝑛 2π𝐿 𝑑
If we install a 2.5m rod
ρ = resistivity of soil (Ωm) 1 500 8 × 2.5
𝑅𝑟 = × 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 −1
L = length of electrode (m) 1 2π × 2.5 0.015
𝑅𝑟 = 197.2
d = diameter of rod (m)
If maximum depth achievable is 1.2m, let add number
n = number of rod of rod
1 500 8 × 1.2
𝑅𝑟 = × 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 −1
Rod diameter has little effect on resistance 2 2π × 1.2 0.015
𝑅𝑟 = 194.35
Rod depth significantly impacts resistance
(e.g. doubling depth = 40% lower R) Then 2 rods can be used
Work at Height
Alwi Widiastomo
Defining work at height
Working at Heights or Elevated Works is considered when any work is
carried out at 1.8 meters and higher or working on one or more of the
following:
1. High steel structures
2. Roof tops
3. Scaffolds
4. Ladders
5. Floor Openings
Factors and situations that could cause a fall
• Moving from one surface to • Unsuitable foot wear
another at heights • Slippery surfaces
• Uncovered holes and • Wind, rain, and ice
openings
• Being struck by falling objects
• Open ledges not barricaded
• Incorrectly using a ladder
• Uneven surfaces
• Incorrectly using fall arresting
• Moving surfaces equipment
• Poor lighting
Hierarchy of Controls
• Elimination
Elimination completely removes the hazard and is the ideal control solution.
• Substitution
Substitution is where a hazard is replaced by a less hazardous alternative. (scaffold >
ladder)
• Isolation
Isolation involves separating the hazard from people by the use of physical barriers to
contain/enclose the hazard or segregate by distance. (barricade, fencing)
• Engineering Control
Modification of tools and equipment like guarding, local exhaust ventilation, placing
and securing covers to voids.
• Administrative Control
Involves the introduction of safe work practices that reduce the risk by limiting the
exposure to the worker from the hazard such as:
Evacuation procedures, placing signs, effective training, risk assessments, etc.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
It is often difficult to fully protect the worker with PPE and is generally difficult to
properly maintain a PPE program which affect comfort and restrict performance
Supervisor’s Responsibilities
• Supervisor is responsible to ensure that employees receive training
on: proper use; care; inspection; and limitations; of all.

Fall Protection Equipment:

• Supervisor is responsible to ensure that the proper equipment is
available for employee use.
• Supervisor is responsible to monitor employee use of Fall Protection
devices to ensure that all requirements of this procedure are
maintained.
Inspect the job first
Before each task is started, visit where you will be working. When
assessing the risks, use must be made of all the information available
about the work to be carried out. All foreseeable hazards must be
considered in advance and the following issues may need
consideration:
Work at height can include, but is not exclusively limited to:
• working on roofs without adequate fixed protection
• working on roofs with unprotected roof lights
• working from a ladder
• working from a scaffold
Assessment consideration
• The work activity being carried • Condition and stability of work
out surfaces such as fragile materials,
slippery surfaces, etc.
• Frequency of access • Physical capabilities of the workers
such as vertigo sufferers
• The duration of the work
• The equipment to be used and its
• The location in relation to the inspection
presence of hazards • Falling objects
• The working environment with • Impact on adjacent work activities, or
regard to the weather or lighting passage of staff adjacent to work at
height
• Safe means of access and egress • Prevention of access by unauthorized
persons
• Lone working
Develop a Method Statement
In the development of a written method statement, the information
gathered during the risk assessment will be used to construct a
document that will give information and instruction to the employees
who are to carry out the work.
It will also detail, where necessary:
• Collective fall prevention • Any supervision that may be necessary
• Personal fall arrest • Any weather conditions that workers may be
exposed to e.g. slippery surfaces in the rain,
• Requirements for inspection wind, and icy roofs
• Any emergency or rescue conditions e.g. it is
• The means for preventing not acceptable just to rely on the emergency
unauthorized access to the area services, this needs to be covered in the risk
underneath the work being carried assessment and planned prior to the work
being carried out.
out
Rescue Plan
Any method statement must include a rescue plan that considers how
an injured worker could be safely recovered. Speed of response is an
essential consideration, especially where a safety harness is being used
as a control measure. A person suspended in a harness may be
unconscious within five minutes and dead within fifteen minutes if help
is not immediately available.
Working at Height
Training 1
Regulation
Working at height is regulated in the following laws and regulations:
1. Undang Undang nomor 1 Tahun 1970
2. Permenaker Nomor 09 Tahun 2016
Definition
• Occupational Health and Safety, hereinafter referred to as K3 (Bahasa Indonesia),
are all activities to ensure and protect the safety and health of workers through
efforts to prevent work accidents and occupational diseases.
• Working at heights is an activity or work activity carried out by workers in the
workplace with 3 characteristics, namely:
1. There is a height difference
2. Has the potential to fall
3. Can cause loss in the form of injury, death or property damage
• A fixed work floor is any surface that is constructed or available for repeated use
over a long duration.
• Temporary work floors are all surfaces that are constructed or available for use
for a short duration, are limited to certain types of work or are subject to
collapse.
Introduction
Working at heights is a non-routine activity that requires work permit
documents
All of these activities require precautions to ensure that the work is
carried out safely. Therefore, when applying for a work permit, you
must understand:
• Types of equipment commonly used to reach high workplaces, and
• Methods and completeness of safety in using the equipment
Personal Protective Equipment
Mandatory PPE:
Full Body Harness
Safety Helmet, with chin strap attached
properly
Safety shoes
Additional PPE (depending on work and field
conditions):
Safety glasses
Gloves
Mask
Fall Protection Device
Fall protection device

PPE fall protection equipment fall arrester Anchor

Collective Individual Collective Individual

height of walls, carmantle strap with Permanent /
body belt (full body nets or pads attached
guardrails at least 5% elasticity and Temporary
harness) to secure anchors
950 mm lanyard
able to withstand a able to withstand a able to withstand a able to withstand a
rope motion restraint
minimum load of 0.9 load of at least 15 kN load of at least 15 kN load of at least 15 kN
& work positioning
gloves, helmets, kN
shoes, goggles,
maximum fall inspection and
earmuffs/earplugs, maximum vertical
distance of 1.2 testing
vests, etc. fence gap 470 mm
meters
maximum length 1.8
safety floor
meters
maximum auto-lock
0.6 meters
Hazard of Using Ladder
The most common accidents when using stairs are:
1. Overreaching on the stairs
2. Failed to secure the stairs
3. Climb with one hand
4. Standing on a room or platform
5. Using a broken ladder
6. Leaving equipment on the stairs
Rules of Using Ladder
Safety rules for using stairs
1. Always place the ladder on a solid base/foundation, set the temperature near 75
degrees
2. Make sure the ladder is more than 1 meter (minimum) above the level where the user
is
3. Do not load the ladder above the maximum capacity
4. Traffic areas are barricaded around the use of stairs
5. Make sure the top and bottom of the stairs are free of obstacles
6. Use non-conductive side rails for electrical work
7. Don't use the very top to stand/step
8. Always face the stairs When going up or down
9. Always maintain 3 points of contact with the ladder (2 hands 1 foot or 1 hand 2 feet)
Rules of Using Ladder
Safety rules for using stairs
10. Use tool bags to carry tools, use ropes to lift
large or lower items such as toolboxes or
materials.
11. Don't work too hard sideways
12. Never let more than one worker on the stairs at
the same time
13. Do not stand on a sloping surface, leaning to
one side or at a steep angle
14. Do not use ladders to use as planks or bridges.
Vertical & Horizontal Work
Moving vertically and horizontally on the building structure can be done with
several techniques, depending on the conditions in the workplace, as well as
the available equipment, the movement can be done with the following
moving techniques:
A. Using a vertical individual fall arrest devices
B. Using a horizontal individual fall arrest device
C. Using an individual fall arrest device with double hook straps and shock
absorbers
D. Using an individual fall arrest devices with lead climbing
E. Using an individual fall arrest device with an automatic tug-of-war rope
Vertical Move
A. The technique of using vertical individual fall
arrest devices must be ensured:
1. Make sure the anchor is installed with
standard
2. Make sure the fall arrest device is working
properly
3. The track (nylon rope or wire rope) is installed
according to standard
4. Make sure the fall arrest device is attached to
the drop point of the seat belt
5. The maximum deviation angle from the
vertical straight line is not more than 15
degrees or according to the product of the tool
6. Each device is only used by one worker
Horizontal Move
B. The technique of using horizontal
individual fall arrest devices must
be ensured:
1. Capable of withstanding the falling
load of a number of connected
workers
2. The stretch distance between 2
anchor points should not be more
than 30 meters
Double hook
C. Movement technique using individual fall
arresters with double hooks and shock
absorbers:
1. The hook must be tethered higher than the
head or tethered at a height parallel to the
drop point on the body seat belt (fall factor 0)
2. The two hooks are not tied to the same
structure
3. The hook is not anchored to a structure that
can increase the distance to fall (fall factor 2)
4. The hooks are tethered alternately When
moving
5. Anchor slings can be used if the hook is not
long enough to be attached directly to the body
Lead Climbing
D. Movement techniques using individual fall arrest devices with integrated climbing (lead
climbing):
1. Anchor slings must be strong enough to withstand falling loads
2. The position of the first anchor sling must be placed higher than the climber
3. The next anchor distance is not more than 2 meters
4. The position of the last anchor sling must be attempted to be paired in a position higher than
the head
5. Safety ropes must have high bending strength
6. The safety rope is connected to a rope holding device that can grip automatically when it is
burdened (inpanic descander)
7. The safety rope holder is connected directly to an anchor or guide capable of withstanding
falling loads
8. The safety rope holder is operated by a belayer which keeps the fall distance to a minimum but
is still comfortable enough to move
9. Communication between climber and guide must be established
Automatic Rope
E. Movement technique using an individual fall arrest
device with an automatic rope:
1. Make sure the tool is attached to the standard
attached anchor
2. Make sure the fall arrest device is working properly
3. Make sure the running fall arrester is attached to the
drop point of the seat belt
4. The maximum deviation angle from the vertical
straight line should not be more than 15 degrees or
adjusted to the product of the tool.
5. Each device is only used by one worker
6. Must have an automatic locking system that limits a
maximum fall distance of 0.6 meters
Working on inclined planes
The technique used when working
on an inclined plane can be done
with an integrated climbing
technique or by using a full body
harness with double lanyard and
absorber tethered to a collective
or individual fall arrest device that
can withstand the fall load
(lifeline/anchor).
Suspension Trauma
Suspension trauma is the result of a person falling
using a full body harness with a position
depending on the point of fall of the back or
chest.
Symptoms that will arise due to disruption of the
mechanism of blood flow in the body due to the
crush include:
1. Limp
2. Nauseous
3. Dizzy
4. Out of breath
5. Decreased pulse and blood pressure
6. Loss of consciousness
Self Rescue
To avoid suspension trauma can be done in the following ways:
1. Reach for the nearest structure to be used as a foothold while screaming for help.
2. If there is no accessible structure, the victim must make temporary footing by utilizing work positioning
and webbing anchors.

3. If both of the above cannot be done, move your legs slowly to reduce the pressure or crush caused by a
full body harness on the groin to maintain blood flow in the body while asking for help.
Fall Factor
The fall factor can be defined as the maximum distance from a fallen worker
divided by the length of the rope (lanyard) between the fallen technician and his
anchor point.
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 (𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑) 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟

The important thing to ensure is that the fall factor must be kept as low as possible
at all times, so that in the event of a fall, the impact force experienced can be
minimized.
Fall Factor
• Fall Factor 0
Full body harness is tethered to a different anchor above the
worker's head, the fall distance is short, so the impact of the
shock that will be received will be low (safe).
• Fall Factor 1
Full body harness is tethered to an anchor that is parallel to
the chest/back of the worker, the impact of the shock that
will be received by the workforce is equal to the weight of
the workforce itself which can cause injury.
• Fall Factor 2
Full body harness is tethered to an anchor that is parallel to
the worker's legs, the impact of the shock that will be
received by the workforce is twice as large as the worker's
body weight, which is very risky to cause severe injury or
even fatality.