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Physical Features
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Mountain Range

Jammu &
Kashmir

North
East
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South
India
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North
Passes India
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North
East
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South
India
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River System
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Ganga &
Yamuna
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Indus
River

North
East South
India
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Lakes
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Waterfalls
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DAMS
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Bays and Gulf

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Beaches
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Biosphere Reserve
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National Park
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Tiger Reserve
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Elephant Reserve
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Wetlands
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ECONOMY
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De nition of Economics: Economics is the study of how societies use scarce
resources to produce valuable commodities and distribute them among different people.

Types of Economies:
Market Economy: It is based on the principles of supply and demand, with
minimal government intervention.
Command Economy: All economic activities are controlled and regulated by the
government.
Mixed Economy: Combines elements of both market and command economies. It
allows private ownership while the government regulates certain sectors.

Basic Economic Concepts:

Supply and Demand: The fundamental forces that drive the market. Demand
represents consumers' desire for a product, while supply represents its availability.
Market Equilibrium: The point where supply equals demand, determining the
price of a good or service in the market.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP): It measures the total value of all goods and
services produced within a country's borders in a speci c time frame. It's a key
indicator of a country's economic performance.
In ation: The rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services rises,
eroding purchasing power.
Unemployment: The percentage of people who are willing and able to work but
are unable to nd employment.

Factors of Production:
Land: Natural resources used in production.
Labor: Human effort used in production.
Capital: Tools, machinery, and equipment used in production.
Entrepreneurship: The ability to organize factors of production to create goods
and services.

Economic Systems:
Capitalism: An economic system where the means of production are privately
owned, and prices, production, and distribution of goods are determined by
competition in a market
Socialism: An economic system where the means of production are owned or
regulated by the state, aiming for equitable distribution of wealth among citizens.
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Fiscal and Monetary Policy:
Fiscal Policy: The government's use of taxing and spending to in uence the economy.
Monetary Policy: Control of the money supply and interest rates by the central bank
to achieve economic goals.

International Trade:
Imports and Exports: Goods and services bought from and sold to other countries.
Trade Surplus and De cit: A surplus occurs when exports exceed imports, while a
de cit happens when imports exceed exports.

Average Fixed Cost (AFC): AFC refers to the per-unit cost of xed expenses. It's
calculated by dividing total xed costs by the quantity of output produced.

Average Revenue: This denotes the revenue received per unit of output sold. It is
found by dividing the total revenue by the quantity sold.

Average Tax Rate: The average tax rate is calculated by dividing the total taxes paid
by a taxpayer's taxable income.

Average Total Cost (ATC): ATC refers to the total cost per unit of output. It
encompasses both xed and variable costs and is calculated by dividing total cost by the
quantity of output.

Balanced Budget: A budget is considered balanced when a government's income

matches its expenditure.

Balance of Trade: This re ects the relationship between a country's import and export
values. It focuses on visible trade items and forms part of the balance of payments, which
also includes invisible items and capital movements.

Budget De cit: When a government's expenditure exceeds its revenue, resulting in a

shortfall, it is termed as a budget de cit.

Call Money: It refers to short-term loans made for very brief periods, often a few days
or a week, typically at low interest rates, and often used in stock exchange transactions.

Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR): CRR represents the percentage of a bank's holdings that
it must maintain with the central bank (RBI in the case of India) as reserves against its
time liabilities.
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Circular Flow Diagram: A visual representation used in economics to demonstrate the

ow of money, goods, and services among rms, markets, households, and the government
in an economy.

Coase Theorem: An economic theory that, in the absence of transaction costs and with
competitive markets, an ef cient outcome occurs, regardless of how property rights are
initially distributed.

Deadweight Loss: The loss of economic ef ciency that occurs when the equilibrium for a
good or service is not achieved or when resources are not allocated ef ciently.

Diseconomies of Scale: Situations where increased production leads to higher average

costs due to inef ciencies or increased input costs.

De ation: A decrease in the general price level of goods and services leading to increased
purchasing power of money.

Devaluation: The of cial reduction of a country's currency value against foreign

currencies, often done to boost exports and discourage imports.

Direct Tax: A tax whose burden cannot be shifted and is directly imposed on the
individual or entity that owes it, like income tax or social security tax paid by employees.

Equity: The value of assets minus liabilities. In accounting terms, it refers to the ownership
interest in an asset after debts are paid off.

Elasticity: It measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded or supplied concerning

changes in price, income, or other factors.

Externality: The positive or negative impact of an economic activity on a third party not
directly involved in the activity.

Equilibrium: A state where economic forces are balanced, resulting in quantity demanded
equaling quantity supplied.

Excise Tax: A tax levied on speci c goods manufactured, sold, or consumed within a
country, such as taxes on alcohol, tobacco, or fuel.
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Fiscal Policy: The use of government spending and taxation to in uence the economy.

Foreign Exchange: Claims on a country by another, typically held in the form of

currencies and facilitating international trade.

Foreign Exchange Rate: The price of one country's currency in terms of another
country's currency.

Fixed Costs: Costs that do not change with the quantity of output produced or sold, such
as rent or insurance.

Factors of Production: Inputs used to produce goods and services: land, labor, capital,
and entrepreneurship.

Indirect Taxes: Taxes levied on goods and services, where the taxpayer's liability varies
based on the quantity of goods purchased or sold.

In ation: The persistent increase in the general price level of goods and services over time.

Inferior Good: A good for which demand decreases when consumer income rises.

Import Quota: A restriction on the quantity of goods that can be imported and sold
domestically.

Implicit Costs: Costs that are incurred but not necessarily reported as expenses.

Laissez-Faire: The economic principle advocating minimal government intervention in

market activities.

Law of Supply: A microeconomic principle stating that, all else being equal, the quantity
of goods or services supplied increases with an increase in their price.

Lorenz Curve: A graphical representation of income or wealth distribution within a

population, displaying inequality.

Monopoly: A market structure where a single entity dominates the industry with no close
substitutes.
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Marginal Cost: The additional cost incurred from producing one more unit of a good or
service.

Marginal Revenue: The change in total revenue from selling one additional unit of a
good or service.

Marginal Product: The change in output resulting from employing one more unit of
input.

National Income (at Factor Cost): The total income earned by factors of production
in an economy.

Oligopoly: A market structure characterized by a small number of rms dominating the

market.

Per Capita Income: Total Gross National Product (GNP) of a country divided by its
population, used as an economic indicator.

Phillips Curve: Represents the trade-off between in ation and unemployment in an

economy.

Pigovian Tax: A tax levied to correct negative externalities by discouraging certain

behaviors or activities.

Price Elasticity of Demand: A measure of how demand for a good or service responds
to a change in its price.

Price Elasticity of Supply: A measure of how supply of a good or service responds to a

change in its price.

Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR): The percentage of a bank's total deposit liabilities
that it is mandated to hold in the form of cash reserves or speci ed securities with the
central bank.

Supply-Side Economics: An economic theory advocating that economic growth can be

most effectively created by reducing barriers to production and investing in capital.

Sunk Cost: A cost that has already been incurred and cannot be recovered.
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Scarcity: The fundamental economic problem of limited resources and unlimited wants.

Tariff (Ad Valorem): A tax levied on imported goods based on a percentage of their
value at the point of entry into the importing country.

Tobin Tax: A suggested global tax on nancial transactions to generate revenue for
supporting developing economies or debt relief.

Total Revenue: The overall income received from selling a speci c quantity of goods or
services.

Value-Added Tax (VAT): A tax imposed at each stage of the production and
distribution process based on the value added at each stage.
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5 Year Plans
India's Five Year Plans were strategic initiatives, each with its distinct objectives and targets.
Understanding the ner details of each plan is crucial to grasp their essence and achievements.
Here's an overview of the key points of every Five Year Plan in India.

First Five Year Plan:

• From 1951 to 1956, India saw the implementation of its inaugural Five Year Plan,
spearheaded by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.
• The primary emphasis of this plan was the development of key sectors like agriculture,
alongside the establishment of ve Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs).
• It was modeled on the Harrod-Domar model, albeit with some modi cations.

Second Five Year Plan:

• Under Nehru's leadership, the Second Five Year Plan ran from 1956 to 1961.
• The focal point shifted towards the industrial sector's development.
• Although the government aimed for a 4.5% growth rate, achieving 4.27% was
commendable, considering the payment crisis in 1957.
• The plan was designed based on the P.C. Mahalanobis Model, but experts doubted the
attainment of such ambitious growth rates.

Third Five Year Plan:

• Continuing under Nehru's leadership, this plan was furthered by Lal Bahadur Shastri after
he assumed of ce as Prime Minister.
• The key objective was to bolster India's economy for self-reliance and self-suf ciency, with a
major focus on agriculture.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri introduced the Green Revolution, prioritizing increased wheat
production.
• Modeled on D.R. Gadgil's framework, termed the 'Gadgil Yojana', this plan faced setbacks
due to the Sino-India con ict of 1962 and the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965, causing
economic weakness, price destabilization, and in ation.
• Unfortunately, this plan, targeting 5.6% growth, faltered signi cantly, achieving only a 2.4%
growth rate due to the impact of wars and drought.

Plan Holidays:
Following the failure of the Third Five Year Plan, the Indian Government implemented three
annual plans between 1966 to 1969, known as Plan Holidays.
These plans aimed at economic development by emphasizing agriculture and related sectors
while announcing rupee devaluation to bolster exports.
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Fourth Five Year Plan:
• Led by Indira Gandhi from 1969 to 1974, this plan aimed for expansion with stability
and gradual self-suf ciency.
• Key initiatives included nationalizing 14 major Indian banks and continuing the Green
Revolution, with a focus on family planning and population control programs.
• However, the plan was marred by the con ict between India and Pakistan over
Bangladesh, resulting in a dismal 3.3% growth rate against the target of 5.7%.

Fifth Five Year Plan:

• Introduced in 1974 and concluded prematurely in 1978 by the newly appointed Morarji
Desai Government.
• The Indira Gandhi-led government prioritized poverty eradication, employment,
justice, agriculture, and defense during this period.
• India witnessed the "Emergency" from 1975 to 1976, and several initiatives were
introduced, such as the Indian National Highway System and amendments to the
Electricity Supply Act.
• Despite challenges, the Fifth Five Year Plan saw relative success, achieving a growth rate
of 4.8%, surpassing the 4.4% target growth rate.

Rolling Plan:
• Introduced during the governance of Morarji Desai in 1978, the Rolling Plan remained
in force until 1980 when it was dismissed by the subsequent Congress Government.
• This plan unfolded in two distinct phases: an initial one-year segment which primarily
concentrated on the annual budget, followed by a subsequent phase devoid of a xed
time frame.
• One of the notable advantages of the Rolling Plan lay in its adaptability. It provided the
government with the exibility to dynamically adjust priorities, nancial projections,
and resource allocations based on the ever-evolving conditions and circumstances of the
nation.
Sixth Five Year Plan:
• Under the leadership of Indira Gandhi spanning from 1980 to 1985, the Sixth Five
Year Plan was chie y oriented towards fostering economic liberalization.
• Its focal points revolved around achieving technological self-suf ciency while
concurrently combating poverty.
• This plan laid its groundwork on infrastructural overhauls, substantial investments in
developmental initiatives, and the formulation of a comprehensive growth model.
• Despite setting a target growth rate of 5.2%, the Sixth Five Year Plan notably
outperformed expectations, culminating in an impressive 5.7% growth rate.
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Seventh Five Year Plan:
• Implemented during Rajiv Gandhi's tenure as Prime Minister from 1985 to 1990, the
Seventh Five Year Plan emphasized the realization of a self-suf cient economy,
technological advancements, and the creation of substantial employment opportunities.
• A key emphasis was placed on enhancing "food, work, and productivity" to augment
food grain production, expand employment prospects, and escalate overall productivity.

Annual Plans:
• Owing to the volatile political landscape, two annual programs were introduced for the
scal years 1990-91 and 1991-92.
• These Annual Plans were implemented with the aim of bolstering India's economy,
aligning it with the increasing engagement in international trade and services.

Eighth Five Year Plan:

• Executed during the tenure of P.V. Narasimha Rao's government from 1992 to 1997,
the Eighth Five Year Plan placed a predominant focus on enhancing human resources
encompassing education, employment, and public health.
• This period marked the advent of India's New Economic Policy, contributing
signi cantly to its success with an annual growth rate of 6.8%, surpassing the original
target of 5.6%.

Ninth Five-Year Plan:

• Launched under the stewardship of Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1997 and extending until
2002, the Ninth Five-Year Plan centered on achieving "Growth with Social Justice and
Equality." Despite achieving a commendable growth rate of 5.6%, it fell short of the
intended 6.5%.

Tenth Five Year Plan:

• Encompassing the years 2002 to 2007 and led by both Atal Bihari Vajpayee and
Manmohan Singh, the Tenth Five Year Plan aimed at doubling India's per capita
income within the subsequent decade. Additionally, it aspired to curtail the poverty rate
by 15% by the year 2012.
Eleventh Five-Year Plan:
• Under the stewardship of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh spanning from 2007 to
2012, the Eleventh Five Year Plan was steadfast in its objective of achieving rapid and
more inclusive growth. Prepared under the guidance of C. Rangarajan, this plan
achieved an 8.0% growth rate, albeit slightly below the intended 9%.

Twelfth Five-Year Plan:

• Steered by Manmohan Singh from 2012 to 2017, the Twelfth Five Year Plan was
formulated with the aspiration of achieving swifter, more inclusive, and sustainable
growth for the nation's economy.
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Balance
of
Payments
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SCIENCE
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Vitamin
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Instruments
• Instrument for measuring altitudes in aircraft - Altimeter
• Device to gauge the strength of an electric current - Ammeter
• Equipment to measure wind speed, direction, and pressure - Anemometer
• Tool used to measure differences in hearing ability - Audiometer
• Apparatus for measuring atmospheric pressure and conditions - Barometer
• Device for measuring potential difference between two points - Voltmeter
• Optical tool providing magni ed view of distant objects - Binoculars
• Instrument for measuring wire, tube, or rod diameters - Calipers
• Apparatus used to measure quantities of heat - Calorimeter
• Device for charging air with petrol vapors in an internal combustion engine - Carburetor
• Instrument for measuring human body temperature - Thermometer
• Mechanism converting mechanical energy into electrical energy - Dynamo
• Tool used for measuring electrical potential differences - Electrometer
• Instrument for detecting the presence of electric charge - Electroscope
• Device used to measure electric current - Galvanometer
• Instrument for measuring ocean depth - Fathometer
• Tool for determining the relative density of liquids - Hydrometer
• Instrument to measure the relative density of milk - Lactometer
• Apparatus providing magni ed view of very small objects - Microscope
• Tool in submarines for viewing objects above the observer's eye level - Periscope
• Device for comparing the luminous intensity of two light sources - Photometer
• Instrument used to measure high temperatures - Pyrometer
• Equipment for measuring rainfall - Rain Gauge
• Tool used to record earthquake shocks' intensity and origin - Seismograph
• Instrument for measuring angular distance between two objects - Sextant
• Device used to measure vehicle speed - Speedometer
• Apparatus for converting high voltage to low and vice versa - Transformer
• Instrument that continuously records atmospheric pressure from a barometer - Barograph
• Tool for measuring infrared or heat radiation - Bolometer
• Instrument for measuring plant growth - Crescograph
• Device for tracing heart movement - Cardiograph
• Clock ensuring accurate time and determining a vessel's sea longitude - Chronometer
• Underwater microphone for recording or listening to underwater sound - Hydrophone
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Chemical Compounds
• Baking Powder: Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
• Blue Vitriol: Copper Sulphate (CuSO4.5H2O)
• Bleaching Powder: Calcium Oxychloride (CaOCl2)
• Chloroform: Trichloromethane (CHCl3)
• Chalk (Marble): Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
• Caustic Potash: Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)
• Caustic Soda: Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
• Dry Ice: Solid Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
• Epsom: Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4)
• Gypsum: Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4)
• Green Vitriol: Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO4)
• Heavy Water: Deuterium Oxide (D2O)
• Vinegar: Acetic Acid (CH3COOH)
• Washing Soda: Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3)
• Slaked Lime: Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
• Potash Alum: Potassium Aluminium Sulphate (KAl(SO4)2)
• Quick Lime: Calcium Oxide (CaO)
• Plaster of Paris: Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4.2H2O)
• Mohr's Salt: Ammonium Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO4(NH4)2SO4.6H2O)
• White Vitriol: Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO4.7H2O)
• Marsh Gas: Methane (CH4)
• Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide (MgO)
• Laughing Gas: Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
• Vermilion: Mercuric Sulphide (HgS)
• Sugar: Sucrose (C12H22O11)
• T.N.T.: Trinitrotoluene (C7H5N3O6)
• Sand: Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)
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Facts
• The temperature at which all substances cease to have thermal energy is - 273 degrees
Celsius.
• Any substance introduced into a reaction that alters its rate but remains chemically
unchanged at the end of the process is known as a Catalyst.
• The scienti c study of the interactions between animals, plants, and their environment is
termed as Ecology.
• The scienti c study of insects is known as Entomology.
• The unit used to measure the optical power of lenses is known as a Dioptre.
• The velocity required for an object with less mass to escape the gravitational attraction of
a larger body is called Escape Velocity.
• Nitrous Oxide is the chemical name for Laughing gas.
• Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to various parts of the body.
• The distance light travels in a year is termed as a Light year.
• An organism that derives its nourishment from another living organism is referred to as a
Parasite.
• Newton's second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the force applied and takes place in the direction in which the
force acts.
• The world's rst man-made satellite was Sputnik-I, launched on October 4, 1957.
• Venus is the brightest planet among all.
• Small solid particles scattered in the interplanetary space of the solar system are known as
Meteoroids.
• The largest dark red gland in the body is the Liver.
• Inadequate secretion of the Insulin hormone leads to Diabetes.
• Common cold, In uenza, Chickenpox, and Measles are caused by Virus.
• Communication satellites are positioned in the Ionosphere.
• The scienti c principle underlying 'Fibre Optics' is the total internal re ection of light.
• Ginger, being equipped with nodes and internodes, is a stem, not a root. (True)
• When winding a watch, Potential Energy is stored.
• Dialysis, used for patients with affected kidneys, is based on Osmosis.
• When ice melts in a beaker of water, the water level remains the same.
• Chemical energy is stored in a dry cell.
• Lowering the hand while catching a cricket ball prevents injury due to the Conservation of
momentum.
• AIDS stands for Acquired Immune De ciency Syndrome.
• The chemical technology involving the conversion of base metals into gold is known as
Alchemy.
• Substances produced by micro-organisms that inhibit or prevent the growth of other
micro-organisms are termed Antibiotics.
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• Substances reacting with acids to form salts are called Bases.
• The ancient art of growing dwarf trees is termed as Bonsai.
• The unit of heat is the Calorie.
• The ability of a body to resist tension or compression and regain its original shape and size
after the stress is removed is known as Elasticity.
• Negatively charged particles revolving around an atom's nucleus in speci c orbits are called
Electrons.
• The study of Heredity in biology is known as Genetics.
• Kwashiorkor occurs due to a Protein de ciency.
• Optical illusion observed in deserts is known as a Mirage.
• The branch of science studying light's nature and properties is called Optics.
• The scale used to measure earthquake magnitudes is the Richter scale.
• The heat required to raise 1 kg of a substance's temperature by one degree Celsius is
known as Speci c heat.
• Speed greater than the speed of sound is termed Supersonic speed.
• Tear gas is a volatile substance causing eye irritation and tears.
• Alfred B. Nobel is the inventor of Dynamite.
• Jagadish Chandra Bose discovered life in plants.
• The unit measuring sound loudness is the Decibel.
• The smallest part of an element participating in a chemical reaction is called an Atom.
• Substances used to stop or destroy micro-organisms in living tissue are called Antiseptics.
• Hard water does not easily form lather with soap.
• Lines connecting places with similar barometric pressure on maps are called Isobars.
• Lymph does not contain Red Blood Corpuscles.
• Universal receivers can receive blood from Groups O, A, B, and AB.
• The study of Grass is termed Agrostology.
• The study of Tumors is termed Oncology.
• Density is a physical property unaffected by an increase in quantity.
• Oil spreads over water's surface due to its lower surface tension compared to water.
• Bleeding from the nose in high mountain regions occurs due to the higher pressure of
blood in capillaries than the outside air pressure.
• A person weighs more at the poles due to a stronger gravitational pull.
• Ideal gas behavior occurs at very low pressure and high temperature.
• Oology involves the study of bird eggs.
• A drop of liquid assumes a spherical shape as it has the least surface tension in this form.
• Cream separation increases the density of milk.
• Diamond's hardness is due to its crystalline structure.
• Red and Green are the most convenient colors for day and night visibility.
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• Helium is an element that doesn't react with oxygen.
• A hygrometer measures the relative humidity of air.
• Different star colors are due to temperature variations.
• When a hydrogen atom loses its electron, it becomes a proton.
• The fundamental principle in battery operation is Oxidation-reduction.
• Zinc is used to galvanize iron.
• An anemometer measures the force and velocity of the wind.
• Edward Jenner is associated with Small Pox.
• William Harvey explained blood circulation for the rst time.
• Nitroglycerine is used as an explosive.
• Solar energy is a result of fusion reactions.
• Ammonium Chloride and Zinc Chloride are used as electrolytes in a dry cell battery.
• Dakshin Gangotri is India's Permanent Research Station located in Antarctica.
• Infrared waves are used in night vision apparatus.
• A geostationary satellite must be directly above the Equator to stay over the same spot on
Earth.
• Water's high speci c heat makes it useful in cooling engines.
• Convex lenses correct the vision of a long-sighted eye.
• Rainwater collected after 30 to 40 minutes of raining is acidic and unsuitable for drinking.
• Petroleum re ning involves Fractional Distillation.
• Scalar quantities are fully described by their magnitude alone.
• The Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany is located in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
• Mitochondria are organelles known as the powerhouse of cells.
• Photosynthesis is maximal in red light and minimal in violet light.
• Leukocytes are another name for White Blood Cells.
• Erythrocytes are another name for Red Blood Cells.
• Chloroxylenol is the antiseptic compound present in Dettol.
• Calcium chloride is a compound that absorbs water vapour from the air.
• The product of an element's equivalent weight and valency is equivalent to its atomic weight.
• Silicon forms the highest number of compounds in the periodic table.
• Ethylene dibromide addition helps to eliminate lead oxide in petrol.
• Distillation is the process used to separate pure water from impurities.
• Methane is present in both natural gas and biogas.
• The commonly used safety fuse-wire is made of an alloy of Tin and Lead.
• Glycerol is obtained in the saponi cation process.
• Helium is used to dilute oxygen in gas cylinders used by divers.
• Cathode rays emit X-rays when obstructed by metal.
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• Water exhibits anomalous expansion.
• A mixture of cement, sand, and water is known as Mortar.
• Ethanol containing 5% water is known as Recti ed spirit.
• Radioactive materials should be kept in a container made of Lead.
• Acetone is not an anesthetic agent in surgical operations.
• Ammonium sulphate contains 21% Nitrogen.
• Neutrino is a nuclear particle having no mass and no charge, only spin.
• The pH of fresh milk is 6 and becomes less than 6 when it turns sour.
• Metals used to make safety fuse-wires should have low resistivity and a low melting point.
• Sodium stearate is used to make soap.
• Iron and silica are the two main constituents of granite.
• Filtration does not kill microorganisms in water puri cation.
• Oxygen supports combustion.
• Cobalt's presence in Vitamin B-12 was established by the Borax-Bead test.
• Iron can deposit copper from copper sulphate solution.
• Carbon dioxide and Methane contribute to the Greenhouse effect.
• Heating gypsum results in Plaster of Paris.
• Water contracts upon cooling till 4 degrees Celsius, then expands till zero degrees Celsius.
• Magnetic, electrostatic, and gravitational forces are non-contact forces.
• A mirror that re ects an image as erect regardless of the distance is either plane or convex.
• Advanced sunrise and delayed sunset are due to the refraction of sunlight.
• Soap bubble colors form due to the interference of light.
• A pressure cooker works by elevating the boiling point of water using pressure.
• The pressure of a gas increases with its temperature due to the higher kinetic energies of
gas molecules.
• Newton's laws assign the weight of an object.
• A current-carrying conductor is associated with a magnetic eld.
• The linear expansion of a solid rod is independent of its time of heat ow.
• Pressure has no effect on the velocity of sound.
• White light splits into its components due to dispersion.
• Convex lenses are used in movie projectors.
• Cathode rays do not emit radiation during radioactivity.
• A non-accelerated object undergoes zero rate of change in momentum.
• A freely moving particle's kinetic energy is always greater than zero.
• A uniform circular motion changes the velocity of an object.
• A geostationary satellite completes one revolution around Earth in 24 hours.
• MCB cuts off electricity due to the magnetic effect of current.
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Diseases
VIRAL DISEASE
• Chickenpox is the result of an infection caused by the Varicella-zoster virus.
• Smallpox is caused by the Variola virus.
• The Common Cold is typically caused by the Rhinovirus.
• AIDS (Acquired Immunode ciency Syndrome) is caused by the Human
Immunode ciency Virus (HIV).
• Measles is the outcome of an infection caused by the Measles virus.
• Mumps results from an infection caused by the Mumps virus.
• Rabies is caused by the Rabies virus, belonging to the Rhabdoviridae family.
• Dengue fever is the consequence of an infection with the Dengue virus.
• Viral encephalitis refers to the in ammation of the brain caused by various viruses,
such as the rabies virus or Herpes simplex virus.

Bacterial DISEASE
• Whooping Cough is a disease caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis.
• Diphtheria is an illness caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
• Cholera is a condition resulting from an infection by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.
• Leprosy is a disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae.
• Pneumonia is an infection caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae.
• Tetanus is an illness caused by the bacterium Clostridium tetani.
• Typhoid is a disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi.
• Tuberculosis is an infection caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• Plague is a disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis.

WORMS DISEASE
• Tapeworms are intestinal parasites that rely on a host for survival. They cannot exist
independently and thrive within the intestines of animals, including humans.
• Filariasis is caused by thread-like larial nematode worms. The majority of larial cases
are attributed to the parasite known as Wuchereria bancrofti.
• Pinworm is caused by a small, slender, white roundworm known as Enterobius
vermicularis.
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PROTOZOAN DISEASE
• Malaria is transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes. The parasite responsible for
malaria is called Plasmodium. It differs from viruses and bacteria as it is a single-celled
parasite that replicates within the red blood cells of humans.
• Amoebic dysentery is caused by Entamoeba histolytica.
• Sleeping sickness is caused by Trypanosoma brucei.
• Kala azar is caused by Leishmania donovani.

VITAMINS AND MINERAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES:

• Anaemia results from an insuf cient intake of the mineral iron.

• Aribo avinosis occurs due to a de ciency of Vitamin B2.
• Beriberi is caused by a de ciency of Vitamin B1.
• Goitre develops due to an inadequate intake of iodine.
• Impaired blood clotting is a result of Vitamin K de ciency.
• Kwashiorkor arises due to a de ciency in protein intake.
• Night blindness occurs due to a lack of Vitamin A.
• Osteoporosis is caused by an insuf cient intake of the mineral calcium.
• Rickets develops due to a de ciency of Vitamin D.
• Scurvy occurs due to a de ciency of Vitamin C.
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ACID & SOURCES
• Citric acid: Found in lemons or oranges (citrus fruits)
• Lactic acid: Present in sour milk
• Butyric acid: Produced in rancid butter
• Tartaric acid: Derived from grapes
• Acetic acid: Found in vinegar
• Maleic acid: Obtained from apples
• Carbonic acid: Present in soda water and aerated drinks
• Stearic acid: Exists in fats
• Oxalic acid: Found in tomatoes and wood sorrel; used to remove rust spots
• Concentrated H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) and HNO3 (nitric acid) are utilized to
wash iron for galvanization.
• Boric acid: Constituent of eye wash
• Formic acid: Present in red ants
• Uric acid: Found in the urine of mammals