‭EARTH SCIENCE‬

‭1ST SEMESTER – Q2‬ ‭reviewer by kat‬‭★‬

‭Lesson 1: Weathering‬ ‭ gents of weathering‬

a
‭1. water‬
‭• water seeps into cracks and crevices of‬
‭TOPIC OVERVIEW‬ ‭rocks‬
‭• when the temperature drops, it freezes and‬
‭A.‬ ‭GEOMORPHOLOGY‬
‭expands into the form of ice‬
‭a.‬ ‭exogenic processes‬
‭• the ice acts as a wedge that slowly widens‬
‭b.‬ ‭endogenic processes‬
‭the cracks and eventually splits the rock‬
‭B.‬ ‭WEATHERING‬
‭• when the ice melts, the liquid performs the‬
‭a.‬ ‭types of weathering‬
‭act of erosion by carrying away tiny rock‬
‭C.‬ ‭EROSION AND DEPOSITION‬
‭fragments‬
‭D.‬ ‭MASS WASTING‬

‭A‬ ‭geomorphology‬

‭ eomorphology‬
g
‭• the scientific study of landforms and the‬
‭processes that shape them‬

‭ ndogenic processes‬
e
‭• occurring inside the earth, responsible for‬
‭the phenomena we experience on the‬ ‭ . salt‬
2
‭surface‬ ‭• the process of haloclasty, where salt serves‬
‭as an agent of weathering‬
‭ xogenic processes‬
e ‭• saltwater gets into the cracks and pores of‬
‭• occurring on the surface of the earth‬ ‭rocks, and evaporates as salt crystals‬
‭• include geological phenomena that‬ ‭• the salt crystals apply pressure on the rock‬
‭originate externally to the earth’s surface‬ ‭and slowly breaks it apart‬
‭• related to the atmosphere, hydrosphere,‬
‭and biosphere‬ ‭ . temperature‬
3
‭-‬ ‭which makes it related to the‬ ‭• temperature changes contribute to‬
‭processes of weathering, erosion,‬ ‭weathering through thermal stress‬
‭deposition, and mass wasting‬ ‭• thermal stress expands rocks with heat‬
‭and contracts with low temperature‬
‭B‬ ‭weathering‬ ‭• when thermal stress happens repeatedly,‬
‭the rock weakens and crumbles over time‬

‭ eathering‬
w ‭ . plants‬
4
‭• the breaking down of rocks and other‬ ‭• when the seed of a tree sprouts in soil that‬
‭materials on earth’s surface‬ ‭has collected in a cracked rock‬
‭• as the roots grow, they widen the cracks‬
‭and eventually breaks it into tiny pieces‬
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•‭ even small plants can enlarge tiny cracks‬ ‭ xfoliation‬

e
‭as they grow‬ ‭• repeated heating and cooling of rocks‬
‭exert stress on the outer layer, which causes‬
‭ . animals‬
5 ‭it to peel off in thin sheets‬
‭• animals that tunnel underground such as‬
‭moles and prairie dogs, break apart rock‬ ‭ hemical weathering‬
c
‭and soil‬ ‭• occur particularly when the water is‬
‭slightly acidic‬
‭• occurs more rapidly at higher temperature,‬
‭B1‬ ‭types of weathering‬
‭at warm and damp climates‬
‭• chemical weathering (especially hydrolysis‬
‭ hysical weathering‬
p ‭and oxidation) is the first stage in the‬
‭• caused by the effects of changing‬ ‭production of soils‬
‭temperatures on rocks‬
‭• the process is sometimes assisted by water‬ ‭ arbonation‬
c
‭• happens especially in places with little soil‬ ‭• carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in‬
‭and few plants‬ ‭rainwater and becomes weakly acidic‬
‭-‬ ‭eg: mountain regions and hot‬ ‭• the carbonic acid can dissolve limestone as‬
‭deserts‬ ‭it seeps into cracks and cavities‬
‭-‬ ‭this can eventually form cave‬
‭systems‬

‭ ydrolysis‬
h
‭• the breakdown of rock by acidic water to‬
‭produce clay and soluble salts‬
‭• takes place when acid rain reacts with‬
‭rock-forming minerals such as feldspar‬
‭-‬ ‭the only common rock-forming‬
‭figure 1. Kapurpurawan Rock formation at Burgos,‬
‭mineral that is chemically resistant is‬
‭Ilocos Norte‬
‭quartz‬
‭ brasion‬
a ‭-‬ ‭quartz and clay are the two most‬
‭• occurs when rocks surface is frequently‬ ‭common minerals in sedimentary‬
‭exposed to water, wind, and gravity‬ ‭rocks‬

f‭ reeze-thaw‬ ‭ ydration‬
h
‭• occurs when water seeps into cracks,‬ ‭• where water reacts chemically with the‬
‭freezes, and expands, eventually breaking‬ ‭rocks, which modifies its chemical structure‬
‭the rock apart‬
‭-‬ ‭occurs in mountainous regions like‬ ‭ xample:‬
e
‭the Alps or Snowdonia‬ ‭H2O (water) is added to CaSO4 (calcium‬
‭sulfate) to create CaSO4 + 2H2O (calcium‬
‭sulfate dihydrate). It changes from‬
‭anhydrite to gypsum.‬
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‭ xidation‬
o •‭ the particles that wind can no longer carry‬
‭• the breakdown of rock by oxygen and‬ ‭are deposited as dunes and loess‬
‭water‬ ‭-‬ ‭dunes: mounds that are built by wind‬
‭• gives iron-rich rocks a rusty-colored‬ ‭consisting of loose sand‬
‭weathered surface‬ ‭-‬ ‭loess: the deposit of fine sand and‬
‭silt that is light in color without‬
‭ iological weathering‬
b ‭visible layer‬
‭• occurs when rocks are weakened by‬
‭different biological agents like plants and‬
‭D‬ ‭mass wasting‬
‭animals‬

‭ iological weathering by physical means‬

b ‭ ass wasting‬
m
‭• burrowing animals like shrews, moles, and‬ ‭• occurs when gravity pulls rocks and soil‬
‭earthworms excavate holes in the ground‬ ‭down the slopes‬
‭that move rock fragments to the surface‬ ‭• the rock debris settles at the base of the‬
‭• these fragments become more exposed to‬ ‭slope and is called “talus” or accumulated‬
‭environmental factors that further enhances‬ ‭sediments‬
‭weathering‬
‭• humans also indirectly contribute to‬ l‭andslide‬
‭biological weathering‬ ‭• an example of mass wasting that can be‬
‭caused by an earthquake, volcanic eruption,‬
‭ iological weathering by chemical‬
b ‭or weakening of supporting rocks caused by‬
‭compounds‬ ‭heavy rain‬
‭• some plants and animals produce acidic‬ ‭• moves tons of sediments down a slope‬
‭substances that disintegrates rocks‬
r‭ ock avalanches‬
‭• landslides of fragmented rock that begin‬
‭C‬ ‭erosion and deposition‬
‭from rock slides‬
‭• the rocks move at long distances and‬
‭ rosion‬
e ‭extremely rapid speeds‬
‭• the process where soil and weathered‬
‭rocks are transported from one place to‬ r‭ ockslide‬
‭another by wind, water, or waves‬ ‭• a type of landslide caused when the‬
‭underground structure of a mountainside is‬
‭ eposition‬
d ‭compromised‬
‭• the process of placing the eroded material‬
‭in a new location, which eventually forms‬ r‭ ockfall‬
‭new land‬ ‭• quantities of rock falling freely from a cliff‬
‭face‬
‭ ind‬
w ‭• the term is also used for collapse of rock‬
‭• the most active agent of erosion‬ ‭from roof or walls of mine or quarry‬
‭• the faster the wind blows, the more‬
‭particles it carries‬
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‭ reep‬
c
‭• slow type of mass wasting that involves‬
‭gradual movement of soil caused by‬
‭alternate expansion and contraction of the‬
‭surface‬
‭-‬ ‭this is due to freezing and melting or‬
‭drying and wetting (temperature‬
‭changes)‬

‭ arthflow‬
e
‭• downslope viscous flow of fine-grained‬
‭materials that have been saturated with‬
‭water‬
‭• moves under the pull of gravity‬

‭ ebris flows‬
d
‭• range in character from sloppy wet‬
‭mudflows to slurries of rock debris similar in‬
‭texture‬

‭ ud flow‬
m
‭• type of mass wasting that occurs after‬
‭heavy rain‬
‭• the mud slides downhill picking up rocks‬
‭and boulders that makes it thicker‬

s‭ lump‬
‭• the downward sliding of a mass of rock or‬
‭unconsolidated materials along a curved‬
‭surface‬

‭ ebris slide‬
d
‭• a type of slide characterized by the chaotic‬
‭movement of rocks, soil, and debris mixed‬
‭with water or ice‬

‭ ebris avalanches‬
d
‭• mass of rock fragments and soil that has‬
‭moved rapidly down a mountain‬
‭• it has behaved like an avalanche of snow‬
‭due to its high water content‬
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‭Lesson 2: Earth’s Internal Heat‬ •‭ the major isotopes that produce heat‬
‭Source‬ ‭through radioactive decay are:‬
‭-‬ ‭Potassium-40‬
‭-‬ ‭Uranium-235‬
‭TOPIC OVERVIEW‬ ‭-‬ ‭Uranium-238‬
‭-‬ ‭Thorium-232‬
‭A.‬ E
‭ ARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT‬
‭SOURCE‬
r‭ adioactive decay‬
‭• the process by which an unstable atomic‬
‭nucleus emits energy by radiation‬
‭A‬ ‭earth’s internal heat source‬

‭ ravitational pressure‬
g
•‭ the earth was formed about 4.6 billion‬ ‭• dust and gas are compacted together by‬
‭years ago‬ ‭gravity, which releases energy‬
‭• it has massive amount of heat that varies‬ ‭-‬ ‭this contributes to the planet’s‬
‭from its layer‬ ‭internal heat‬
‭• the heat increases from the crust, down to‬
‭the inner core‬ ‭ ense core material in the center of the‬
d
‭planet‬
‭ rimordial heat of the planet remains‬
p ‭• the pressure increases deep in earth, and‬
‭from its early stage‬ ‭heavier materials settle toward the center‬
‭• the earth was formed from the process of‬ ‭-‬ ‭this makes the inner layers of the‬
‭accretion wherein gasses and dust of cloud‬ ‭earth dense‬
‭were attracted by gravitational energy‬ ‭• the inner core is mostly made of iron and‬
‭• the collision of these masses generated‬ ‭nickel‬
‭heat, which formed the earliest stage of‬ ‭-‬ ‭their density ranges from 12,600 to‬
‭planet earth‬ ‭13,000 kg/m^3‬
‭-‬ ‭molten in state, with heat trapped in‬ ‭• the sinking of dense materials toward the‬
‭the core‬ ‭center raises the temperature by about‬
‭• over time, this heat moved slowly from the‬ ‭2000 Kelvin, though temperatures are high,‬
‭core to the surface through convective and‬ ‭the immensely high pressure prevents the‬
‭conductive heat transport‬ ‭elements from melting‬
‭-‬ ‭this preserved some of the‬
‭primordial heat within the Earth’s‬
‭interior‬

‭ eat from the decay of radioactive‬

h
‭elements‬
‭• earth is considered as a thermal engine‬
‭since its main source of internal heat comes‬
‭from radioactive decay‬
‭• radioactive decay prevents the Earth from‬
‭completely cooling off‬
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‭Lesson 3: Endogenic Processes:‬ ‭ ecompression melting‬

d
‭Plutonism and Volcanism‬ ‭• one of the two main mechanisms through‬
‭which rocks melt‬
‭• occurs when earth’s mantle rock rises from‬
‭TOPIC OVERVIEW‬ ‭an area of high pressure to an area of lower‬
‭pressure, causing it to form magma‬
‭ .‬
A ‭ NDOGENIC PROCESS‬
E
‭-‬ ‭this may happen at a mantle plume‬
‭B.‬ ‭HOW IS MAGMA FORMED?‬
‭(hotspot)‬
‭C.‬ ‭PLUTONISM‬
‭D.‬ ‭VOLCANISM‬
‭ ux melting‬
fl
‭• this happens if a rock is close to its melting‬
‭point and some water or carbon dioxide is‬
‭A‬ ‭endogenic process‬
‭added to the rock‬
‭• the melting temperature reduces and‬
•‭ a geological process that was formed,‬ ‭partial melting starts‬
‭originated, and located, below the surface‬
‭of the earth‬ ‭ olymerizing‬
p
‭-‬ ‭these involve tectonic movements,‬ ‭• this happens when magma reaches‬
‭metamorphism, seismic activities,‬ ‭temperatures higher than 1300°C, that turns‬
‭and magnetism‬ ‭them entirely liquid‬
‭• as the magma moves up, the temperature‬
‭drops, the silicon and oxygen combine and‬
‭B‬ ‭how is magma formed?‬
‭form silica tetrahedra‬
‭-‬ ‭as cooling continues, the tetrahedra‬
•‭ magma forms from partial melting of‬ ‭start to link together to form chains,‬
‭mantle rocks‬ ‭which makes the magma more runny‬
‭• it forms in locations deep in the crust or‬
‭the upper mantle‬
‭after magma is formed…‬

‭ artial melting‬
p •‭ it escapes in two forms, intrusion and‬
‭• this takes place when rocks are not made‬ ‭extrusion‬
‭up of pure materials‬
‭• as temperature rises, the minerals inside‬ i‭ntrusion‬‭- magma that moves up into a‬
‭rocks melt at different temperatures‬ ‭volcano without erupting‬
‭-‬ ‭partial melting can be compared to‬
‭when you heat up a chocolate chip‬ ‭ xtrusion‬‭- eruption of magmatic‬
e
‭cookies (the chocolate melts, but the‬ ‭materials that causes land formations‬
‭cookie itself does not)‬
l‭ava‬‭- magma that has erupted to the‬
‭surface of the earth‬
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‭C‬ ‭plutonism‬

‭ lutonism‬
p
‭• refers to all sorts of igneous geological‬
‭activities taking place below the earth’s‬
‭surface‬
‭• one kind of plutonism is when magma fails‬
‭to make it to the surface, which gives birth‬
‭to ideal conditions for metallogenesis‬
‭• when various oxides, fluorine, sulfur, and‬
‭chlorine compounds are present, magma is‬
‭guaranteed to form‬
‭-‬ ‭the solidification and crystallization‬
‭of magma takes place mainly inside‬
‭the Earth’s interior‬

‭ lutonites‬
p
‭• formed when magma crystallizes inside‬
‭the crust‬
‭• igneous rock formations‬

‭D‬ ‭volcanism‬

‭ olcanism‬
v
‭• all geological phenomena that occurs on‬
‭the natural terrestrial surface‬
‭-‬ ‭e.g creation of volcanoes and hot‬
‭springs‬
‭• it takes place inside the cracks that are‬
‭known as natural pipes that infiltrate the‬
‭upper mantle‬
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‭Lesson 4: Classification of Rocks‬ ‭-‬ t‭ hey may also be vesicular due to‬
‭the air that was trapped inside while‬
‭solidifying (like scoria)‬
‭TOPIC OVERVIEW‬

‭ .‬ I
A ‭ GNEOUS ROCKS‬
‭B.‬ ‭SEDIMENTARY ROCKS‬
‭C.‬ ‭METAMORPHIC ROCKS‬

r‭ ock‬
‭• a naturally occurring solid aggregate of‬
‭minerals sometime with nonmineral solid‬
‭particles‬
‭• they are classified based on their‬ ‭photo: scoria‬
‭formation‬
‭-‬ ‭igneous rocks‬
‭B‬ ‭sedimentary rocks‬
‭-‬ ‭sedimentary rocks‬
‭-‬ ‭metamorphic rocks‬
s‭ edimentary rocks‬
‭• formed by the deposition and cementation‬
‭A‬ ‭igneous rocks‬
‭of mineral or organic particles on the floor‬
‭of water bodies (oceans, lakes)‬
i‭gneous rocks (magmatic)‬ ‭• can be classified into clastic, chemical, and‬
‭• formed through the cooling and‬ ‭organic‬
‭solidification of magma or lava‬
‭ lastic sedimentary rocks‬
c
i‭ntrusive igneous rocks‬ ‭• formed from the mechanical weathering‬
‭• formed from solidification of magma‬ ‭debris of rocks‬
‭below the surface‬ ‭-‬ ‭e.g breccia, conglomerate,‬
‭• large crystals that formed overtime‬ ‭sandstone, siltstone, shale‬
‭through slow process of crystallization in a‬
‭magma‬ ‭ hemical sedimentary rocks‬
c
‭-‬ ‭examples: granite, diorite, gabbro,‬ ‭• formed when dissolved materials‬
‭pegmatite, peridotite‬ ‭precipitate from solution‬
‭-‬ ‭rock salt, iron ore, chert, flint,‬
‭ xtrusive igneous rocks‬
e ‭dolomite‬
‭• formed through faster rate of solidification‬
‭of lava on the surface of earth‬ ‭ rganic sedimentary rocks‬
o
‭-‬ ‭examples: andesite, basalt, dacite,‬ ‭• formed from the build up of plant or‬
‭obsidian, pumice, rhyolite‬ ‭animal debris‬
‭• are glassy in appearance due to less‬
‭crystallization‬
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‭C‬ ‭metamorphic rocks‬

‭ etamorphic rocks‬
m
‭• forms from existing rock types called‬
‭“parent rock” in the process of‬
‭metamorphism‬

‭ etamorphism‬
m
‭• meaning to change in form‬
‭• happens when rocks that are originally‬
‭igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic is‬
‭subjected to heat and pressure, which‬
‭causes chemical or physical change‬

f‭ oliated metamorphic rocks‬

‭• formed through pressure due to‬
‭compression of rocks that create bands‬
‭called foliation (layers)‬
‭-‬ ‭e.g gneiss, phyllite, schist, slate‬

‭ onfoliated metamorphic rocks‬

n
‭• has no foliation (layers) or bands‬
‭-‬ ‭e.g hornfels, marble, quartzite,‬
‭novaculite‬
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‭ esson 5: How Layers of Rocks‬

L ‭B‬ ‭stratification‬
‭(Stratified Rocks) are Formed‬
s‭ tratification‬
‭TOPIC OVERVIEW‬ ‭• the process of layering in rocks, which‬
‭occurs in sedimentary and igneous rocks‬
‭A.‬ F ‭ ORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY‬ ‭• the layers range from several millimeters‬
‭ROCKS‬ ‭to many meters in thickness‬
‭B.‬ ‭STRATIFICATION‬ ‭-‬ ‭layers = strata‬
‭C.‬ ‭HOW LAYERS OF ROCKS ARE‬
‭FORMED‬
‭D.‬ ‭DETERMINING THE AGE OF‬
‭STRATIFIED ROCKS‬

‭A‬ ‭formation of sedimentary rocks‬

•‭ most of the rocks exposed at the surface‬

‭of the earth are sedimentary, which is‬
‭formed from particles of older rocks that‬
‭have been broken apart by water or wind‬
‭• they settle in the bottom of water bodies,‬
‭C‬ ‭how layers of rocks are formed‬
‭which may bury living and dead animals‬
‭and plants‬
‭• as time passess and more particles are‬ •‭ the rock layers are formed by erosion and‬
‭accumulated, the sediments become rocks‬ ‭weathering of mountains and the particles‬
‭and the animals and plants may become‬ ‭are transported and deposited in the‬
‭fossils‬ ‭sedimentary basin‬
‭-‬ ‭gravel becomes conglomerate, sand‬ ‭-‬ ‭these sediments are cemented over‬
‭becomes sandstone, mud becomes‬ ‭hundreds of years to form layers,‬
‭mudstone (shale)‬ ‭and are deposited horizontally by‬
‭gravity‬
‭• layered rocks may result from successive‬
‭lava flow‬

l‭aw of superposition‬
‭• in layered rocks, the oldest layer is at the‬
‭bottom and the youngest is at the top‬

l‭aw of original horizontality‬

‭• states that layers of sediment are‬
‭originally deposited in horizontal or nearly‬
‭horizontal layers due to gravity‬
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l‭aw of lateral continuity‬

‭• layers of sediment are deposited in all‬
‭directions until they thin out or reach a‬
‭barrier‬

t‭ hermoluminescence‬
‭• method for determining the age of‬
‭materials that contain crystalline minerals‬
‭by measuring the light they emit when‬
‭heated‬

‭C‬ ‭ etermining the age of stratified‬

d
r‭ elative dating‬
‭rocks‬
‭• determining the relative age by comparing‬
‭the historical remains to the nearby layers‬
•‭ like fossils, the age of stratified rocks may‬ ‭• less advanced‬
‭be determined using dating methods‬ ‭• have three methods; stratigraphy,‬
‭-‬ ‭absolute and relative dating‬ ‭biostratigraphy, and cross-dating‬

‭ bsolute dating (numerical dating)‬

a s‭ tratigraphy‬
‭• determining the numerical age of a rock or‬ ‭• assumes that the lowest layer is the oldest‬
‭fossil‬ ‭while the topmost layer is the youngest‬
‭• have four methods: radiometric dating,‬
‭amino acid dating,‬ ‭ iostratigraphy‬
b
‭• the faunal deposits such as fossils of dead‬
r‭ adiometric dating‬ ‭animals are used‬
‭• determines the age of the sample by‬ ‭• extended version of the stratigraphy‬
‭measuring the presence of a short-life‬
‭radioactive element (e.g carbon-14) or a‬
‭long-life radioactive element (e.g‬
‭potassium-14, argon-40)‬

‭ mino acid dating‬

a
‭• measures the change in the protein‬
‭content of a biological sample‬

‭ endrochronology‬
d ‭stratigraphy‬
‭• the number of annual growth rings of a‬
‭dicot is used to determine the age of a tree‬
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‭biostratigraphy‬

‭ ross-dating‬
c
‭• the fossils of one layer are compared with‬
‭another layer with known dating‬